Zanzibar Archipelago

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Zanzibar Archipelago
Waters Indian Ocean
Geographical location 6 ° 8 ′  S , 39 ° 22 ′  E Coordinates: 6 ° 8 ′  S , 39 ° 22 ′  E
Zanzibar Archipelago (Tanzania)
Zanzibar Archipelago
Number of islands 3 main islands
Main island Unguja
Total land area 3067 km²
Residents 1,022,555 (2002)
Location of Zanzibar in front of Tanzania
Location of Zanzibar in front of Tanzania

Zanzibar [ zanzibaːɐ̯ ] (deprecated Spice Islands , English Spice Islands , including Zanzibar , Arabic زنجبار, DMG Zanǧibār ; Meaning probably "coast of the blacks", cf. Zanj ) is a group of islands 30 km off the east coast of Africa ; it is also used colloquially as the name of the largest island in this group, although it is called Unguja . The second largest island in the group is Pemba, north of Unguja . To the southeast lies the island of Latham , which is administratively part of the archipelago and the state of Zanzibar . The southernmost island of the archipelago is Mafia , which administratively belongs to mainland Tanzania .

Unguja with its offshore secondary islands has a size of 1,666 km², Pemba including the secondary islands 988 km², Mafia 413 km² and Latham only 0.03 km². The largest city in the archipelago is Zanzibar City on Unguja.

List of the larger minor islands

Belonging to Unguja

Belonging to Pemba

Belonging to the Mafia

Administrative structure

Unguja and Pemba together with the small Latham Island, which is separated from Unguja and Mafia, form the Tanzanian state of Zanzibar of the same name (with a total of five of the 26 administrative regions of Tanzania ), while the island of Mafia and its neighboring islands form a district of the Pwani region . The capital and economic center is Zanzibar City on Unguja. The old town (Stone Town) is a sight. The main town of Pemba is Chake Chake .

geography

Map of the main island of Unguja
Beach section, a few kilometers north of Stone Town

Coastal and soil design

The west coast of Unguja is richly structured by numerous - partly lagoon-like - bays, has only a narrow beach reef and great water depths near the shore. Unguja is bordered by a barrier reef that rises above sea level near the offshore islands - the largest is Tumbatu . The west coast shore is easily accessible almost everywhere.

The east coast, on the other hand, is almost unstructured. It is accompanied by a mighty beach reef with high surf and drops steeply into the sea in many places.

The interior of the island is culturally and physically divided into two halves. The western half has meridional ranges of hills, such as the Masinginiberg (135 m), and in places shows swampy lowlands and numerous flowing waters, such as the Zingwe-Zingwe and the Mwera . The extraordinarily fertile soil consists of deep alluvial masses of weathered coral limestone .

The eastern half, on the other hand, is barren, flat and arid, has more of a karst character with sinkholes , caves and underground rivers.

climate

Zanzibar's climate is tropical , warmest from December to March; the average annual mean is 26.5 ° C. The rainy seasons last from March to May and from October to November.

Flora and fauna

The marine habitats such as seagrass meadows, coral reefs and mangrove coasts play an essential role in the use of nature in Zanzibar . Many beaches in the archipelago are frequented by sea ​​turtles for their breeding business. In Nungwi there is a breeding and protection station for sea turtles. Numerous large species of shark, such as the bull shark or tiger shark , as well as large plankton eater such as the whale shark , live off the African mainland coast .

The fauna of Unguja documents the island's land bridge to the African continent during the last ice age. The diversity of the terrestrial and semi-aquatic habitats on the islands ranges from mangrove swamps to bushland to large areas with cycads.

The Zanzibar colobus monkey is endemic. Most of the animals live on the main island of Unguja, some also on Pemba. Their habitat is forests, in addition to primary they can also be found in secondary forests and are protected in various Forest National Parks. The Zanzibar leopard was one of the subspecies endemic here . It has been considered extinct since 1991.

The marine habitats of coral reefs, seagrass meadows and mangrove forests are found around all the islands of the Zanzibar archipelago near the coast.

Conservation of nature and environmental conflicts

The Tanzanian Wildlife Act includes the flora and fauna of Zanzibar. Important protected area categories are “National Park”, “Wildlife reserve” and “Marine park”. The implementation of the protected areas and the enforcement of nature conservation rules have a very different status depending on the area.

Tourism has increased in East Africa in recent years, which has resulted in high pressure on the special habitats of Zanzibar. Hotels are being built on many beaches and the island is one of the fastest growing tourist destinations in the Indian Ocean . Diving tourism, together with local fishing, is particularly dangerous for the delicate coral reefs.

Nature conservation concepts have been developed by the Institute of Marine Science (IMS) at the University of Dar es Salaam since 2009, partly in cooperation with the Leibnitz-ZMT Bremen .

population

The islanders are called Zanzibars. In 2002 they numbered 981,754 people. They consist of Africans , Indians , Persians and Arabs as well as numerous mongrels from these groups.

At the last census before independence, 97 percent of the population adhered to Islam . The remaining 3 percent were Hindus, Christians or followers of African religions. However, since religious affiliation is no longer recorded in population censuses for political reasons since independence, it is possible that the percentage ratio has changed. The national language is Swahili . A small group of around 10,000 Ibadites also live in Zanzibar . The situation in Zanzibar is problematic for the integrity of the state of Tanzania and the young democratic multi-party system , as the Civic United Front (CUF) is repeatedly accused of striving as an Islamic-Arab force to expand autonomy and ultimately to achieve independence as an Islamic state . The background to the allegations is the fact that the ruling party Chama Cha Mapinduzi , the revolutionary party, only has to deal with serious opposition in the form of the CUF in Zanzibar. Therefore, the CUF is fought with many means and among other things is accused of being an Islamist party.

The population grew rapidly in the 20th century. In 1920 only 114,000 people lived here; In 1935 there were 234,000, 1963 319,000, 1967 364,000, 1978 479,000, 1988 623,000 and 2002 981,754.

history

Early time

The first visitors are Arab traders who traveled to the island in the 8th century. They called the coast of the islands barr az-zanj  /بر الزنج / barr az-zanǧ  / 'Coast of the Blacks'. With them came the religion that is still predominant today, Islam. As a result of the communication difficulties between traders and coastal residents, a new language developed: Swahili (derived from Arabic.ساحل / sāḥil  / 'coast'), a mixture of Arabic and the language of the indigenous peoples, whereby the structure of the language remained an African class language , with a vocabulary of around 30% from Arabic, but also words from English, German and various Indian languages ​​integrated.

As early as the 10th century, Arabs had established settlements in the region that developed into prosperous republics. When Vasco da Gama visited Zanzibar on January 28, 1499, he found well-built and wealthy cities that traded lively with India .

In 1503 the Portuguese Ruy Lourenço Ravasco landed on Unguja and built a trading post there. Zanzibar became tributary and in 1505 it was completely taken into Portuguese possession by João Homere . In the years that followed, the Portuguese controlled all trade in the Indian Ocean.

Towards the end of the 17th century, the Portuguese lost all their possessions north of Mozambique to the Imam of Muscat ; Zanzibar was lost in 1698. Under the rule of the Imam, the country was divided into numerous small states and communities.

Under the rule of the Arabs of Oman

In the 17th to 19th centuries, Zanzibar was a center for the eastern slave trade under the rule of the Sultan of Oman . For centuries, the flat island of Unguja (after Madagascar the largest island off East Africa ) was one of the most important trading centers in the Indian Ocean . The slave trade as well as the trade in ivory and from 1818 the cultivation of cloves made the island rich, famous, notorious and desirable. In return, the Muslim masters of Zanzibar were dependent on the purchase of firearms and ammunition in order to enforce the rule structures of slavery (slave trade, slave hunting and slave caravans) into inner Africa.

The old fort in Stone Town , Zanzibar City

From the 18th century the Arabs exercised increasing influence on the strategically important island of Unguja. The main business consisted in the slave trade, which ran as a transit business across the islands. At the beginning of the 19th century, 6,000 to 10,000 slaves were "moved" annually. The proportion of slaves in the total population was estimated at 75%.

Historical map (around 1888)

Since 1784 the Sultan of Muscat ruled the island of Unguja directly through a governor. These governors and those on the East African coast made themselves increasingly independent, but were subjugated again by Sultan Sayyid Saʿîd . Mombasa fell in 1829, and Zanzibar also fell through treason in 1837. In 1829 the Sultan established the first clove plantation on Unguja.

In 1832, initially provisionally, then finally in 1840, the Sultan decided to move the Omani court to Zanzibar. During this time, European and American traders reached Zanzibar. In 1837, the United States of America was the first “western” country to open a consulate . The British consulate followed in 1841 and the French consulate in 1844. The sultanate was thus also recognized internationally.

Zanzibar city in colonial times

After Sayyid Saʿīd's death ( Bū-Saʿīd dynasty ) in 1856, the sultanate was divided. His son Sayyid Mâdjid became Sultan of Zanzibar . After his death on October 7, 1870, a younger brother of the sultan, Barghash ibn Saʿîd , became sovereign of the area, and when he died in 1888, he was followed by his second brother, Sayyid Khalifa ibn Said .

By 1870, the East African territory of the Sultanate of Zanzibar had spread inland to beyond Lake Tanganyika . This resulted in a conflict of interest with the German-East African Society , which began to acquire rulership rights on the continent from 1884. On November 1, 1886, a British-German commission set the boundaries of the Zanzibari mainland holdings. They should therefore encompass a coastal strip ten nautical miles wide from Cape Delgado (today Mozambique ) to Kipini (today Kenya ) with all the offshore islands and the cities of Kismaayo , Baraawe , Merka , Mogadishu and Warsheikh in today's Somalia . The British representative on this commission was the future Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener . In 1887/89 the coast of what would later become Kenya was leased to the Imperial British East Africa Company and administered by the British until independence. The southern stretch of coast was leased to the Germans in 1888 and sold to them on October 28, 1890. The northern cities were leased to Italy in 1892 and sold in 1906 (Mogadishu not until 1924).

The British, who had already gained a foothold on the island before the Africa Conference , forced the sultan Barghash ibn Saʿîd to end the slave trade in 1873. The sultan let it continue unofficially, so that a slave black market developed, which existed until 1897 and continued to bring high income to the Arab upper class.

Zanzibar was also a major center of Islamic learning at the time. One of the most important scholars working here was that of the Comoros originates ibn Ahmad Sumait , the Sultan Bargash 1883 Qadi called Zanzibar. Ibn Sumait, who was a passionate follower of the Shafiite school of law, came into conflict with the Ibadite sultan in 1886 and fled the country, but returned to Zanzibar in 1888 after his death and was reappointed Qadi. Like many other Islamic scholars of his time, Ibn Sumait was influenced by the reformist ideas of Muhammad Abduh , but he did not share his rejection of the Sufik , but rather defended his order, the Tarīqa ʿAlawīya , against the attacks of the reformist scholars. Zanzibar also developed into a center for the spread of the Qādirīya order at the end of the 19th century , after two sheikhs from Baraawe , ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz al-Amawī (1838-1896) and Sheikh Uwais ibn Muhammad (1847-1909), these had introduced here. Sheikh Mjana Kheri, a student of Sheikh Uwais, spread the Qādirīya order to the plantation slaves of Zanzibar around the same time.

British Protectorate Period

As the only Sultan tried Khalid ibn Barghash to shake off colonial rule, what the war with Britain led

In 1890 the ever smaller Sultanate of Zanzibar, which in fact only consisted of the islands of Unguja and Pemba , was incorporated into the British protectorate and the British colonial empire. The fragrant "clove island" Unguja was not, as often shown, exchanged by Great Britain for the island of Helgoland in 1890 ( Helgoland-Zanzibar Treaty ); In fact, Zanzibar was never a German colony, but a free sultanate until 1890. With Ali ibn Said , who had to accept the protectorate of the British and the leasing of Somalia to the Italians, the independence of Zanzibar ended; his two successors were Omani representatives of the Said dynasty selected by the British .

On August 27, 1896, the shortest war in world history broke out, the British-Zanzibari War , which lasted only 38 minutes . The war started at 9:00 a.m. After the Sultan of Zanzibar died (or was poisoned), his cousin Chalid ibn Barghash claimed the throne for himself. Following an ultimatum, the British admiral Sir Harry Rowson had the palace of the self-proclaimed sultan bombarded with ship guns from the sea until he fled.

It was not until 1897 that cracks were taken against the structures of the slave black market. The British military now finally abolished the slave trade on Zanzibar, with massive financial losses for the Arab upper class. But the British colonial rule followed in Zanzibar as elsewhere the principle of "indirect rule" ( indirect rule ), that is the local elite ruled under the British supremacy on. With British support, the Muslim Academy , the first modern Islamic school in Zanzibar, was founded in 1952 .

One of the most influential Muslim scholars in Zanzibar during the British colonial era was ʿAbdallāh Sālih al-Fārisī (1912–1982). Appointed inspector of the religious education system in 1947, he fought against various popular religious practices associated with the celebrations of the Prophet's birthday and the Dhikr of the Qādirīya order. Between 1960 and 1964 he served as Chief Qādī of Zanzibar. Another important Zanzibarian scholar towards the end of the British colonial era was Saiyid ʿUmar ʿAbdallāh (1919–1988). He had studied at the School of Oriental and African Studies and in 1954 was appointed director of the Muslim Academy of Zanzibar, which was newly founded in 1951.

On Zanzibar, which has enjoyed self-government within the Commonwealth since 1955 , a working group was set up in 1959 to deal with the introduction of women's suffrage. A limited right to vote for women was introduced in 1961: All unmarried and married women of Zanzibar over 21 were given the right to vote, even if they were one of several women of a registered voter, but not if they were (economically) still dependent on their families or with someone not entitled to vote Husband, a foreigner, were married. General women's suffrage was only achieved for Zanzibar when it was united with Tanganyika in 1964.

Gaining independence and revolution

On December 10, 1963, the main island of Unguja (then 444,000 inhabitants) and Pemba (314,000 inhabitants) gained independence from British colonial rule . Zanzibar was released from colonial rule as a constitutional monarchy . The political and economic leadership of the country was held by the Sultan and the Arab minority as well as an Indian Hindu minority. The African majority population from Banutu and Shiraz formed the agrarian proletariat.

On January 12, 1964, a successful coup led by John Okello , the Zanzibar massacre, took place . The self-proclaimed field marshal and former journeyman bricklayer John Okello led a group of around 600 black African insurgents. They are said to have been trained in communist countries and armed with weapons of Czechoslovak origin. The completely surprised government hoped in vain for help from the British, but they did not want to risk any dissatisfaction with the other young African states because of an Arab-dominated government. Sultan Jamsheed bin Abdullah, the son of Abdullah bin Khalifa, who died in 1963, fled the island during the turmoil of the revolution. On the same day, Okello founded the Revolutionary Council, which named Abeid Karume President of the new People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba . The data on the number of victims in the week between January 12 and 19, 1964 vary widely. British estimates suggest that 15,000 people were murdered. Other studies come up with lower numbers. There have also been countless assaults such as rape, looting and torture. After the bloodlust, the bodies were taken to the quay wall in what is now Forodhani Garden and dumped into the sea. The official version is far less dramatic than the revolution. Babu, the first foreign minister of the Revolutionary Council, claims that only a few people were killed because some took advantage of the hour to settle old scores. Those responsible were brought before a court and convicted. The trauma of the riots continues to have an impact today, as the topic is still taboo today and there has been no reappraisal or reconciliation. The perpetrators and victims still meet on the street today. What was particularly dramatic about the events was that the boundaries between the parties could not be clearly defined ethnically or religiously, but ran right through families and acquaintances.

List of Sultans of Zanzibar

  1. Sayyid Saʿîd ibn Sultân (1804-1856)
  2. Mâdjid ibn Saʿid (1856–1870)
  3. Barghasch ibn Said (1870–1888)
  4. Chalifa ibn Said (1888–1890)
  5. Ali ibn Said (1890-1893)
  6. Hamad ibn Thuwaini ibn Said (1893-1896)
  7. Chalid ibn Barghasch (1896)
  8. Hammud ibn Muhammad ibn Said (1896-1902)
  9. Ali ibn Hammud (1902-1911)
  10. Chalifa ibn Harub ibn Thuwaini (1911-1960)
  11. ʿAbdullâh ibn Khalîfa (1960–1963)
  12. Jamshid ibn Abdullah (1963–1964) (Revolution)

Note: Thuwainî , the eldest son of Sayyid Sa'îd , inherited Oman with the capital Masqat in 1856 ( Bū-Saʿīd dynasty ).

As a state in Tanzania

After a short transition period as the " People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba ", Zanzibar united on April 25, 1964 with the Republic of Tanganyika , which had also just become independent, to form the new state of Tanzania , to which it still belongs as a federal state. Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume was elected President of the state. He was killed in an assassination attempt on April 7, 1972 . Aboud Jumbe Mwinyi became his successor. Karume's son Amani Abeid Karume has been President of Zanzibar since 2000 .

In the mid-1980s, as the economic situation in Zanzibar was no longer acceptable, but the global political situation was also changing, the government decided to liberalize the economy and politics. However, there were violent riots in the 1995 and 2000 elections with an unknown number of deaths. The clashes arose because the opposition party, the CUF, accused the government of manipulating the election and the CUF saw itself cheated out of winning the election. To ensure that an acceptable election could take place for both parties, a commission was set up to ensure that the 2005 election ran smoothly. In the 2005 election there were also irregularities, protests by the opposition over election fraud and clashes with the police, but by and large the elections were orderly and smoothly by Zanzibari standards. As expected, the CCM was re-elected.

economy

Stone Town grocery store, 1996

Zanzibar's economy is based on the production of spices (especially cloves , nutmeg , cinnamon and pepper ), the cultivation of coconut palms and tourism . In the 19th century, Zanzibar was the world's largest producer of cloves.

In addition, women grow algae in the shallow water around the island , which are bought from traders at very low prices and exported for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals production. This work is extremely harmful to health because the salt water is aggressive and the sunlight is reflected strongly, causing many women to lose their eyesight and suffer from arthritis . The algae is also not native to Zanzibar, but imported from Asia, and destroys the sensitive fauna of the coral reefs surrounding the island.

Stone Town Market 1996

tourism

The House of Wonders in Stone Town

The islands are mostly made of coral, most of the stone houses are also made of coral rock. Many houses have already been restored.

A network of hotel complexes and travel accommodations has developed across the island through generous investments. Their prices and levels are higher on the east coast than on the west and south coasts.

Wooden ships of the old Arab design, called dhows , still operate on the old trade routes today. They have no engine or other metal parts and can be built without modern tools. They last around 10 to 20 years before they disintegrate.

In front of the port of the capital, in the north, lies the small island of Prison Island with the derelict hospital that was the quarantine station for British East Africa. In Stone Town are the large town houses of the former Arab upper class. On the site of the slave market is the Anglican Cathedral, which was built in the oriental style by the "Universities Mission" initiated by David Livingstone . Former slave prisons are shown in the cellars of the outbuildings. The House of Wonders (Beit al-Ajaib), located directly at the harbor, was the first building on the island with electric lights and an elevator.

Culture

music

A specialty of Zanzibar is the Taarab music, which was developed here.

Exported works of art

At the entrance to the Château Cos d'Estournel winery in St. Estèphe near Bordeaux there is a huge, artfully carved, dark double-wing door from the Sultan's Palace of Zanzibar. The merchant Louis-Gaspard Estournel traded in Arabian horses in the 19th century and often paid for them on site in Arab countries with barrels of Bordeaux wine. He brought this door back from Zanzibar from one of his trips to the Arab countries and had it built into the front of the large new barrel cellar building of his winery in a prominent place, where it has been a tourist attraction for over 170 years.

View over the rooftops of Stone Town

subjects

  • Freddie Mercury (1946–1991) was born on Unguja under the name Farrokh Bulsara.
  • In 2004, the government of Zanzibar passed a law that will punish homosexual acts with imprisonment. Men can be jailed for up to 25 years, women seven years. The reason given is that they want to protect the population from the "increasing acceptance of worrying behavior".
  • The Zanzibari national football team , the "Malindi Red Socks", has been an independent member of the African Football Confederation ( CAF ) since January 2004 .

Movie

Others

  • The novel Zanzibar or the ultimate cause of Alfred Andersch was not least because of the title successfully. In it, Zanzibar stands for a utopian place with a better future.
  • On the German North Sea island of Sylt, there have been numerous nudist beach sections with exotic names on the west beach since the 1950s , including the section “Sansibar” with a renowned restaurant of the same name.

literature

  • Ulla Ackermann : Tanzania and Zanzibar. Cologne 2000, ISBN 3-7701-5303-0 .
  • AM Babu: The 1964 Revolution: Rags or Vanguard? Zanzibar under Colonial Rule. E. Ferguson and A. Sheriff (Eds.). London 1991, pp. 220-247.
  • Rita Bake (ed.): Hamburg - Sansibar, Sansibar - Hamburg: Hamburg's connections to East Africa since the middle of the 19th century. State Center for Political Education, Hamburg 2009, ISBN 978-3-929728-19-4 .
  • Andreas Birken : The Sultanate of Zanzibar in the 19th century . Tübingen 1971, DNB 720413567 .
  • Esmond Bradley Martin : Zanzibar . London 1978, ISBN 0-241-89937-0 .
  • Reinhard Dippelreither: Tanzania. Zanzibar . Stuckum 2000, ISBN 3-89392-269-5 .
  • John Gray: History of Zanzibar from the middle ages to 1856 . London 1962, OCLC 1037123276 .
  • Philipp A. Gudden: Safari Njema - Zanzibar (travel guide) . Amazon, July 2012.
  • Sabine Heilig, Christina Gottschall: Sansibar. The complete travel guide . Singing 2000, ISBN 3-86112-114-X .
  • Roman Loimeier: Between Social Skills and Marketable Skills. The Politics of Islamic Education in 20th Century Zanzibar . Brill, Leiden 2009.
  • O. Mapuri: Zanzibar The 1964 Revolution: Achievements and Prospects. Nairobi 1996.
  • J. Middleton: The World of the Swahili. New Haven / London 1992.
  • D. Petterson: Revolution in Zanzibar. Boulder 2002.
  • Wolfgang Scholz: Challenges of Informal Urbanization. The Case of Zanzibar / Tanzania . Dortmund 2008, ISBN 978-3-934525-50-4 .
  • A. Sheriff: The case of Zanzibar in the nineteenth century. The Urban Experience in Eastern Africa c. 1750-2000. A. Burton (Ed.). Nairobi 2002.
  • Sascha Wisotzki: Zanzibar: 1000 years of globalization. Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-9811876-2-5 .
  • Zanzibar . In: La Grande Encyclopédie . 20 volumes, Larousse, Paris 1971–1976, pp. 14764–14765 (French).

Web links

Commons : Zanzibar Archipelago  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Wikimedia Atlas: Zanzibar Archipelago  - geographical and historical maps
Wikisource: Friendship, trade and shipping treaty between the German Empire and the Sultan of Zanzibar. December 20, 1885  - Sources and full texts

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Diemels World Dictionary and Travel Guide. 1995/96, ISBN 3-9802428-6-2 .
  2. ↑ Pemba - The clove Iceland. 1: 100,000, Map & Guide, 2013, Dept. of surveys and mapping, chake-chake
  3. ↑ According to Hauke ​​Reuter (ZMT) 2013 http://lists.zmt-bremen.com/ZMT_Newsletter2-2013.pdf
  4. ^ Report on the Census of the Population of Zanzibar Protectorate (1958). Zanzibar Town.
  5. ↑ 2002 Population and Housing Census.
  6. ↑ Meyers Konversationslexikon. Volume 15: Russian Empire to Sirte. Leipzig / Vienna 1897, p. 254.
  7. ↑ Farouk Topan: Réseaux religieux chez les Swahili. In: Françoise Le Guennec-Koppens, Pat Caplan (ed.): Les Swahili entre Afrique et Arabie . Karthala, Paris 1991, pp. 39-59. Here p. 46f.
  8. ^ Anne K. Bang: Islamic Sufi Networks in the Western Indian Ocean (c. 1880-1940). Ripples of Reform. Brill, Leiden / Boston, 2014, p. 34.
  9. ^ Bang: Islamic Sufi Networks . 2014, p. 50.
  10. ^ Loimeier: Between Social Skills and Marketable Skills. 2009, pp. 70f, 411-459.
  11. ^ Loimeier: Between Social Skills and Marketable Skills. 2009, pp. 375-400.
  12. ^ Loimeier: Between Social Skills and Marketable Skills. 2009, pp. 400-411.
  13. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 387.
  14. ↑ June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 7.
  15. ^ Frank R. Pfetsch (Ed.): Conflicts since 1945, Black Africa . S. 96-97 .
  16. ↑ OR Mapuri: Zanzibar The 1964 Revolution: Achievements and Prospects. Nairobi 1996.
    AM Babu: The 1964 Revolution: Rags or Vanguard? Zanzibar under Colonial Rule. E. Ferguson and A. Sheriff (Eds.). London 1991, pp. 220-247.
    D. Petterson: Revolution in Zanzibar. Boulder, 2002.