sugar

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
" Lump sugar " in the form of sharp cuboids
Sugar crystals under the polarizing microscope

As sugar in addition to various other is sugars a sweet-tasting crystalline food and condiments which is derived from plants and mainly refers to sucrose is.

The main sources are sugar cane (cultivated in the tropics), sugar beet (cultivated in temperate latitudes, e.g. Central Europe) and the transgenic sugar beet H7-1 (USA). In 2018, around 275 million tons of sugar beet and 1.907 billion tons of sugar cane were produced worldwide. The main growing countries for sugar beet are Russia , France and the USA , for sugar cane there are Brazil , India and China . The average annual sugar supply in Germany in 2013 was 35.61 kg per capita. Annual supply is not synonymous with annual consumption. It is only a statistical annual average value of production + imports - exports, converted per head of the population.

Its physiological calorific value is 16.8  kJ or 4.0  kcal per gram (for comparison: alcohol provides 29.8 kJ per gram, fats around 39 kJ per gram), with a density of 1.6 g / cm³ it is heavier than Water (1 g / cm³). (For the measurement of sugar quantities in the household, one does not have to start from the indicated density, but from the bulk density , which is lower. For crystal sugar or granulated sugar, it is between 0.67 and 1.02 g / cm³.) At 20 ° C 203.9 g of sugar are soluble in 100 ml of water , at 100 ° C 487.2 g in 100 ml.

history

etymology

The word "sugar" (from Old High German zuccer , since the 12th century from Middle Latin zuccarum ) goes back to the ancient Indian ( Sanskrit शर्करा 'śarkarā', actually "semolina, rubble, gravel", but also "sand sugar") and came about in the Middle Ages through the teaching of Arabic (سكر'Sukkar') first into Greek (Greek σάκχαρον 'sákcharon', from which also German saccharine ) and the Romance languages ​​and from there into the other European languages. The German probably borrowed the word from Italian (Italian zucchero , from Middle Latin zuccarum ), and the oldest evidence dates back to the 13th century.

Data on the cultural history of sugar

Sugar factory, Groningen, Netherlands
  • 8000 BC BC: oldest sugar cane finds from cultivation in Melanesia , Polynesia
  • 6000 BC Chr .: cane moves from East Asia to India and Persia
  • 600 AD: Sugar production in Persia: hot sugar cane juice treated with clarifying agents (proteinaceous substances and lime) is poured into wooden or clay cones, the sugar crystallizes at the top, creating the sugar loaf .
  • Late antiquity: Sugar called saccharum has been proven in Rome as a luxury good for very rich patricians and is imported from India and Persia. The main sweetener is still boiled grape juice.
  • 1100 AD: With the Crusaders, sugar returned to Europe for the first time since ancient times. Until the late Middle Ages it was also available in pharmacies under the name Sal indicum or Sal indi (Indian salt). It was and always remained a pharmaceutical and luxury item.
  • From around 1500: Sugar cane is grown on plantations around the world, sugar remains a coveted luxury good for the rich. The common people continue to sweeten with honey from the Zeidlerei . Cane sugar is increasingly being imported from the West Indies to Central Europe and, from the 17th century onwards, colonial traders often referred to it as " white gold ".
  • Modern sugar refining was developed at the end of the 16th century. Before that, cane sugar was cleaned with egg white.
  • 1747: Andreas Sigismund Marggraf discovers the sugar content of sugar beet.
  • 1800: Around 250,000 tons of cane sugar were produced worldwide.
  • 1801: The chemist Franz Carl Achard lays the foundations for industrial sugar production. The world's first beet sugar factory is built in Cunern / Silesia .
  • 1806: The Napoleonic continental dam has a major impact on the European sugar market.
  • 1840: First sugar lump in the world, invented by Jacob Christoph Rad (director of the Datschitzer sugar refinery in Bohemia) was colored with red food coloring because his wife Juliane Rad had injured her finger when breaking out of the previously common sugar loafs and asked her husband to do so immediately make smaller portions of sugar. He invented the sugar lump press, made the first sugar lumps and gave the first, colored red, to his wife as a souvenir of the incident. Frau Rad had offered the blood-splattered pieces of sugar to her guests, because sugar was very valuable at the time.
  • From around 1850: The sugar price falls as industrial production begins. Sugar is thus becoming an object of everyday use. The daily production in some sugar factories was already around 2500 t due to improvements in the pressing and extraction processes.
  • 1900: The production of sugar, more than half of which from beets, was around 11 million tons worldwide.
  • From 1900: The sugar industry benefited from general advances in machinery and equipment (e.g. the introduction of electric drives instead of steam). Research methods and standards were established at the international level: The International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis (ICUMSA), one of the oldest standardization bodies, was founded around the turn of the century, 1900.

Beginning of the industrial production of sugar from beets - sugar industry

Andreas Sigismund Marggraf had proven in 1747 that sugar beet juice contained sugar. The manufacturing processes that his student Franz Karl Achard developed around 1800 led to the emergence of the beet sugar industry in 1825 , which at the end of the 19th century produced as much sugar on a global scale as the traditional cane sugar industry.

Agriculture had managed to beet with high sugar content breed . Areas like the Magdeburg Börde adjusted to growing beets. These monocultures, which required a lot of fertilizer , in turn stimulated the development of the fertilizer industry.

Chemists and technicians used rationalization and automation to ensure that the beet sugar industry became profitable despite the seasonal low utilization of the factories (the so-called campaign ). One of the pioneers in the beet sugar industry is Adolph Frank , who received a patent for the separation and purification of beet juices in 1858.

Sugar production

The sugar beets are cleaned and chopped up after the harvest. The resulting sugar beet pulp is mixed with hot water in extraction towers. The sugar contained is extracted (raw juice) . With milk of lime , non-sugar substances are bound in the juice. The thin juice clarified in this way contains around 16% sucrose and is light yellow. Evaporation equipment is used to remove water until the sugar content in the now golden-brown, viscous syrup is around 75%. The further thickening takes place with so much negative pressure that the water evaporates at 65–80 ° C and the sugar does not yet caramelize. After the addition of seed crystals, the crystallization begins and runs up to the desired crystal size. The adhering syrup ( molasses ) is separated from the crystals in centrifuges . The white sugar is now dissolved again in water and then crystallized. This results in a particularly pure and white sugar (refined sugar) .

The three most important sugar producers worldwide are Brazil , India and Thailand . The most important manufacturing countries in Europe are France , Germany and Poland . In the 2018/19 crop year, around 178.9 million tons of sugar were produced worldwide. According to FAO statistics , Trinidad and Tobago had the highest per capita supply of sugar in 2013 (51.47 kg / year), Barbados is in 2nd place (51.27 kg / year), followed by Switzerland ( 50.95 kg / year). For comparison: In Austria, an average of 36.38 kg per capita and year and in Germany 32.76 kg were calculated. The figures do not reveal how the product is used in the country concerned.

The largest sugar producers (2018)
rank country Production
(in million t )
01 BrazilBrazil Brazil 29,500
02 IndiaIndia India 33,070
03 ThailandThailand Thailand 14.190
04th China People's RepublicPeople's Republic of China People's Republic of China 10,600
05 United StatesUnited States United States 8.116
06th MexicoMexico Mexico 6.572
07th RussiaRussia Russia 5.920
08th PakistanPakistan Pakistan 5,540
09 AustraliaAustralia Australia 4,900
0- European UnionEuropean Union European Union 18.175
0- world 178.926

Sugar price

Sugar price on the world market and import price in the EU since 1991

In the European Union , the sugar price has so far been kept as constant as possible (as of August 2017).

The EU regularly publishes a sugar price report. The price was around 600 euros per ton from 2006 to 2009, then fell to below 500 euros in 2010 and rose to over 700 euros between autumn 2011 and autumn 2013. The harvest quantities in the EU and in other countries, especially in those of the ACP group due to their import privilege, influence the sugar price.

The world market price is usually well below the EU price. Only in 2011 was the world market price temporarily higher.

At the end of September 2017 - after the milk quota regulation - the European sugar market regime also fell . Before that, it was stipulated that at least 85% of the sugar marketed in the EU had to be produced in the EU and that Europe-wide production was limited to 13.5 million tonnes per year. Furthermore, according to EU law, sugar producers had to pay their supplying farmers a certain minimum price per ton of sugar beet. It was expected that the prices for delivered beet and sugar ex factory would be lower.

Sugar names

Sugar comes in many different dosage forms. These differ depending on the raw material used, external shape, composition and type of processing. There are also sugar products with various additives. Some sugar names are protected by regulation in Germany.

raw material

  • Cane sugar is obtained from the juice of sugar cane. Cane sugar is often sold as raw sugar in the producing country and dissolved in special sugar refineries, recrystallized (= refined) and given to consumers in different varieties depending on the needs of the local market.
  • Beet sugar is obtained from the juice of the sugar beet.
  • Maple sugar is obtained from the sap of the sugar maple . The juice contains about 5% sucrose.
  • Palm sugar (also: palm sugar , jaggery ) to obtain are scored the inflorescence stems of certain species of palm trees. The bleeding juice (toddy) that escapes contains about 15% sucrose. The juice is used in liquid, thickened or dried form.
  • Agave syrup consists mainly of fructose and glucose , with the fructose portion clearly predominating.

Shape and grain

  • Plate sugar - a hard sugar in plate form that is produced by centrifuging (cast goods) or briquetting of moist sugar into sticks. Just like plate sugar, bread sugar (loaf form) or Hutzucker (for the Feuerzangenbowle) is also produced.
  • Pilé sugar is plate sugar that is beaten into irregular pieces. Like the finer knobs, it is processed in pastry shops.
  • Lump sugar (also lump sugar ): moistened refined sugar mostly pressed into cuboids (only rarely into cubes), then dried again.
  • Kandiszucker (also: Kandelzucker; Zuckerkandl) is a sugar grown by slow crystallization of a sugar solution thickened in a vacuum (on crystallization threads or sugar seed crystals). He is white (obtained from Kandisfarin) or brownish (with Zuckerkouleur colored).
  • Hail sugar (also: pearl sugar ) - coarse granules (2–3 mm grain size) of fine sugar, which is used to sprinkle on baked goods or as a topping on bread, made from refined sugar by agglomeration .
  • Granulated sugar (also: refined sugar ) usually used white table sugar made from sugar cane or sugar beet and refining cleaned. If it consists of at least 99.96% sucrose, it must meet special purity requirements. Is produced in different grain sizes.
  • Semolina or sand sugar are medium-grain granulated sugar
  • Castor sugar is a fine-grained granulated sugar - finer than sand or semolina sugar.
  • Icing sugar : (also: icing sugar ) finely ground white sugar. Individual crystals can no longer be felt. Used for dusting baked goods or desserts, for glazes, for making marzipan and for caramelizing. Beekeepers use icing sugar to determine how much a bee colony is infested with varroa mites, i.e. only for diagnosis, not for treatment of varroosis. In Germany, powdered sugar is not an approved means of combating varroa mites.
  • Instant sugar - is made by spray drying. Instant sugar is extremely porous and dissolves very quickly in cold liquids.
  • Sugar loaf : cone rounded at the top(apex angle about 20–30 °) made of a fairly solid crystalline mass of white sugar. Formerly the usual trade form for sugar, today it is almost only used to make a fire tong punch .
  • Sugar lompens are pressed into uneven pieces from cane sugar. They dissolve faster than rock candy in hot drinks.
  • Sugar sprinkles are created by pressing the sugar mass through a perforated sheet ( extrusion ). The resulting sugar strands are then dried and broken, sometimes colored or coated with sugar .

Assortment of sugar

  • Beet syrup

  • Brown sugar (fine grain)

  • Brown sugar (large grain)

  • Refined sugar

  • Rock sugar

  • powdered sugar

composition

  • Refined sugar is the crystallized, snow-white sugar with the highest degree of purity (99.96% sucrose, 0.04% invert sugar). It is traded in different grain sizes and is the raw material for lump sugar, sugar sugar and powdered sugar
  • White sugar (also: affinade ): a type of sugar made from cane sugar through affination (washing out)
  • Melis (also: Mehlis ): (from saccharum melitense , 'Maltese sugar' ) outdated term for a semi-white (depending on processing, gray to yellow) type of sugar that is no longer in use today, ground in different strengths or shaped as bread or cubes, which in its Purity stands between farin and refined wine.
  • Muskovade (Muscovado): unrefined and unrefined brown cane sugar
  • Bastard sugar (also: Basterdzucker ): moist, fine-grain mixed sugar, which is mainly used for the production of baked goods. Bastard sugar consists of sucrose and 1–4% invert sugar , sometimes with the addition of caramel . These accompanying substances are created when the sugar is extracted. The transition to Farin is fluid. The Dutch “Basterdsuiker” has been a guaranteed traditional specialty since 2013 .
  • Farin (also: Farinzucker ; from French farine "flour") is obtained from the first processes during refining and is therefore a weakly aromatic, often yellow to brownish, dry granulated sugar containing invert sugar with a malty taste
  • Raw or yellow sugar (also: Demerara sugar ): unpurified sugar obtained from sugar cane or sugar beet, which is yellow-brown to brown in color due to molasses residues and is often sticky. Raw sugar has a poor shelf life and has no nutritional advantages over purified sugar. It is occasionally served with coffee and is also used in the making of pastries and sweets.

Use and addition

Real vanilla sugar (refined sugar with the pulp of six opened vanilla capsules)
  • Dekorierzucker 's finest powdered sugar, mixing with small amounts of fat and rice starch for decorating pastries.
  • Preserving sugar is a coarse-grained refined sugar that is particularly pure and, thanks to its coarse structure, ideal for preserving fruit and vegetables, because it does not tend to clump like fine-grained sugar when dissolved in large quantities. In Austria too: normal crystal sugar. Does not contain any gelling agent.
  • Liquid sugar: aqueous solution of sucrose. Dry matter at least 62%. Often used in the food industry.
  • Fondant : stirred mass of boiled sugar and glucose syrup , for the preparation of glazes on pastries and cakes, for fillings in confectionery, pralines and confectionery.
  • Preserving sugar for jams , jellies and jams ; made from refined sugar with pectin as a gelling agent and citric acid or tartaric acid as an acidifier, sometimes also with preservatives.
  • Refining sugar Liquid sugar. Is boiled and clarified in a ratio of 3: 1 (water: sugar) (freed from foam). Semi-finished product for the food industry . Serves as a sweetener.
  • Silk sugar : a particularly elegant form of processing cane or beet sugar.
  • Syrup sugar : Fine granulated sugar mixed with pectinase or citric acid, for the preparation of homemade syrups .
  • Vanilla sugar : white sugarmixedwith vanilla pulp .
  • Vanilla sugar : Instead of real vanilla, vanilla aroma is mixed with white sugar.

More sugar products

  • Molasses : as a dark brown syrup remaining “production residue” from sugar production; is used to produce alcohol or yeast, and is also used as fodder. Molasses from sugar cane is used to make rum. It also serves as a dietary supplement with an increased iron and mineral content.
  • Caramel : solution of very dark and therefore no longer sweet caramel , used to color food.

Health effects

The annual sugar consumption in Austria in 1997 was 40.4 kilograms per person and has thus increased twenty-fold over the last 150 years, which is likely to play an important role as a cause of increased obesity . Easily digestible carbohydrates such as sugar also result in greater fluctuations in the insulin level ; one speaks of a higher glycemic load , which also has a negative effect in this regard.

In 2003 a panel of international experts prepared a report on behalf of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). He stated that if you want to eat healthily, no more than 10% of your nutrients come from so-called "free" sugars - the sugar that is added to food by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, as well Sugar, which is naturally found in honey, syrup and fruit juices - should be sourced (corresponds to around 40–50 g per day).

In 2009 the American Heart Association issued the recommendation that the daily intake of sugar should be a maximum of 45 g per day (men) or 30 g per day (women).

In 2015, the WHO reaffirmed the 10% limit as a “ strong recommendation ”, but advocated an additional halving to 5% as a “ conditional recommendation ” with a view to avoiding tooth decay . The new guideline of the WHO has caused concern among the general local health insurance funds (AOK) . Kai Kolpatzik, prevention expert at the AOK Federal Association, is now calling on the federal government to take measures against the increased sugar consumption of Germans, similar to those for alcohol and nicotine. The Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture continues to recommend a maximum amount of 10% and expressly refers to the WHO guideline published in 2015.

The increased or regular consumption of sugary drinks, which leads to lifestyle diseases such as metabolic syndrome , overweight , obesity and diabetes mellitus - more and more often in childhood - is nutritionally questionable . That is why the World Health Organization recommended a sugar tax in 2016 in order to achieve a noticeable decrease in sugar consumption and the resulting diseases. Sugar taxes were introduced by France, Hungary, Finland and Mexico.

The long-debated assumption that sugar is the cause of osteoporosis has not been confirmed. Likewise, the assumption that sugar is a vitamin thief has not been confirmed.

It is debated whether sugar promotes the development of cancer and whether a sugar-free diet can hinder the growth of cancer. This thesis (cf. Warburg hypothesis ) had some supporters among doctors, is actively researched, and there are initiatives for a “cancer diet” based on a sugar-free or low-sugar diet.

Dental caries

The causal contribution of sugar to the development of dental caries is now undisputed. The most important type of bacteria is Streptococcus mutans . Food sugar reaches the bacterial plaque by diffusion, where it is broken down into intermediate acids, which, under a sufficiently thick plaque, locally decalcify the tooth enamel and thereby lead to tooth decay . Saliva composition (buffer capacity, lysozyme content), tooth enamel solubility (degree of fluoridation ) and oral hygiene are also important. Whether sugar is consumed in the form of household sugar, honey, easily digestible starch or the like is irrelevant.

Diabetes mellitus and sugar consumption

The diabetes is due either to an autoimmune response that the islet cells of the pancreas damage (type 1), or on a developed insulin resistance can (type 2), particularly in long-lasting (over-) consumption of sugar and carbohydrates in the diet come to fruition as is the case with the standard western high-carbohydrate and low-fat balanced diet. The consequences are a chronically elevated blood sugar level and, as a result, an elevated blood insulin level with cravings, sleep problems, metabolic disorders with hypertriglyceridemia and low HDL cholesterol, overweight and obesity and a mostly developing metabolic syndrome . In 2015, the WHO therefore recommended a significantly reduced sugar intake with food for children and adults for the first time.

Hyperactivity and sugar

A widespread assumption - especially in the US - is that sugar promotes hyperactive behavior, ADHD -Symptoms aggravates and might cause ADHD, especially in children. However, the US National Institute of Mental Health concludes that the majority of available studies contradict this theory.

In a study, 35 boys between the ages of five and seven were selected whose mothers stated that their sons were “sensitive to sugar”. The boys' mothers were divided into two groups. One group was told that their sons were given a large amount of sugar, while the other group (the control group ) was told that their sons were given a placebo . In fact, however, all children received the placebo (aspartame). Mothers who were told that their children were being given sugar rated their sons' behavior as being significantly more hyperactive than the mothers in the control group. Different behavior was also observed in these mothers. These mothers were more often in the vicinity of their sons, were more likely to criticize them, look more often and talk to them more than was the case in the control group.

Two other studies looked at the effect of sugar on behavior and learning in hyperactive boys. The researchers gave the children foods that contained either sugar or a placebo (aspartame). The children who received sugar showed no different behavior or learning skills than those who received placebo. A similar study with higher amounts of sucrose and an additional saccharin control group came to similar results.

Sugar addiction from sugar consumption?

Numerous studies have examined the connection between sugar consumption and addictive symptoms (" addiction syndromes "): The transferability of the results, mostly carried out in laboratory experiments on rats, is scientifically controversial.

Sugar as a renewable raw material

Sugar cane cultivation in Brazil.

Sugar is of great importance as a renewable raw material (NawaRo). It is obtained primarily as the disaccharide sucrose from sugar cane or sugar beet. The sugar polymer starch (a polysaccharide ) consists of the monomer glucose (a monosaccharide ) and is obtained from grain, corn and starch potatoes , for example . Another common glucose polymer is cellulose , which is mainly obtained from wood.

An important use is the energy recovery, such as the production of bioethanol and other biofuels from sugar or starch or the thermal use of cellulose as a component of firewood. The material use of sugar is also of great importance. On the one hand, they are used in biotechnology as a source of energy and carbon in fermentation approaches for the production of organic solvents, various raw materials (e.g. for the production of bioplastics ) and others. In chemical processes, sugar is used as a raw material for the production of surfactants , polyols and other products.

Browning when baking and roasting

The brown color when heated (> 140 ° C) is based on a non-enzymatic chemical reaction, the caramelization reaction .

Table sugar melts at 186 ° C. The brown coloration can therefore occur below the melting point, but increases rapidly from 190 ° C. The melting point of the sugar is also suitable for simple temperature calibration of an oven.

Other types of sugar

In addition to the sugar made from sucrose described here, there are other types of sugar made from other saccharides (see there for a more detailed overview and the chemical background):

  • Glucose (also dextrose , grape sugar): is made from starch and, as a simple sugar, is the basic building block of many multiple sugars. Occurs in the human metabolism as so-called blood sugar and, along with fructose, is one of the main components of honey (22 to 41%).
  • Fructose (fruit sugar): simple sugar and basic building block of many complex sugars . Mainlyaddedto industrially produced foods as the glucose-fructose syrup HFCS , which is made from corn starch.
  • Invert sugar : A mixture created by hydrolysis (inversion) of sucrose, half from grape sugar, half from fructose.
  • Isoglucose (also " glucose-fructose syrup "): used in beverages and canned fruit, a product obtained by breaking down starch with approx. 51% glucose i. TS . and 42% fructose i. TS. consists. Mainly made from corn or wheat starch. As HFCS syrup (from: H igh F ructose C orn S irup), an isoglucose syrup referred to when the fructose has been enriched with respect to the glucose. See also corn syrup .
  • Mannose : simple sugar.
  • Melezitose : triple sugar containedin honeydew (excretion product of various aphids ). As a result, this type of sugar is also found in forest honey.
  • Maltose (malt sugar): Sugar obtained from starch that is used in the production of alcohol.
  • Lactose (milk sugar): found in milk , it is a double sugar made from glucose and galactose . Often used as the basis for tablets in pharmacology. It is genetically determined that many people, especially non-Europeans, no longer digest it after infancy and often leads to diarrhea (see lactose intolerance ).
  • Raffinose : triple sugar that does not taste sweet, occurs in many plants.
  • Rhamnose : Asimple sugar similar to mannose .
  • Stachyosis : A quadruple sugar found in soybeans.
  • Starch sugar: All types of sugar made from starch (e.g. corn starch), etc. a .: isoglucose, starch syrup, glucose syrup maltodextrin ; Increasingly common in industry, a common alternative to sugar.
  • Trehalose : comes in the metabolism of various plants and fungi and also in the hemolymph of many insects ago
  • Sugar alcohols : used as sugar substitutes . Sugar breakdown during digestion is slower than normal sugar. Important for diabetics who do not need insulin, e.g. B. sorbitol , xylitol , mannitol and maltitol .
Table sugar (close-up)

Other sweeteners

  • synthetically produced sweeteners extracted from plants:

See also

Movie

literature

Web links

Commons : Sugar  album with pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Sugar  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wikisource: Laws for Taxation of Sugar (Germany)  - Sources and full texts

Individual evidence

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  2. ↑ Food Supply - Crops Primary Equivalent (Food supply quantity (kg / capita / year)). In: FAO supply statistics for 2013. fao.org, accessed on June 9, 2019 (English).
  3. ↑ Service - Table of bulk goods from Beckschulte
  4. ↑ Bulk material densities according to Mollet Füllstandtechnik
  5. ^ Hans-Albert Kurzhals: Lexicon of food technology. Vol. 2: L - Z. Behr, Hamburg 2003, ISBN 3-86022-973-7 , p. 723.
  6. ^ Friedrich Kluge , Alfred Götze : Etymological dictionary of the German language . 20th ed., Ed. by Walther Mitzka , De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1967; Reprint (“21st unchanged edition”) ibid 1975, ISBN 3-11-005709-3 , p. 890.
  7. ↑ Nabil Osman (Ed.): Small lexicon of German words of Arabic origin. Munich 1982; 3rd edition Munich 1992 (= Beck'sche series. Volume 456), p. 130 f.
  8. ↑ sugar. In: Digital dictionary of the German language .  (The information on the etymology corresponds to the entry in Wolfgang Pfeifer : Etymological dictionary of the German. 2nd edition. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1993).
  9. ↑ Eduard Schär: The sugar cane his home. Culture and history. Zurich, 1889. pp. 14 and 22, digitized
  10. ^ Günther Wolff: Sugar in ancient medicine: Sugar therapy in ancient times and the Middle Ages. At the same time a contribution to the cultural history of sugar. In: Medical Monthly , Vol. 7, 1953, pp. 527-529.
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  12. ^ Sugar History .
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  23. ^ Pierer's Universal Lexicon . tape 11 . Altenburg 1860, p. 109 ( zeno.org [accessed March 5, 2020]).
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