List of subtypes of the influenza A virus

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This list of subtypes of the influenza A virus gives an overview of the variants of the viruses of the "real flu" ( influenza A subtypes ) and - as far as can be proven - their pathogenicity for animals (→ avian influenza ) and humans (→ influenza ).

A more comprehensive overview of previously known subtypes is available in the UniProt database.

Subtypes

Nomenclature of subtype variants using the example of A / H5N1

The genome of the influenza viruses is segmented, which is why individual genome segments can be exchanged between influenza viruses if two influenza strains are infected at the same time (an antigen shift for immune evasion ). Influenza virus epidemics mostly arise from a lack of herd immunity to a newly recombined virus (both in animals and in humans). The low immunity to altered influenza viruses is due to the comparatively large change in the viral proteins after an antigen shift. An immune response against these changed antigens then has to be developed again, but this takes three to seven days. Until then, pronounced symptoms of flu will appear . Most of the current circulating gene segments of the influenza A virus are believed to have passed from an H3N8 equine flu to humans via farmed poultry in 1872.

The World Health Organization (WHO) rates the subtype groups A / H5 and A / H9 as particularly threatening to the health of poultry and humans , as they can change from low pathogenic to highly pathogenic variants particularly quickly.

The abbreviation 'H' stands for hemagglutinin , the abbreviation 'N' stands for neuraminidase . So far, 18 'H' variants and 11 'N' variants have been detected.

H1

A / H1N1

Genetic anchoring of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (Na) in A / H1N1

A / H1N1 is a common subtype of human influenza. It can penetrate human body cells particularly easily and smuggle in its genetic material. Since it was first detected in pigs in 1930, infections caused by this subtype are known as swine influenza in pigs and - based on a variant unknown until 2009 - colloquially known as "swine flu" in humans .

A variant of A / H1N1 was found to be the trigger for the so-called Spanish flu of 1918/1920 in the lung tissue of victims. In 2005 Jeffery Taubenberger succeeded in reconstructing the pathogen causing the Spanish flu from gene fragments. In 2007, researchers at St. Jude Children's Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee , discovered that a viral protein only 90 amino acids in size called PB1-F2 was responsible for the unusually high lethality of A / H1N1 in the years after 1918 seems. It causes particularly pronounced inflammation in the infected. Test animals became seriously ill if only their nasal mucosa came into contact with the protein. The H1N1 viruses that are still in circulation today, on the other hand, have a mutilated protein with only 67 amino acids: This is the result of a mutation that inserted a stop signal into the PB1-F2 gene so that it can no longer be read completely and the resulting protein is therefore less pathogenic.

Another global outbreak - called Russian flu - occurred in 1977.

At the end of January 2008, Norwegian doctors discovered an oseltamivir- resistant virus strain (A / H1N1-H274Y) in normal flu patients, which has since spread worldwide. In mid-2009, 96% worldwide, in developed countries practically all seasonal A / H1N1 viruses with the use of oseltamivir are resistant.

In April 2009, an epidemic-like outbreak of a hitherto unknown variant of the H1N1 subtype occurred in Mexico, from which numerous people fell ill (see: Pandemic H1N1 2009/10 ). According to a study published in 2016, the pandemic variant of the virus (pdmH1N1) originated in pigs in Mexico.

In June 2020, with "G4 EA H1N1" a variant became known that was responsible for influenza diseases in pigs in China between 2011 and 2018; the genes of this variant come partly from a line known from European and Asian birds, partly from the pandemic H1N1 virus from 2009 and partly from a line known from North America, which in turn is composed of several origins. This triple combination was ascribed a considerable "pandemic potential". According to a study published in June 2020 in the journal PNAS , more than 10 percent of pig farmers (35 of 338 people examined) are already infected. It was also pointed out that infection with seasonal influenza does not protect against “G4 EA H1N1”.

A / H1N2

The subtype A / H1N2 has been known for some time and from different continents from poultry and pigs, and this subtype has repeatedly - but only occasionally - passed from pigs to humans. A / H1N2 was first detected in 1980 in Japan in pigs; detailed analyzes revealed that some of the circulating variants of A / H1N2 were reassorted from A / H1N1 and A / H3N2 . The symptoms of the disease in humans are mild and comparable to other seasonal subtypes.

A / H1N3

The subtype A / H1N3 arose as a result of reassortment on the basis of non-pandemic A / H1N1 and A / H3N2 viruses; Since 1998, it has been observed in North America in isolated cases in people whose disease courses were typical of the flu, but mild. As early as 1976 it was described that the subtype could be detected in a whale.

A / H1N8

Seroarchaeological reconstructions on the basis of antibodies obtained in preserved tissue samples were interpreted to mean that the subtype A / H1N8 circulated between 1847 and 1889 and between 1900 and 1918. Then he was ousted by A / H1N1 , the causative agent of the Spanish flu .

H2

A / H2N1

The oldest evidence of the subtype A / H2N1 came from 1957 and is registered in the influenza databases under the name A / JapanxBellamy / 57 (H2N1) . The UniProt database shows numerous more recent documents from the USA, but also virus finds from Germany - A / mallard / Potsdam / 177-4 / 1983 (H2N1), A / mallard / Stralsund / 41-4 / 1981 (H2N1) - as well from Sweden and Japan.

A / H2N2

A global outbreak of the A / H2N2 subtype in 1957 caused a pandemic known as Asian flu .

A / H2N3

The subtype A / H2N3 is common among wild geese and ducks worldwide.

H3

A / H3N1

The subtype A / H3N1 is mainly found in pigs worldwide and has been detected in various reassortments ; but there is also evidence from poultry farming. In 2003, for example, a reassortment based on the subtypes A / H3N2 (circulating in humans) and A / H1N1 (from pigs) was detected.

A / H3N2

The subtype A / H3N2 is common in Europe and the USA. A worldwide outbreak of A / H3N2 (A / Hong Kong / 1/1968 (H3N2)) caused a pandemic in humans known as the Hong Kong flu in 1968 . Transitions from pigs to humans have also been documented, for example. The influenza vaccination therefore also regularly includes a vaccine against A / H3N2. A mutation in the circulating virus resulted in the development of a subclade (a sub-variant), named 3C.2a1 . The strain A / Bolzano / 7/2016 (H3N2) is most similar to the modified virus. In the 2016/17 flu season, only around a quarter of A / H3N2 infections were caused by strain 3C.2a (similar to Hong Kong), the other three quarters were caused by strain 3C.2a1 (similar to Bolzano).

The subtype A / H3N2 - like A / H3N8 - has been repeatedly detected in dogs and is then referred to as "Canine Influenza Virus (CIV)".

In 2020, it was found that this subtype, through a mutation, acquired the ability to defy human immune responses and vaccines much more easily than before.

A / H3N3

The subtype A / H3N3 was isolated from seals in 1992 , from mallards in 2007 and repeatedly from pigs.

A / H3N8

The subtype A / H3N8 was originally common in horses. However, the virus spread to dogs in the early 21st century and this species is most common in the United States . A variant of the virus has also been found in seals since 2011, with several dozen deaths occurring in New England .

Infections in humans have not yet been proven by direct virus detection. However, there is evidence of an infection process among humans in the late 19th century based on serological findings from tissue samples obtained .

H4

A / H4N1

The subtype A / H4N1 was isolated from Canadian mallards [A / mallard / Alberta / 47/98 (H4N1)] in 1998 and from pigs in central China in 2009; the genome sequence of the Chinese isolates was published in December 2012 by Chinese researchers.

H5

Nine subtypes of A / H5Nx are known.

A / H5N1

The subtype A / H5N1 is considered to be particularly aggressive ( HPAI, Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza ) and is one of several triggers of avian influenza . An altered non-structural gene means that certain messenger substances in the immune system , which normally fight off viruses, no longer have any effect on the A / H5N1 subtype. A change in hemagglutinin leads to its increased activation. This is why the subtype kills infected birds that do not belong to its virus reservoir comparatively quickly and, because of its pathogenic properties, is closely monitored by scientists for interdependencies with other strains and crossings of species boundaries .

A highly pathogenic avian A / H5N1 virus first appeared in chicken birds in Scotland in 1959: A / chicken / Scotland / 59 (H5N1). The H5N1 strains circulating today appeared in farm poultry in Hong Kong in 1997. These strains produced an unusually high mortality rate of over 50% in humans, but spread poorly in humans.

A / H5N2

The subtype A / H5N2 is common worldwide. For example, in 1983 and 1984 there were several outbreaks on poultry farms in the United States, which resulted in the death of 17 million animals. There were also several outbreaks in Mexico between 1992 and 1995. In 2015, the virus occurred in Canada in 45,000 young turkey populations and in dozen large turkey and chicken populations, particularly in the US states of Iowa , Minnesota and Wisconsin , where a total of around 30 million animals died or were killed; This variant of the subtype, which appeared in Canada and the USA in 2015, had previously reassorted genes from the A / H5N8 variant that had been detected in animal holdings in Germany at the end of 2014.

In the summer of 2005, A / H5N2 was detected in Japan, which is why, according to press reports, more than 1.5 million chickens and other poultry were killed. In the spring of 2015, several large outbreaks occurred in goose and chicken farms in Taiwan .

In December 2008 a low pathogenic A / H5N2 virus was detected in Belgium and Germany. This led to the culling of several poultry stocks in Lower Saxony.

A series of outbreaks occurred in South Africa from February 2011 and ended by summer 2013.

At the beginning of December 2015 there was an H5N2 outbreak in a poultry farm in Roding, Bavaria ; 13,000 chickens, ducks, turkeys and geese were culled as a precaution. In November 2016, a small poultry population in Mesekenhagen ( Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania ) was affected.

A / H5N3

The subtype A / H5N3 caused large deaths among wild tern in South Africa in 1961 . They were the first to detect influenza viruses in a wild bird population.

In October 2008, a low-pathogen H5N3 virus was detected in a goose at the Leipzig Zoo as part of a routine check. In the same year there were outbreaks in several poultry farms in the district of Cloppenburg, Lower Saxony. As a result, over 560,000 head of poultry were killed in this region by the end of January 2009. The subtype was also repeatedly detected in Germany in the following years, for example in North Rhine-Westphalia, Saxony-Anhalt and Rhineland-Palatinate in December 2016.

A / H5N4

According to the Influenza Research Database of the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, subtype A / H5N4 has been repeatedly detected in wild ducks and gulls in the US and Guatemala since 2000 and in a chicken in Iraq in 2015 .

A / H5N5

According to the Influenza Research Database of the US National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, subtype A / H5N5 has been repeatedly detected in mallards and geese in the USA and China. There were also isolated highly pathogenic variants of the subtype. In November 2016, he was highly pathogenic in the Netherlands in a wild tufted discovered further in January 2017 a mute swan in the Regional District Rodopi (Greece) and at 20 mute swans in the Province of Lower Silesia (Poland). In January 2017 the subtype was also detected in a duck in Schleswig-Holstein and at the same time for the first time in Europe in a poultry farm - in Süderau (Schleswig-Holstein) - where 18,400 turkeys were killed.

A / H5N6

The subtype A / H5N6 was detected in ducks in Potsdam as early as 1984 (A / duck / Potsdam / 2216-4 / 1984). A / H5N6 is widespread among poultry in China, Laos and Vietnam. There was a major outbreak at the end of August 2014 near Harbin in the northeast of the People's Republic of China, as a result of which more than 86,000 head of poultry were killed. In April 2015, an infected, wild peregrine falcon and a wild Dajal thrush were found dead in Hong Kong .

At the regional level, it was calculated for China in 2020 that the spread of avian influenza viruses will also take place along the trade routes for poultry.

In May 2014, a transition to humans became known for the first time: In a 49-year-old from the Sichuan province in southwest China, who had died as a result of the infection. A second infection was detected in December 2014 in southern China's Guangdong Province , and a third in February 2015 in Yunnan Province . Two other infections were detected in China in December 2015. As of December 19, 2016, the WHO was aware of a total of 16 confirmed diseases in humans, six of whom had died as a result of the infection. By November 1, 2018, the number of detected diseases increased to 22 with a total of six deaths, and by the end of September 2019 a total of 24 diseases had been confirmed virologically.

A / H5N7

The subtype A / H5N7 was first detected in 2003 in a duck farm on the Danish peninsula Salling , so that 12,000 animals were killed. A detailed analysis of the genome showed a relationship to the subtypes A / H5N2 and A / H7N7.

A / H5N8

The first scientifically documented outbreak of A / H5N8 occurred in November 1983 in a poultry farm in Ireland . At that time, 8,000 turkeys and 28,000 chicks were killed, as well as 270,000 ducks, which was 97 percent of the duck population kept commercially in Ireland at the time.

In the years 2014 to 2017, there were repeated major outbreaks in Central Europe.

A / H5N9

The subtype A / H5N9 was detected in turkeys in Canada in 1966 (A / Turkey / Ontario / 7732/1966 H5N9). Two years later, the subtype also appeared in the USA. Evidence from a shot wild duck came from Germany in autumn 2014.

In 2015, a reassorted, highly pathogenic variant of the subtype was discovered in the PRC, the emergence of which could be traced back to the subtypes A / H5N1, A / H7N9 and A / H9N2. The first major outbreak in Europe occurred in late autumn 2015 in several poultry flocks in the French department of Landes and the Dordogne department ; more than 25,000 poultry ( guinea fowl , chickens and ducks) were killed as a precaution.

H6

A / H6N1

The subtype A / H6 was first discovered in turkeys in 1965 and is now a low pathogenic virus in poultry in southern China; in humans, the subtype A / H6N1 was first isolated from a patient in Taiwan who developed flu-like symptoms in May 2013. Molecular biological analyzes showed that the viruses isolated from the patient - A / Taiwan / 2/2013 (H6N1) - were a previously unknown reassortment from poultry, the genes of which were derived from subtype A / H5N2. Another molecular biological analysis showed that the binding properties of this subtype variant are adapted to poultry and not to the cells of humans, as in the previously known variants.

H7

Nine subtypes of A / H7Nx are known.

A / H7N1

The subtype A / H7N1 caused a massive epidemic in Italy in March 1999 , as a result of which more than 13 million animals were affected by the beginning of 2000. There was no evidence of transmission to humans. In October 2016, several hundred dead wild birds - mainly rust geese , marbled ducks , mallards and pond claws - were discovered in wetlands in Algeria (El Ménia district) that were infected with A / H7N1.

A / H7N2

A / H7N2 subtype was also transmitted to a human in Virginia in an outbreak in poultry farms in the United States in 2002 , and to a human in New York in 2003. In 2007 there were outbreaks in poultry holdings in Wales and in 2016 in an ostrich farm in South Africa .

In December 2016, the US health authorities investigated an outbreak of A / H7N2 among domestic cats and in an employee at an animal shelter in New York with particular effort .

A / H7N3

The subtype A / H7N3 was first detected in turkeys in Great Britain in 1963 . In April 2006 this subtype infected turkeys and an employee of a farm in North Tuddenham, Norfolk, UK .

In North America, the spread of this subtype has been confirmed several times. For example, in April 2004, 18 farms in British Columbia were quarantined and two cases of human transmission were documented; both survived the infection without consequences. The symptoms are similar to those of mild flu. Further outbreaks in Canada occurred in Saskatchewan in 2007-08 , and in August 2014 the subtype was detected in the USA ( Salem County , Salem, New Jersey ) in a population of 44,000 mallards and 7,200 pheasants.

In 2012/13 and again in 2015 there were outbreaks among laying hens in Mexico; 2015 highly pathogenic virus in the national park were also El Zapotal (State of Chiapas ) in several Braunflügelguanen and Gilbdrosseln proven. In January 2017, 4,000 ducks at a free range farm in Cambodia died as a result of an LPAI infection with A / H7N3.

A / H7N4

According to the WHO, the subtype A / H7N4 first appeared in a highly pathogenic variant in chickens in New South Wales ( Australia ) in 1997 . The same old virus samples from emus are also documented : A / emu / New South Wales / 775/1997 (H7N4) and A / emu / NSW / 1742/1997 (H7N4).

At the beginning of 2018, the transition of this subtype to humans was detected for the first time in a 68-year-old woman in the eastern Chinese province of Jiangsu . The patient had severe pneumonia from which she recovered in hospital. Swabs of the pharyngeal mucosa were obtained from 28 contact persons , which were virus-free in all cases.

A / H7N5

According to the Influenza Database of the National Center for Biotechnology Information , the subtype A / H7N3 was first documented in 1977, the virus was then isolated from mallards in Canada (Taxonomy ID in the Influenza Research Database (IRD): 286295), and later it also entered the USA. Transitions to humans are not documented.

A / H7N6

As early as 1981, the pathogenicity of two variants of the subtype A / H7N6 was experimentally investigated, which had been detected in Australia in 1975 and 1976 (A / chicken / Victoria / 75 and A / duck / Victoria / 76). This subtype is first documented for 2007 in the OpenFlu database of the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (A / duck / Yunnan / 87/2007 ); it is closely related to the subtype A / H4N6. Except in China there is evidence u. a. in Thailand, South Korea, Japan, Canada, the USA and in Chile. In Japan, for example, more than 1.5 million Japanese quails were killed after outbreaks in several farms in 2009 ; in Chile, more than 35,000 turkeys were killed in a major outbreak at the turn of 2016/17.

A / H7N7

The subtype A / H7N7 was first detected in horses in 1956 in Prague , which is why the disease caused by the virus is also known as equine flu .

Initially, this subtype was not counted among the influenza A viruses that cause influenza in humans and therefore viewed as less of a threat to humans. However, in 1996 a human was infected in the UK after being in a duck pen, from which the infected person recovered. In 2003, 89 infections in people with this HPAI subtype were confirmed in the Netherlands . One case was fatal; The victim was a veterinarian who could detect this virus subtype in the lung tissue. In addition, 30,000 useful birds had to be killed. Another outbreak in England, which killed more than 80,000 chickens, occurred in 2015; also in 2015 more than 10,000 laying hens were killed in Emsland ( Lower Saxony ). In July 2020, outbreaks were reported in two free-range laying hen farms in southeast Australia that kept more than 43,000 animals.

In 2013 in China, in an attempt to reconstruct the reassortment of influenza A viruses prior to the outbreak of the H7N9 avian flu , a previously unknown variant of A / H7N7 was isolated from over-the-counter chickens that could also be transferred to ferrets in the laboratory ; With regard to influenza, ferrets are regarded as a model organism for humans. The new variant of A / H7N7 was found to be highly contagious, and researchers feared that it could also be transmitted to humans.

A / H7N8

The subtype A / H7N8 was repeatedly detected - as a low pathogenic variant - in the USA as part of wild bird monitoring; An outbreak in a poultry farm first occurred in early 2016 in the US state of Indiana . A herd of turkeys was affected by the highly pathogenic variant; more than 40,000 animals were killed. In the subsequent investigation of further herds, an almost identical but low pathogenic variant was found in several nearby (clinically symptom-free) herds and more than 150,000 animals were killed.

A / H7N9

Transmission electron microscope image of A / H7N9 virus particles, partly spherical, partly filamentous (thread-like)

Presumably after contact with infected poultry, human infections with the influenza A virus H7N9 occurred for the first time in February 2013 and, as a result, deaths from the so-called avian flu H7N9 due to severe pneumonia caused by a previously unknown, reassorted variant of virus A / H7N9 in Shanghai and the Chinese provinces of Anhui and Zhejiang . Up until then, the virus had only been detected in a few isolated cases in asymptomatic animals.

When looking for a source of infection in Shanghai, pigeons were also found that carried the virus; Pigeons are considered to be less susceptible to illnesses caused by influenza viruses.

In rare cases, human-to-human transmission is possible. However, the pathogen can only be transmitted to a limited extent and there has not yet been any sustained human-to-human transmission.

H8

A / H8N1

The subtype A / H8N1 was isolated from ducks in the late 1990s as part of a search for potentially pandemic influenza viruses in Siberia and Japan. 2011 subtype in Mississippi (USA) from a Shoveler isolated - A / northern shoveler / Mississippi / 11OS5900 / 2011 (H8N1) - and in the virus database of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases registered US under the taxon ID 1,460,845th

H9

Nine subtypes of A / H9Nx are known (N1 - N9).

A / H9N2

The subtype A / H9N2 is common worldwide and has repeatedly led to large outbreaks in poultry farms; it has also been found in pigs.

In China, the subtype is sporadically detected in humans, but so far only in a less pathogenic form (LPAI, Lowly Pathogenic Avian Influenza). In three cases in Hong Kong and China (1999, 2003), patients recovered from this influenza-like infection. Mild illnesses were also known from Egypt and Bangladesh . In 2016, the suspicion of a death as a result of infection with A / H9N2 first became known.

After six genes for internal virus proteins had changed from A / H9N2 to the subtype A / H7N9 , A / H7N9 developed a greatly increased risk potential for humans (→ bird flu H7N9 ).

H10

A / H10N7

The subtype A / H10N7 was among others in the US in turkeys and emus detected, and also in domestic ducks in South Africa and in chickens in Canada. In 2010 there was an outbreak on a chicken farm in Australia, as a result of which several farm workers were infected with this LPAI virus and became ill.

In October 2014, several dozen dead seals who had died as a result of an H10N7 infection were driven on the Danish North Sea coast . Shortly thereafter , several hundred seals who had died of an H10N7 infection were found on the German North Sea coast, especially on the beaches on Sylt , Helgoland , Amrum and Föhr .

A / H10N8

The subtype A / H10N8 first attracted worldwide attention in late December 2013 after a 74-year-old woman died in southern China as a result of an infection with A / H10N8; a little later a second infection and later a third was known from the same area; two of the three sick people died. This subtype had previously been detected primarily in southern Chinese poultry and migratory birds - also in the USA and Europe. The sequencing of the genome from a Chinese virus sample of A / H10N8 had already been published in July 2012. Six of its genes are largely identical to those of A / H9N2 , which are known from Chinese poultry flocks , while the hemagglutinin of the casing in the human lungs has binding properties due to a mutation that make it comparable to A / H5N1 as infectious for humans ; nevertheless, the binding properties of these subtype variants isolated from the sick - like the previously known variants - are primarily adapted to poultry.

H11

A / H11N2

The subtype A / H11N2 was first scientifically described in May 2014. He was in the Antarctic at Adelie penguins been proven that showed no disease symptoms. The genome was related to the subtype A / H3N8 from infected horses of the 1960s.

A / H11N9

The subtype A / H11N9 was serologically detected in 2004 in several hunters in the USA who had stayed in the vicinity of wild birds frequently and for years. In China, the subtype was also discovered in domestic poultry in 2016.

H12

A / H12N1

The subtype A / H12N1 has been documented since 1983 (A / mallard duck / Alberta / 342/1983) and has been isolated repeatedly from waterfowl.

H13

A / H13N2

The subtype A / H13N2 (A / Whale / Maine / 2/84) was isolated in 1986 from the lungs and together with A / H13N9 from a lymph node of a pilot whale that had stranded two years earlier on the coast of Massachusetts , USA . The hemagglutinin variant of the subtype was found to be closely related to the H13 variant from gulls, which was first described in 1982, and the neuraminidase variant was also similar to documented variants from various bird species. A / H13N2 was later also detected in birds.

A / H13N9

The subtype A / H13N9 (A / Whale / Maine / 1/84) was isolated together with A / H13N2 in 1986 from a lymph node of a pilot whale stranded two years earlier on the coast of Massachusetts, USA . The hemagglutinin variant of the subtype was found to be closely related to the H13 variant from gulls, which was first described in 1982, and the neuraminidase variant was also similar to documented variants from various bird species. A / H13N9 was later also detected in water birds.

H14 to H18

A / H14Nx

The first subtypes of A / H14 - A / H14N5 and A / H14N6 - were isolated from herring gulls and mallards in the Astrakhan area on the Caspian Sea in 1982 . In 2010, variants of both subtypes and the subtypes A / H14N4 and A / H14N8 were detected for the first time outside this region - in Wisconsin , USA. Also in the following years there were further finds of these subtypes in North and South America, in Guatemala also the subtype A / H14N3 was discovered.

A / H15Nx

The first evidence of subtype A / H15 was published in 1996, based on two documents from Australia, which had already been obtained in 1979 (A / H15N9) and 1983 (A / H15N8) from a duck and from a second coastal bird; the A / H15 hemagglutinin is most closely related to the A / H7 hemagglutinin.

A study published in March 2013 shows that the subtypes A / H15N2 and A / H15N4 were also known by then.

A / H16N3

The first evidence of subtype A / H16 was published in 2005, based on evidence from Sweden obtained from black-headed gulls in 1999 ; the A / H16 hemagglutinin is distantly related to the A / H13 hemagglutinin. The initial detection was named A / black-headed gull / Sweden / 2/99 and identified as A / H16N3; According to the Influenza Research Database, A / H16N3 was repeatedly detected in the Netherlands and Alaska in the following years and is also documented from Asia.

A / H17N10

The subtype A / H17N10 was first described scientifically in 2012 after it was isolated from fruit bats of the species Sturnira lilium in Guatemala . In 2014, genetic experiments with artificially modified viruses were interpreted to mean that a transfer of H17N10 viruses to humans cannot be ruled out, but is unlikely because A / H17N10 - in contrast to all previously known subtypes - does not bind to sialic acids . In 2019, however, it was shown that H17N10 viruses can use MHC II molecules as “entry ports ” into cells of humans, chickens, pigs and mice. See also A. Banerjee et al. (2020).

A / H18N11

The subtype A / H18N11 was scientifically described for the first time in October 2013 after the genomic sequence of the virus had been isolated from fruit bats of the species Artibeus planirostris in Peru . In a screening study published in 2019, genomic sequences of A / H18N11 were also isolated in the related species Artibeus lituratus from Brazil . A / H18N11 viruses, like the A / H17N10 subtype, use MHC II molecules from a wide variety of organisms to infect a cell. The experimental characterization of the A / H18N11 subtype suggests that its ability to infect species other than bats should be classified as rather low. See also A. Banerjee et al. (2020).

See also

literature

  • David E. Swayne (Ed.): Avian Influenza. Blackwell Publishing, 2008, ISBN 978-0-8138-2047-7 .
  • Robert G. Webster et al .: Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses. In: Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. Volume 58, No. 1, 1992, pp. 152-179, full text (PDF) .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ UniProt database: Taxonomy - Influenza A virus (SPECIES).
  2. ↑ Michael Worobey et al .: A synchronized global sweep of the internal genes of modern avian influenza virus. In: Nature. Volume 508, 2014, pp. 254-257, ISSN  1476-4687 . doi : 10.1038 / nature13016 . PMID 24531761 .
    Study on flu evolution may change textbooks, history books. On: eurekalert.org of February 16, 2014
  3. ↑ Warning signals from the volatile world of influenza viruses. On: who.int from February 2015.
  4. ↑ G. Koch (Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, February 2014): Epidemiology of avian influenza. ( Memento from February 28, 2018 in the Internet Archive )
  5. ↑ Richard E. Shope: Swine Influenza: III. Filtration and Ion Experiments and Etiology. In: Journal of Experimental Medicine . Volume 54, 1931, pp. 373-385.
  6. ↑ What Is Swine Flu? ( Memento of March 4, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Suburban Emergency Management Project: Biot Report 162 of January 9, 2005
  7. ↑ Julie L. McAuley et al .: Expression of the 1918 Influenza A Virus PB1-F2 Enhances the Pathogenesis of Viral and Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia. In: Cell Host & Microbe. Volume 2, No. 4, 2007, pp. 240-249, doi: 10.1016 / j.chom.2007.09.001
  8. ↑ Avian influenza. Information brochure, created in collaboration with Prof. Hans-Peter Seelig. Status: October 2005 On: labor-clotten.de. Retrieved December 5, 2018.
  9. ↑ Resistance to oseltamivir (Tamiflu) found in some European influenza virus samples. European Center for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), September 20, 2008
  10. ↑ WHO: Influenza A (H1N1) virus resistance to oseltamivir - 2008 influenza season, southern hemisphere. ( Memento of August 9, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 29 kB) July 18, 2008
  11. ^ Prevalence of Oseltamivir-resistant H1N1 viruses. Last quarter 2008 - First quarter 2009. ( Memento of August 9, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) WHO graphic.
  12. ↑ WHO, June 4, 2009: Influenza A virus resistance to oseltamivir and other antiviral medicines. ; compare: WHO Guidelines for Pharmacological Management of Pandemic Influenza A (H1N1) 2009 and other Influenza Viruses (PDF; 553 kB), February 2010, p. 8 / below
  13. ↑ Ignacio Mena et al .: Origins of the 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic in swine in Mexico. In: eLife. Online publication from June 28, 2016, doi: 10.7554 / eLife.16777
  14. ↑ Honglei Sun et al .: Prevalent Eurasian avian-like H1N1 swine influenza virus with 2009 pandemic viral genes facilitating human infection. In: PNAS. Online advance publication of June 29, 2020, doi: 10.1073 / pnas.1921186117 .
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