Drusus campaigns

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Drusus campaigns
Part of: Augustan German Wars 12 BC Chr. To 16 AD
Nero Claudius Drusus
Nero Claudius Drusus
date 12 to 8 BC Chr.
place Germania between the Rhine and Elbe
output Roman victory
consequences Political and military control over the tribes on the right bank of the Rhine
Parties to the conflict

Roman Empire

Germanic tribes, including Sugambrer , Usipeter , Tenker , Cherusker , Chatten , Marcomanni , Quad , Chauken , Brukterer .

Commander

Nero Claudius Drusus (12 to autumn 9 BC)
Tiberius Claudius Nero (autumn 9 to 8 BC)

Tribal chiefs; handed down to Maelo (Sugambrer)


The Drusus campaigns were Roman military operations in the years 12 to 8 BC. Against Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine. They are named after Nero Claudius Drusus (* 38 BC), a stepson of Augustus who served the Roman troops until his death in the autumn of 9 BC. Chr. Commanded. The campaigns began in late summer 12 BC. With military operations in the Lippe area and on the North Sea coast and ended in the year 8 BC. With the submission of numerous Germanic tribes between the Rhine and Elbe by Drusus' brother Tiberius Claudius Nero . The first reaching of the Elbe in 9 BC is considered to be the military climax of the campaigns . The Drusus campaigns marked the beginning of the Augustan German Wars (12 BC to 16 AD).

The campaigns were preceded by Germanic incursions into Gaul , which the Romans claimed as a province. An essential war goal of Drusus was therefore to secure the apron of the Rhine border , which had been established by Gaius Julius Caesar as the dividing line between Gaul and Germania. The extent to which the Drusus campaigns were based on a plan to conquer Germania as far as the Elbe is controversial in research.

The result of the Drusus campaigns was political and military control of large parts of the tribal world on the right bank of the Rhine for almost 10 years. The Roman supremacy was only seriously called into question again with the outbreak of the immensum bellum ("mighty war") in the year 1 AD.

Sources

The main sources for the Drusus campaigns are books 54 and 55 of the Historia Romana ("Roman history", Greek Ῥωμαϊκὴ ἱστορία) by Cassius Dio (born around 163, died after 229 AD). The historical work was written at the beginning of the 3rd century and is generally considered reliable and based on contemporary sources. For the Drusus period, especially for the decisive year 9 BC BC, Dio follows the tradition of the contemporary witness Livius . From his historical work Ab urbe condita only the periochae (brief descriptions of the contents) have survived for the period of the Drusus campaigns .

Important information also provides Suetonius in his imperial biographies, especially in those of Augustus, Tiberius and Claudius . Other authors have dealt with Augustus' stepson, who died young and tragically. To be mentioned are Florus , Eutrop , Orosius , Seneca , Strabo and Valerius Maximus , moreover there are testimonies from the poem Consolatio ad Liviam ("Consolation for Livia ", the mother of Drusus).

prehistory

Bust of Gaius Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar

Roman and Germanic claims to power clashed in the middle of the 1st century BC. BC in Gaul each other. Between 58 and 53 BC Caesar defeated and drove out the Suebi , Usipeters and Tenkerians who had advanced into Gaul and led his legions twice across the Rhine. There was no fighting on Germanic soil because the attacked tribes withdrew "into the wastelands and forests". Caesar entrusted the Germanic Ubier , Roman allies, with border protection , to whom he assigned settlement areas around the Main and Lahn .

In 38 BC Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa crossed the Rhine as the second Roman general, perhaps as a reaction to an incursion by the Sugambri , which had been taking place since 53 BC. Were permanently allied with the Usipeters and Tenkerites. Further Germanic incursions and Roman retaliatory actions are for the years 30 to 20 BC. Chr. Handed down.

Around 20/19 BC The Ubians left their homeland on the right bank of the Rhine, presumably under pressure from Suebian tribes, and were assigned new settlement areas by the Romans on the left bank of the Rhine in the area around Cologne . They continued to perform their border guard duties. In addition, they possibly sealed off areas on the left bank of the Rhine claimed by the Sugambrians. In 19 BC they moved into the vacated Ubier country. Chr. Chat after, also with Roman consent, possibly even back to Roman transfer.

Clades Lolliana

In 16 BC A number of incidents occurred: The Sugambres crucified Roman centurions who wanted to raise tributes (Horace) or carry out recruits (Julius Obsequens), and then undertook a raid to Gaul together with Usipeters and Tenkers. There they first lured a Roman cavalry unit into an ambush and finally defeated the 5th Legion of Marcus Lollius . The legionary eagle fell into the hands of the Germans. According to Suetonius, with this clades Lolliana (Lollius defeat) "the shame was greater than the (military) damage". Lollius himself seems to have cleared up the situation in the same year and achieved the return of the standards. The handover to the Romans is probably on coins from the years 13/12 BC. Chr. Held symbolically.

March on the Rhine

In the following year, Augustus' stepsons Drusus and Tiberius subjugated almost 50 peoples of the Alpine region. The successful Alpine campaign secured northern Italy and the routes to Gaul. It did not serve, as suggested by older research, to prepare for the Roman expansion into Germania - the southern German area was not supposed to play a recognizable role in the Augustan Teutonic Wars.

Immediately after the clades Lolliana , Augustus went to Gaul and stayed there for about three years. Comprehensive administrative and military reorganizations fall during this time, as well as a reorientation of the Germania strategy. The previous means - border protection by allies, demonstrations of power and retaliatory strikes - had not been able to prevent the Germanic incursions. On the Rhine, forts were now built in Nijmegen ( Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum ; built perhaps as early as 19/18 BC), Neuss ( Novaesium ), Bonn ( Bonna ), Moers-Asberg ( Asciburgium ), Xanten ( Vetera ) and Mainz ( Mogontiacum ). The bases were strategically located: rivers ( Lippe , Ruhr , Main) or traffic routes (for example the Westphalian Hellweg ) led eastwards into the interior of Germania and allowed an offensive approach. To the west, the camps were connected to the waterways and developed highways of Gaul. On these routes supplies for the garrisons could be brought in and, in the event of unrest, troops could be quickly relocated to Gallic trouble spots. By the year 12 BC A total of five legions had arrived from Spain and Gaul and were divided into a northern army group on the Lower Rhine ( exercitus inferior around Xanten) and a southern one on the middle and upper Rhine ( exercitus superior around Mainz). The border protection passed from Germanic allies to the legions and gained a "new quality".

Nevertheless exceeded in the year 12 BC Chr. Sugambrer, Usipeter and Tenker under the leadership of the war duke Maelo again the Rhine. Drusus, since 13 BC BC de facto governor in Gaul and commander-in-chief on the Rhine, faced the invaders. The Germans hoped in vain for the support of rebellious Gallic tribes and suffered a severe defeat.

Campaign year 12 BC Chr.

In late summer, “the great Roman offensive that had been systematically prepared for years broke in.” The crossing of the Lower Rhine marked the beginning of the Augustan Teutonic Wars.

War aims

The goals of the Drusus campaigns are barely tangible in the sources because the Senate no longer held relevant debates after the end of the republic. The punishment of the Sugambri and their allies was certainly one of the war goals as well as the creation of a military and political apron control reaching deep into the interior of Germania to protect Gaul. In research it is controversial whether the war year 12 BC. It was based on plans for a permanent occupation of Germania or even to create a province. The idea that Augustus wanted to move the border of the empire to the Elbe in order to shorten the long Roman front lines in the north of the empire are considered outdated.

Personal goals of Augustus may also have played a role. Conferred by the Senate imperium (command) of Augustus had all five, every ten years be extended later (only Tiberius had a imperium for life). Augustus therefore had an interest in portraying himself as the empire's permanent guarantee of security. Germania was the ideal materia gloriae ("object of gaining fame") "of a ruling dynasty legitimizing itself through victory". Potential heirs to the throne could also recommend themselves for the office in the Germanic theater of war.

Map of the Drusus campaigns in 12 and 11 BC Chr.
The Drusus campaigns in 12 and 11 BC Chr.

Land campaign and naval operation

At the beginning of the campaign, the legions devastated the Usipeter area north of the Lippe . Then they turned against the Sugambrerland between Lippe and Ruhr. There are no records of subjugation; the residents probably fled to the interior of the country. Drusus pursued a tactic that Caesar had already used against evasive tribes: Desolation trains and the destruction of livelihoods were intended to undermine the authority of tribal leaders who were hostile to Rome.

The military actions against the Usipeters and Sugambrers can still be seen as the "standard Roman retaliatory strike" on the previous incursion of the Maelo. With the subsequent naval operation against tribes that had not yet appeared as opponents of the Romans, however, Drusus left the scope of a punitive expedition. The Romans aggressively expanded the radius of their apron control. An unknown number of ships of the classis Germanica (Rhine fleet) brought the troops from the Lower Rhine through the fossa Drusiana (Drusus Canal) to the Zuiderzee (called Lacus Flevo by the Romans ) and from there to the North Sea. The coastal tribe of the Frisians , based between the Zuiderzee and Ems , apparently submitted without a fight, accepted a moderate toll and provided the Romans with military support.

Then the Romans conquered the island of Burchana . This is probably Borkum, which was significantly larger at the turn of the century than it is today and comprised Juist , Norderney and an island that sank in 1690. Boats from the Brukteri attacked the Roman fleet on the Ems or in the mouth of the Ems . The simple Germanic watercraft without sails and keel were inferior to the Roman ships. The result of the naval battle was the subjugation of the Brukterer and a decade-long safe maritime domination of the Romans in the northern sea. In the further course the fleet ran aground and had to be rescued by the Frisians who had dragged ashore.

The naval operation served not only to subjugate Germanic coastal tribes, but also to research Germania. Strabon reports on the importance of military operations in Germania for expanding geographical knowledge. The fleet trip was possibly based on misconceptions of a river system that should lead from the coast to the Sugambres. The campaign year ended with the return of the ships to the Lower Rhine.

Campaign year 11 BC Chr.

In the year 11 BC Drusus continued the campaigns from Xanten or Nijmegen with at least three legions, auxiliaries (auxiliary troops) and contingents of allied tribes. Peter Kehne puts the strength of the legions and auxiliaries at around 25,000 men; the number of warriors in the tribal contingents cannot be estimated. At the same time, the research suspects a second, not handed down North Sea fleet operation by a legate (deputy commander). This assumption is supported by the fact that the coastal tribe of the Chauken was subjugated, which could hardly have been achieved without the use of the fleet.

The land campaign of Drusus was initially directed against the Usipeters, who submitted. An elaborate bridge over the Lippe followed, perhaps at Olfen . The legions found the Sugambrerland between Lippe and Ruhr undefended. The Sugambrian warriors went into the field against their southern neighbors, the Chatten, in order to force them into an anti-Roman alliance.

The relationship between Chatti and Romans seems to have been unaffected in the decades between the Gallic War and the Drusus campaigns. In the year 12 BC The tribe was the only one to refuse an alliance against Rome. The intervention of the Sugambres, however, drew parts of the chat on the side of the opponents of Rome, a process that suggests internal contradictions and factions . Possibly the Chattas were a clientele under the suzerainty of the Suebi. The Sugambrer train would then have had the goal of initiating a transition of chatting from the Suebian to the Sugambrian clientele.

Reversal on the Weser

After the devastation of the undefended Sugambrerland and the subjugation of the Tenkerer south of the Ruhr, the legions moved on to the Weser. The march path led perhaps over the Westphalian Hellweg between Lippe and Ruhr or a little further south over the Haarstrang-Hellweg to the east, south past the Teutoburg Forest and on to the banks of the Weser , which lies between a northern point near Hameln and a southern point near Höxter , Herstelle or Hannoversch Münden was reached.

The river was not crossed. Dio felt he had to justify the return and named the supply situation, the proximity to winter and a bad omen, the appearance of a swarm of bees in the camp. Other historians also mention the swarm of bees, but not in connection with the return on the Weser. With Pliny the bees "settled in the camp of the general Drusus when they fought happily at Arbalo". They turned out to be a good omen, given the outcome of the battle. Livy reports something similar.

The Battle of Arbalo

For logistical reasons, the way back is likely to have been largely identical to the way there. During the march, the legions were repeatedly attacked by the Sugambres who had returned from the Chattenland. The Cherusci and tribal parts of the Chatti may also have been involved. At the unknown place Arbalo (the name is handed down from Pliny), the Teutons succeeded in enclosing the Romans in a narrow valley. The legions escaped a catastrophe because the Teutons rushed to attack and had to retreat after major losses. The Roman army proclaimed Drusus to be imperator (commander) while still on the battlefield (imperatorial acclamation), an award that Augustus received and transferred to himself.

Camp on the "Elison" and in Chatland

On the way back, Drusus had a camp built at the confluence of the Lippe and Elison rivers. This could be identified as the Roman camp Oberaden . There timbers were found that were found in late summer or autumn 11 BC. Were felled and processed. The Elison is likely to be the Seseke river .

The Oberaden camp was a huge fort with a heptagonal floor plan due to the terrain and the approximate dimensions of 680 × 840 meters (area around 56 hectares). There was room for at least two legions; Auxiliaries are also documented by weapons finds. The camp was lavishly furnished: the top military ranks resided in mansions in the city-Roman style, and fixed houses and barracks, built in half-timbered construction, were available for the officers and men. The praetorium (commanders house) had a floor space of 41 × 59 meters and was certainly reserved for Drusus. The supplies for the garrison, including wine (there were well casings made of wood from 1000-liter barrels) and spices from India, were shipped up the Lippe from Xanten and the cargo was unloaded at the nearby Beckinghausen fort near Lünen . Troops overwintered in Oberaden, but not the entire army. The fort controlled mainly the Sugambrians to the south, but also the Usipeters who lived in the west and north.

Another camp was set up further south in the Chatten area, perhaps in the Lahn valley near the Rhine. It has not yet been identified; However, it is certainly not to be equated with the Rödgen replenishment warehouse .

Statue of Emperor Augustus
Emperor Augustus

Preliminary end of the war

Returning to Rome, Drusus awaited the award of the newly introduced ornamenta triumphalia (triumphal insignia, a high distinction below triumph ) and an imperium proconsulare (proconsular authority) for the following year. An Ovatio (ovation, "small triumph") was awarded to him, but was never carried out because of the early death of Drusus. The honors suggest that not only the campaign was over, but also, from a Roman point of view, the war in Germania. The for the year 10 BC The planned closure of the Temple of Janus as a sign of peace throughout the empire also points to the end of the war. However, the closure did not materialize because in the winter of 11/10 BC. Chr., The Dacians across the frozen Danube in Pannonia invaded and the Illyrians in Dalmatia rebelled against tribute recoveries. Tiberius was sent to the Balkans to rectify the situation.

In the Germanic theater of war, important goals could be considered to have been achieved: The Germanic invasions into Gaul were stopped; the Frisians, Brukterer, Chauken, Usipeter, and Tenkerer had submitted; the Sugambres were militarily controlled by the Oberaden camp. In addition, the campaigns have significantly expanded geographical knowledge, particularly of the waterways and the North Sea. The near-disasters of the 12 v. And the shaft at Arbalo opposite. Augustus had become skeptical of the risky approach of Drusus. Against this background, the emperor is likely to have wanted to end the German mission. Possibly the honors for Drusus also had the character of a severance payment to the “all too daring military”.

Map of the Drusus campaigns in 10 and 9 BC Chr.
The Drusus campaigns in 10 and 9 BC Chr.

Campaign year 10 BC Chr.

The crisis in the Balkans and new developments in Germania forced Augustus to change his plans. After he had sent Tiberius against the Dacians, an adequate field of activity had to be found for Drusus; Augustus set great store by treating his two step-sons equally. The right opportunity arose again in Germania: When chatting took over, certainly supported by the Sugambrians, around the turn of the year 11/10 BC. BC an anti-Roman faction took power. The tribe left the assigned settlement areas around the Main and Lahn and moved their residence further north, over the Eder , near the Sugambrer. Presumably, the construction of the fort in the Chatten area in the autumn of 11 BC Contributed to the mood swing.

The military operations now beginning mark the second phase of the Drusus campaigns. The new focus was further south. It all started with a war of subjugation and devastation against Sugambrer and Chatten. Details are not known, but it can be assumed that the operations were carried out from the two camps set up the year before. The Chatti hill settlement on the Dünsberg was stormed; This is suggested by finds of Roman projectiles, especially slingshot lead . Parts of the chats had to submit. Florus reports on successful operations against the Suebi marcomanni . It is possible that the later Marcomann king Marbod was sent as a hostage to Rome in connection with Suebi subjugation. Drusus received an imperial acclamation for the year of the campaign, which Augustus left to him and not transferred to himself as in the previous year.

The campaigns were supported by other forts on the right bank of the Rhine. The Rödgen replenishment warehouse between Lahn and Untermain had three large granaries and could store 3,000 to 4,000 tons of grain. From the year 10 BC It served as part of the supply chain that would extend to the Elbe in the following year. The marching camp Dorlar an der Lahn was perhaps in connection with the campaigns of the year 10 BC. Built in BC.

The research opinions about the success of the campaign year 10 BC Chr. Diverge. The views of older research, according to which the year 10 BC are outdated, are outdated. BC ended catastrophically with the military destruction of Oberaden. Most recent research does not see a catastrophe, but also no resounding success.

Campaign year 9 BC Chr.

Advance to the Elbe

The fighting in 9 BC BC were probably initiated by a pincer attack: From Mainz, Drusus led three legions with auxiliary troops first against the Chatti and then against the Suebi. Dio reports considerable efforts and Roman losses. At the same time, a legate with probably two legions from Xanten invaded the Sugambrerland. This operation has not been handed down, but can be made plausible from the course of the war. The parallel actions of the armies isolated the enemy and maximized the devastation. In addition, the legate secured the long-range operations of the Drusus.

After the successes against the Suebi, Drusus turned north and crossed the Werra at Hedemünden , which the Dio apparently regarded as the upper reaches of the Weser. The legions tried in vain to find the Cherusci, who retreated into the woods or moved east. A desolation campaign, perhaps already carried out with the united army, remained without decisive battles and finally led Drusus as the first Roman general as far as the Elbe .

The Roman camp Hedemünden ensured the supply of the army . The archaeological traces in the vicinity of the camp provide important clues about the Roman lines of movement. After crossing the Werra, the army pulled the Leine in a north-easterly direction down to the exit of the Leinetal. There, east-west connections made it possible to bypass the Harz Mountains to the north and advance to the Elbe, perhaps into the area around Barby .

Repentance

The legions' advance came to a halt on the Elbe. Research suspects supply problems, Elbe floods or the reaching of the limits of what is militarily feasible. Dio reports that Drusus wanted to cross the river, but was moved to repent by a “woman of superhuman size” with the following words: “Where do you want to go, insatiable Drusus? You are not fated to see all of this. Move away! Because the end of your deeds and your life is already near. ”The tall woman could have been a seer, perhaps a Semnonin, whose tribe may have opposed the Romans on the Elbe. The truthfulness of the description is difficult to assess, since it bears traits of a topos that is intended to justify the commander's reversal, and thus to cover up his failure. Not earthly problems, only supernatural powers offered the hero an insurmountable "stop!" The scene is reminiscent of the return of Alexander the Great on Hyphasis , where the gods refused favorable omens for the march on. Similarly, the swarm of bees, the Drusus in 11 BC, heralding disaster. To have moved to repent at the Weser.

In a parallel tradition of the Suetonius, the tall woman does not appear on the Elbe, but before, possibly during the persecution of the Cherusci. Their prophecy does not include the death of Drusus. Although the Suetone version would fit well with what happened, research finds the information less credible because there is evidence of other errors in this passage.

Death of Drusus

The way back led the army first up the Elbe and Saale. Apparently a route was planned along the Unstrut south of the Harz Mountains to Hedemünden and from there back to Mainz. At an unknown location between the Rhine and Saale, probably still in the Cheruscan region, Drusus died "of a broken bone when his horse fell on his lower leg, thirty days after this accident," as Livy reports. Dio, Seneca and Suetonius only report an illness, not a riding accident. However, this does not have to contradict the tradition of Livy, but can refer to the infirmity after the accident. Strabo and Florus mention death without giving any cause.

Bust of Tiberius Claudius Nero
Tiberius Claudius Nero

The legions interrupted the march back after the accident and set up a summer camp. Messengers rushed to Pavia with the unfortunate news , where Augustus and Tiberius were staying. Tiberius made a hurry to go to his brother's sickbed. The last stage of the summer camp, presumably from Mainz, turned into violence: Tiberius overcame the 200 Roman miles (around 300 kilometers) in just one day and one night and reached Drusus still alive. This remarkable ride is not possible without numerous horse changes and indicates a good military infrastructure even in the newly occupied area. There must have been bases on the route, similar to the one discovered near Hedemünden or the Sparrenberger Egge near Bielefeld . The existence of such posts sheds new light on a remark by Florus, who mentioned stations on the Elbe, Maas and Weser as well as the existence of 50 Rhine forts; he could have been referring to chains of small forts, street stations or posts in Germania.

The day Drusus died is not known. The 14th September, which was often mentioned earlier, refers, according to recent research, to the death of the younger Drusus in 23 AD. The general was likely to have succumbed to his injury in September or October. The place of death is also unknown. The castra scelerata ("unfortunate camp") was considered a cursed place, was never reactivated by the Romans and has not yet been identified. The 200-mile ride of Tiberius suggests that it was between the Werra and Saale. The reference to a Drusus altar, which Germanicus , the son of Drusus, had restored in AD 16 after being destroyed by Teutons, is not suitable for localization . Because of the curse of the castra scelerata, the altar is not to be assumed at the place of the death camp.

Eichelstein in Mainz, probably the cenotaph of Drusus.

The body of Drusus was first brought to Mainz and from there on to Rome in a solemn procession. Drusus found his final resting place in the mausoleum of Augustus . Tiberius allowed the troops who had hoped to be able to bury Drusus in Mainz to erect a cenotaph (sham grave ), probably the Eichelstein that still exists today . Posthumously Drusus was given the hereditary epithet "Germanicus".

The campaign of 9 BC According to Gustav Adolf Lehmann, Chr. “Undoubtedly marks the culmination point in the German war led by Drusus.” In fact, despite all efforts, the last success failed to materialize. The Germanic resistance seemed to have grown proportionally to the Roman engagement. Tiberius was the first to enforce Roman sovereignty in large parts of western Germania magna the following year .

Conclusion of the campaigns by Tiberius 8 BC Chr.

The assumption of command by Tiberius brought about a paradigm shift. The risky, sometimes ruthless military campaigns of the Drusus gave way to a political approach. Military operations are for the year 8 BC. Chr. No longer handed down. Nevertheless, Tiberius managed within a year that "all Teutons between the Rhine and Elbe" should have surrendered - Tiberius is said to have left the land "almost as a tributary province". Both sources exaggerate the spatial and political extent of Roman sovereignty, but prove that the war ended victorious for the Romans. It is problematic, in the results of the year 8 BC. To see only the harvest of the Drusus campaigns, "the success of Tib [erius] is based more precisely on having broken with the approach of his predecessor."

Resettlement of the Sugambrians

Probably in the spring of 8 BC In BC Augustus refused negotiations to peace-loving Germanic tribes as long as the Sugambres did not participate. With this, the Romans succeeded in finally isolating this tribe, which was apparently still willing to fight. Probably under pressure from their own allies, the tribe finally dispatched "a large number of respected men" as emissaries, who, however, were arrested by the Romans - against all rights - and later committed suicide in captivity.

The elimination of the anti-Rome-hostile Sugambrian ruling class brought princes to power who were ready to subjugate and fulfill Roman resettlement requests. A considerable part of the tribe - Suetonius speaks of 40,000 people - settled on the left bank of the Rhine between Kleve and Krefeld . Recent research suggests that the relocation was not violent, as has long been believed. The fact that part of the Sugambres remained on the right bank of the Rhine, however, speaks against a uniform tribal opinion. Under the eyes of the legions in Xanten, the Sugambrian tribal parts merged with the resident Teutons, and also with the Suebi, who may have also been resettled. Together they formed the Kugerner tribe .

The fate of the Sugambri who remained on the right bank of the Rhine is uncertain. Possibly they were absorbed by the Usipeters and Tenkers, or continued as Gambrivians or Martians . Dio narrated that about ten years later, in the course of the immensum bellum , "for the shameful treatment" of their ambassadors they exercised "ample retribution".

Suebi, Chatten, Usipeter and Tenker

There was also movement in other parts of the tribal world on the right bank of the Rhine. The Suebi Marcomanni and Quadi left their settlement areas around the Main under the leadership of Marbod and withdrew to Bohemia . It is uncertain whether this was done with permission or even with the help of the Romans. The chats were probably brought back to their originally assigned settlement area around the Main and Lahn. The tribe was now, after the smashing of the Sugambres and the emigration of the Suebi, independent and would later be one of the most important Germanic opponents of Rome. The Usipeters and Tenkerites are likely to have expanded their territories by taking over Sugambrian tribal parts and territories.

The Roman regulatory measures deeply affected Germanic tribal life. The Romans demanded tributes, supplies and arms deliveries, enthroned Rome-friendly tribal leaders and imposed traffic restrictions. The Germanic warrior potential was placed in Roman service and used in various theaters of war within the empire.

The maintenance of order in Germania was placed in the hands of local auxiliaries. They served under the command of Roman officers or Germanic princes with Roman citizenship. The best-known example from later times is the Cheruscan prince Arminius . An urbanization concept similar to that in Spain created settlement centers, meanwhile archaeologically documented by the Roman town of Waldgirmes an der Lahn. These centers were intended to bind the Germanic upper class and lure the population out of their difficult to access residences.

Balance sheet and outlook

A barbarian hands a child hostage to Augustus. The representation possibly aims at the submission of the Sugambrer 8 BC. From.

Tiberius moved on January 1, 7 BC. In triumphal procession through Rome and received a second consulate. The expansion of the Pomerium (sacred city limits of Rome; an expansion symbolizes an enlargement of the empire) allowed the concluded German war "expressly also a spatially relevant dimension". Coins were minted that represented the handing over of Germanic hostages to Augustus. The camp infrastructure on the right bank of the Rhine underwent major changes: All of the Drusus bases such as Oberaden, Beckinghausen and Rödgen were closed, and new forts were built in Haltern, for example .

From the Roman point of view, the balance of the almost five-year struggle was positive: the danger of Germanic incursions into Gaul was averted, the armed forces of the tribes were decimated and the military radius of action of the legions extended to the Elbe. The resettlement of the Sugambrers had eliminated the most stubborn and powerful enemy in the vicinity of the Rhine and the withdrawal of the marcomanni and quadrupeds put an end to the pressure of the Suebian tribes. The campaigns enormously expanded the geographical knowledge of the Romans and opened up at least parts of the Germanic regions.

Nevertheless, a lasting pacification of the Germanic tribal world was not achieved. Rebellions that took place in 7 BC BC because of the radicalism of the Roman measures flared up, Tiberius was able to suppress quickly. The immensum bellum of the years 1 to 5 AD, however, challenged Rome and made massive military intervention by Tiberius necessary. After the clades Variana (9 AD), the devastating defeat of Varus in the Teutoburg Forest, as well as after the costly campaigns of the Drusus son Germanicus in the years 14 to 16 AD, Tiberius renounced, now succeeding Augustus as emperor , finally on what the young Drusus had tried to achieve with great dedication: the mastery of western Germania magna.

Pagan King legend

Not far from the Lippe and the Roman camp Beckinghausen, according to an old legend, a heathen king is buried in a golden coffin on the Wüstenknapp hill in Lünen . The Roman military leader Drusus is associated with this king.

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Sources on the Drusus campaigns

Source edition

  • Hans-Werner Goetz , Karl-Wilhelm Welwei : Old Germania. Excerpts from ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relationship to the Roman Empire. Part 2 (= selected sources on the German history of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1a), Darmstadt 1995.

literature

Monographs

  • Boris Dreyer : Arminius and the fall of the Varus. Why the Teutons did not become Romans. Stuttgart 2009
  • Klaus Grote (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012.
  • Klaus-Peter Johne : The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006.
  • Gustav Adolf Lehmann : Imperium and Barbaricum. New findings and insights into the Roman-Germanic disputes in north-west Germany - from the Augustan occupation phase to the Germanic procession of Maximinus Thrax (235 AD) . Vienna 2011.
  • Klaus Tausend : Inside Germania. Relations between the Germanic tribes from the 1st century BC BC to the 2nd century AD (= Geographica Historica. Vol. 25). Stuttgart 2009.
  • Reinhard Wolters : The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 1st, revised, updated and expanded edition. CH Beck, Munich 2017, ISBN 978-3-406-69995-5 (original edition: Munich 2008; 2nd revised edition: Munich 2009).
  • Reinhard Wolters: Die Römer in Germanien (= Beck'sche Reihe. Vol. 2136), 6th revised and updated edition. Munich 2011.

Essays

  • Frank Berger : Characteristic coin series of the Drusus era. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann, Rainer Wiegels (ed.): "Over the Alps and over the Rhine ...". Contributions to the beginnings and the course of the Roman expansion into Central Europe. Berlin 2015, pp. 177–190.
  • Klaus Grote : The Roman military installations of the August German campaigns and references to later advances in the Werra-Leine-Bergland around Hedemünden. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann, Rainer Wiegels (ed.): "Over the Alps and over the Rhine ...". Contributions to the beginnings and the course of the Roman expansion into Central Europe. Berlin 2015, pp. 191–224.
  • Peter Kehne : Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Jochen Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321.
  • Peter Kehne: On the strategy and logistics of Roman advances into Germania: The Tiberius campaigns of the years 4 and 5 AD. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn et al. (Ed.): Rome on the way to Germania. Geostrategy, roads of advance and logistics. International colloquium in Delbrück-Anreppen from November 4th - 6th, 2004 (= Soil antiquities of Westphalia. Vol. 45). Mainz 2008, pp. 253-302.
  • Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote , Gustav Adolf Lehmann (ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299.
  • Peter Moeller : Drusus (maior). In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd edition, Volume 6. Berlin 1986, pp. 204-215.
  • Dieter Timpe : Drusus' reversal on the Elbe. In: Rheinisches Museum für Philologie (RhMus). Vol. 110, 1967, pp. 289-306.

Anthologies

  • Gustav Adolf Lehmann , Rainer Wiegels (eds.): "Over the Alps and over the Rhine ...". Contributions to the beginnings and the course of the Roman expansion into Central Europe. Berlin 2015.
  • Wolfgang Schlueter , Rainer Wiegels (eds.): Rome, Germania and the excavations of Kalkriese. Osnabrück 1999.
  • Michael Cell (Ed.): Terra incognita? The northern low mountain range in the field of tension between Roman and Germanic politics around the birth of Christ. Mainz 2008.

Remarks

  1. ↑ Livy, periochae 139–142.
  2. ^ Suetonius, divus Augustus 21, 1; Suetonius, divus Tiberius 9, 1-2; Suetonius, divus Claudius 1, 2-4.
  3. ^ Caesar, Bellum Gallicum, 4, 18, 4. Translation after Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Altes Germanien. Excerpts from ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relationship to the Roman Empire. Part 1 (= selected sources on German medieval history. Vol. 1a). Darmstadt 1995, p. 328.
  4. ↑ After the bloody defeat of 53 BC The remaining Usipeters and Tenkers fled across the Rhine and possibly entered a clientele relationship (protective relationship) with the Sugambrians; see. Klaus Tausend: Inside Germania. Relations between the Germanic tribes from the 1st century BC BC to the 2nd century AD (= Geographica Historica. Vol. 25). Stuttgart 2009, p. 17f. and 134. In the following decades these three tribes always appeared together as opponents of the Romans.
  5. ↑ Johannes Heinrichs : Migrations versus Genocide. Local associations in the northern Gaulle region under Roman conditions. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann , Rainer Wiegels (ed.): "Over the Alps and over the Rhine ...". Contributions to the beginnings and the course of the Roman expansion into Central Europe. Berlin 2015, pp. 133–163, here pp. 148f.
  6. ↑ Horace , Carmina 4, 2, 36.
  7. ^ Iulius Obsequens , Liber de prodigiis 131.
  8. ^ Suetonius, divus Augustus, 23, 1st translation after Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Altes Germanien. Excerpts from ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relationship to the Roman Empire. Part 2 (= selected sources on German medieval history. Vol. 1a). Darmstadt 1995, p. 63.
  9. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: "Tam diu Germania vincitur". Roman German victories and German victory propaganda up to the end of the 1st century AD (= small notebooks of the coin collection at the Ruhr University in Bochum. No. 10/11). Bochum 1989, p. 32.
  10. ↑ See Klaus-Peter Johne : The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 84.
  11. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The Romans in Germania (= Beck'sche series. 2136), 6th through. u. actual Edition Munich 2011, p. 29.
  12. ↑ Boris Dreyer: Arminius and the fall of the Varus. Why the Teutons did not become Romans. Stuttgart 2009, p. 75.
  13. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 27.
  14. ^ Johann Sebastian Kühlborn: Between securing power and integration. The testimonies of archeology. In: Rainer Wiegels (Ed.): The Varus Battle. Turning point in history? Stuttgart 2007, pp. 65–94, here p. 66.
  15. ↑ Dieter Timpe: Roman geostrategy in Germania of the occupation time. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn et al. (Ed.): Rome on the way to Germania. Geostrategy, roads of advance and logistics. International colloquium in Delbrück-Anreppen from November 4th - 6th, 2004 (= Soil antiquities of Westphalia. Vol. 45). Mainz 2008, pp. 199–236, here p. 208.
  16. ↑ Some researchers name six legions, e.g. B. Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, 280–299, here p. 282.
  17. ^ Karl-Wilhelm Welwei : Problems of Roman border security using the example of Augustus' policy on Germania. In: Wolfgang Schlueter , Rainer Wiegels (ed.): Rome, Germania and the excavations of Kalkriese. Osnabrück 1999, pp. 675-688, here p. 678.
  18. ^ On August 1, 12 BC The "ara Romae et Augusti" (altar of the city goddess Roma and Augustus) was solemnly consecrated as the Gallic-Roman central sanctuary in Lugdunum (Lyon). Since Drusus was also in Lugdunum on this occasion, this date is the term post quem ("point in time after") for the subsequent military operations in Germania; see. Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 88.
  19. ^ A b c Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings. (= Publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 285.
  20. ^ Dieter Timpe: History. In: Heinrich Beck et al. (Hrsg.): Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde (= RGA, study edition "Die Germanen" ). Berlin 1998, pp. 2–65, here p. 36.
  21. ↑ The research opinions on the Germania strategy are presented by Jürgen Deininger: Germaniam pacare. To the more recent discussion about the strategy of Augustus against Germania. In: Chiron . Vol. 30, 2000, pp. 749-773. A summary is given in: Peter Kehne: Limited Offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Jochen Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, here pp. 298f. Arguments to the individual positions are also contained in: Reinhard Wolters: Die Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 48.
  22. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Imperium and Barbaricum. New findings and insights into the Roman-Germanic disputes in north-west Germany - from the Augustan occupation phase to the Germanic procession of Maximinus Thrax (235 AD) . Vienna 2011, p. 32
  23. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 52. Fundamental to the subject: Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Jochen Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321.
  24. ↑ Dieter Timpe: Roman geostrategy in Germania of the occupation time. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn et al. (Ed.): Rome on the way to Germania. Geostrategy, roads of advance and logistics. International colloquium in Delbrück-Anreppen from November 4th - 6th, 2004 (= Soil antiquities of Westphalia. Vol. 45). Mainz 2008, pp. 199–236, here p. 207; Johannes Heinrichs: Migrations versus Genocide. Local associations in the northern Gaulle region under Roman conditions. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann, Rainer Wiegels (ed.): "Over the Alps and over the Rhine ...". Contributions to the beginnings and the course of the Roman expansion into Central Europe. Berlin 2015, pp. 133–163, here p. 156.
  25. ↑ Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Joachim Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, here p. 305.
  26. ↑ The number of ships is not recorded. Peter Kehne notes that researchers who see the fleet operation as part of a well-prepared Germanic conquest tend towards large numbers; Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Joachim Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, here p. 309.
  27. ↑ Tacitus reports that the Frisians gave the Romans a certain number of ox skins every year; Tacitus, Annales 4, 72, 1.
  28. ↑ Comparable to the Alsen boat from approx. 350 BC. Chr .; Hans Viereck: The Roman fleet. Classis romana (1975). Hamburg edition 1996, p. 226.
  29. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The Romans in Germania (= Beck'sche series. Vol. 2136). 6th revised and updated edition. Munich 2011, p. 30.
  30. ^ Strabo geographica 7, 1, 4.
  31. ↑ Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Jochen Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, here p. 309.
  32. ↑ Peter Kehne: On the strategy and logistics of Roman advances into Germania: The Tiberius campaigns of the years 4 and 5 AD. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn et al. (Ed.): Rome on the way to Germania. Geostrategy, roads of advance and logistics. International colloquium in Delbrück-Anreppen from November 4th - 6th, 2004 (= Soil antiquities of Westphalia. Vol. 45). Mainz 2008, pp. 253-302, here p. 276.
  33. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings. (= Publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 284, note 12. Dio mentions bridging the gap in his otherwise extremely condensed report, which could indicate difficulties; Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 54, 33, 1.
  34. ↑ a b c Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 91.
  35. ↑ a b Dieter Timpe: History. In: Heinrich Beck et al. (Hrsg.): Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde (= RGA, study edition "Die Germanen" ). Berlin 1998, pp. 2–65, here p. 37.
  36. ↑ Klaus Tausend: Inside Germania. Relations between the Germanic tribes from the 1st century BC BC to the 2nd century AD (= Geographica Historica. Vol. 25). Stuttgart 2009, pp. 135f.
  37. ^ A b Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 43.
  38. ↑ Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Joachim Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, here p. 310.
  39. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 54, 33, 2.
  40. ↑ Pliny, Naturalis historia 11, 55; Translation after Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Old Germania. Excerpts from ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relationship to the Roman Empire. Part 1. Darmstadt 1995, p. 115.
  41. ↑ Narrated by Iulius Obsequens, Liber de prodigiis 72.
  42. ↑ Klaus Tausend: Inside Germania. Relations between the Germanic tribes from the 1st century BC BC to the 2nd century AD (= Geographica Historica. Vol. 25). Stuttgart 2009, p. 19.
  43. ^ Pliny, Naturalis historia 11, 55.
  44. ↑ Cassius Dio Historia Romana 55, 33, 3-4.
  45. ↑ Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Joachim Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, here p. 311.
  46. ^ Siegmar von Schnurbein: Augustus in Germania. Archeology of the Failed Conquest. In: Ernst Baltrusch, Morten Hegewisch et al. (Ed.): 2000 years of the Varus battle. History - Archeology - Legends (= Topoi. Berlin Studies of the Ancient World. Vol. 7). Berlin 2012, pp. 135–148, here p. 137.
  47. ^ A b Johann Sebastian Kühlborn: Between securing power and integration. The testimonies of archeology. In: Rainer Wiegels (Ed.): The Varus Battle. Turning point in history? Stuttgart 2007, pp. 65–94, here p. 71.
  48. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 44, note 22.
  49. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: Die Römer in Germanien (= Beck'sche Reihe. Vol. 2136), 6th reviewed and updated edition. Munich 2011, p. 44f.
  50. ^ A b c Siegmar von Schnurbein: Augustus in Germania. Archeology of the Failed Conquest. In: Ernst Baltrusch, Morten Hegewisch et al. (Ed.): 2000 years of the Varus battle. History - Archeology - Legends (= Topoi. Berlin Studies of the Ancient World. Vol. 7). Berlin 2012, pp. 135–148, here p. 139.
  51. ↑ Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 94.
  52. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings. (= Publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 286.
  53. ^ Peter Moeller: Drusus (maior). In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 6. Berlin 1986, pp. 204–215, here p. 208.
  54. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 49.
  55. ↑ Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Joachim Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, here p. 311; in this sense also Peter Moeller: Drusus (maior). In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 6. Berlin 1986, pp. 204–215, here p. 208.
  56. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 50.
  57. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 54, 36, 3.
  58. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings. (= Publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 287.
  59. ↑ Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 96.
  60. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 286, note 19.
  61. ↑ Florus, Epitoma de Tito Livio bellorum omnium annorum DCC libri duo 2, 30, 23.
  62. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 293, note 44.
  63. ↑ It may, however, date from the time of the Germanicus campaigns AD 15/16; see. Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 287, note 19.
  64. ↑ See for example Dieter Timpe: Drusus' Umkehr an der Elbe. In: Rheinisches Museum für Philologie . Bd. 110, 1967, pp. 289–306, here p. 297. In the meantime it has been shown archaeologically that traces of fire in Oberaden from the abandonment of the camp around 8/7 BC. Originate from BC; see. Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 45.
  65. ^ Dieter Timpe: History. In: Heinrich Beck et al. (Hrsg.): Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde (= RGA, study edition "Die Germanen" ). Berlin 1998, pp. 2–65, here p. 35.
  66. ↑ Peter Moeller, however, assumes a successful campaign without major setbacks. Peter Moeller: Drusus (maior). In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 6. Berlin 1986, pp. 204-215, here p. 209
  67. ^ A b Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 55, 1, 2.
  68. ↑ Dieter Timpe: Drusus' reversal on the Elbe. In: Rheinisches Museum für Philologie Vol. 110, 1967, pp. 289–306, here p. 303. In general, the traditions are focused on the deeds of the main characters from the imperial family and neglect legacy operations that must have existed, however also for other war years are documented, for example the interaction of Drusus and Tiberius during the Alpine campaign, the advance of Saturninus against Marbod 6 AD or the Caecina operations during the Germanicus campaigns 15/16 AD; see. Timpe (above p. 303), Boris Dreyer: Arminius and the sinking of the Varus. Why the Teutons did not become Romans. Stuttgart 2009, p. 169, as well as Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 288.
  69. ↑ The older research set the Weser crossing of the Drusus too far north in the Höxter area . For the Werra-Weser crossing see Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 290.
  70. ↑ a b Peter Kehne: On the localization, organization and history of the Cheruscan tribe. In: Michael Cell (Ed.): Terra incognita? The northern low mountain range in the field of tension between Roman and Germanic politics around the birth of Christ. Mainz 2008, pp. 9–30, here p. 18.
  71. ^ A b Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 291
  72. ↑ Essentially on this: Klaus Grote (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012. For numismatic traces see Frank Berger: Characteristic coin series of the Drusus era. In: Gustav Adolf Lehmann, Rainer Wiegels (ed.): "Over the Alps and over the Rhine ...". Contributions to the beginnings and the course of the Roman expansion into Central Europe. Berlin 2015, pp. 177–190.
  73. ↑ Jürgen Deininger: Germaniam pacare. To the more recent discussion about the strategy of Augustus against Germania. In: Chiron . Vol. 30, 2000, pp. 749-773, here p. 14.
  74. ↑ Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 98.
  75. ^ Peter Moeller: Drusus (maior). In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 6. Berlin 1986, pp. 204–215, here p. 210.
  76. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 55, 1, 3rd translation after Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Altes Germanien. Excerpts from the ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relations to the Roman Empire, part 2 (= selected sources on German history of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1a). Darmstadt 1995, p. 23.
  77. ↑ Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 100.
  78. ^ Peter Moeller: Drusus (maior). In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 6. Berlin 1986, pp. 204–215, here p. 210.
  79. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 54, 33, 2.
  80. ^ Suetonius, divus Claudius 1, 2
  81. ↑ So the described sequence of offices of Drusus is demonstrably incorrect; Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 98f.
  82. ^ Strabon geographica 7, 1, 3.
  83. ^ Livius, Periochae 142, translation by Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Altes Germanien. Excerpts from the ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relations to the Roman Empire, part 2 (= selected sources on German history of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1a). Darmstadt 1995, p. 35.
  84. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 55, 1, 4.
  85. ↑ Seneca, Consolatio Ad Marciam 3, the first
  86. ^ Suetonius, divus Claudius 1, 2.
  87. ^ Strabon geographica 7, 1, 3.
  88. ↑ Florus, Epitoma de Tito Livio bellorum omnium annorum DCC libri duo 2, 30, 28.
  89. ^ Anne Kolb: Transport and message transfer in the Roman Empire. Berlin 2000, p. 315.
  90. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 292, note 43.
  91. ↑ Florus, Epitoma de Tito Livio bellorum omnium annorum DCC libri duo 2, 30, 26.
  92. ^ Dieter Timpe: History. In: Heinrich Beck et al. (Hrsg.): Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde (= RGA, study edition "Die Germanen" ). Berlin 1998, pp. 2–65, p. 36.
  93. ↑ Dieter Timpe: Roman geostrategy in Germania of the occupation time. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn et al. (Ed.): Rome on the way to Germania. Geostrategy, roads of advance and logistics. International colloquium in Delbrück-Anreppen from November 4th - 6th, 2004 (= Soil antiquities of Westphalia. Vol. 45). Mainz 2008, pp. 199-236, p. 208.
  94. ↑ An earlier point in time is unlikely because the army was already on the march back to winter camp. Against a later month speaks that Tiberius does not seem to have been hindered by autumn weather difficulties during his ride. Cf. Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 103.
  95. ^ Suetonius, divus Claudius 1, 3.
  96. ^ A b Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum Hannover. Vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 292.
  97. ↑ Klaus-Peter Johne: The Romans on the Elbe. The Elbe river basin in the geographical view of the world and in the political consciousness of Greco-Roman antiquity. Berlin 2006, p. 105.
  98. ↑ a b c Peter Moeller: Drusus (maior). In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 6. Berlin 1986, pp. 204–215, here p. 212.
  99. ^ Cassiodor, Chronica 746. Translation after Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Altes Germanien. Excerpts from ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relationship to the Roman Empire. Part 2 (= selected sources on German medieval history. Vol. 1a). Darmstadt 1995, p. 37.
  100. ^ Velleius Paterculus, Historia Romana 2, 97, 4th translation after Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Altes Germanien. Excerpts from ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relationship to the Roman Empire. Part 2 (= selected sources on German medieval history. Vol. 1a). Darmstadt 1995, p. 17.
  101. ^ Cassius Dio, Historia Romana 55, 6, 3rd translation after Hans-Werner Goetz, Karl-Wilhelm Welwei: Altes Germanien. Excerpts from ancient sources about the Germanic peoples and their relationship to the Roman Empire. Part 2 (= selected sources on German medieval history. Vol. 1a). Darmstadt 1995, p. 31.
  102. ^ A b Johannes Heinrichs: Sugambrer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 30. Berlin 2005, pp. 124–127, here p. 126.
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  106. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania. 2nd revised edition. Munich 2009, p. 54.
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  108. ↑ Dieter Timpe: Roman geostrategy in Germania of the occupation time. In: Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn et al. (Ed.): Rome on the way to Germania. Geostrategy, roads of advance and logistics. International colloquium in Delbrück-Anreppen from November 4th - 6th, 2004 (= Soil antiquities of Westphalia. Vol. 45). Mainz 2008, pp. 199–236, here p. 214.
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  110. ↑ Klaus Tausend: Inside Germania. Relations between the Germanic tribes from the 1st century BC BC to the 2nd century AD (= Geographica Historica. Vol. 25). Stuttgart 2009, p. 136.
  111. ↑ Johannes Heinrichs: Usipeten / Usipier and Tenkerer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . 2nd edition, Volume 31. Berlin 2006, pp. 572-576, here pp. 575f.
  112. ↑ Basically on this Dieter Timpe: Arminius studies. Heidelberg 1970.
  113. ^ Gustav Adolf Lehmann: Hedemünden and the ancient historical background. The era of the Drusus campaigns. In: Klaus Grote, Ders. (Ed.): Römerlager Hedemünden. The Augustan base, its outdoor facilities, its finds and findings (= publications of the archaeological collections of the Landesmuseum. Hannover vol. 53). Dresden 2012, pp. 280–299, here p. 295.
  114. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: "Tam diu Germania vincitur". Roman Teutonic Victories and German Victory Propaganda up to the end of the 1st century AD (= small notebooks of the coin collection at the Ruhr University Bochum. No. 10/11), Bochum 1989, p. 33.
  115. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: The Romans in Germania (= Beck'sche series. Vol. 2136). 6th revised and updated edition. Munich 2011, p. 37. Critical to this, however, is Peter Kehne: Limited offensives. Drusus, Tiberius and the policy of Germania in the service of the Augustan principate. In: Jörg Spielvogel (Ed.): Res publica reperta. On the Constitution and Society of the Roman Republic and the Early Principate. Festschrift for Joachim Bleicken on his 75th birthday. Stuttgart 2002, pp. 297-321, p. 314.
  116. ↑ Reinhard Wolters: "Tam diu Germania vincitur". Roman Teutonic Victories and German Victory Propaganda up to the end of the 1st century AD (= small notebooks of the coin collection at the Ruhr University Bochum. No. 10/11), Bochum 1989, p. 33.
  117. ^ Dieter Timpe: History. In: Heinrich Beck et al. (Hrsg.): Germanen, Germania, Germanische Altertumskunde (= RGA, study edition "Die Germanen" ). Berlin 1998, pp. 2–65, here p. 38.