Los Angeles class
 Los Angeles at a fast pace |
|
| Overview | |
|---|---|
| Type | Nuclear powered hunting submarine |
| units | 62 built, 32 active |
| Namesake | City of Los Angeles |
| period of service |
since 1976 |
| Technical specifications | |
| displacement |
6300 tn.l. surfaced, 6900 to 7100 tn.l. submerged |
| length |
110 m |
| width |
10 m |
| Draft |
9.5 m |
| Diving depth | approx. 300 m, depth of destruction approx. 450 m |
| crew |
132 |
| drive |
S6G pressurized water reactor , one propeller |
| speed |
30+ knots |
| Armament |
4 × 533 mm torpedo tubes , from SSN-719 12 VLS tubes |
The Los Angeles class is a class of nuclear powered fighter submarines ( SSN ) of the United States Navy . With 62 units laid down between 1972 and 1992 , it is the numerically largest class of nuclear submarines that has been put into service to date. The units will make up the bulk of the US submarine fleet well into the 21st century.
The design of the Los Angeles class was modified during the construction period, so that a total of three construction lots, called flights , exist. Units of the Los Angeles-class submarine used in each aircraft carrier battle group in the US Navy as escorts, but they can also attacks on land targets and intelligence are used.
history
planning
At the end of the 1960s, calls for a successor to the Sturgeon class were loud in the US Navy . However, there were early arguments about the direction of the new class. The Naval High Command had received a draft from Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA), which was known as Conform . This focused on low noise development and high level of comfort for the crew. Admiral Hyman Rickover , the so-called father of the nuclear navy , on the other hand, favored his own design, which primarily focused on high speed. According to Rickover's ideas, these submarines should be able to keep up with the nuclear-powered aircraft carriers in order to support them directly. This would have required speeds of up to 35 knots , which NAVSEA met with little understanding.
The decision in favor of the Rickover draft was finally made on the basis of an event in the beginning of 1969: The USS Enterprise (CVN-65) was on its way to a mission in Vietnam at the time when the naval intelligence service learned that a Soviet U- November-class boat had left its port on the Kamchatka Peninsula to intercept the Big E (nickname of the Enterprise). The Navy High Command ordered the carrier and its combat group to drive away from the enemy submarine at high speed. Because the opposing submarine kept up and the launch was not possible even at speeds of over 30 knots, the Enterprise broke off the high-speed journey . This incident made it clear to the high command of the Navy that the Soviet Union already had very fast submarines, and therefore the decision was made in favor of the class of fast fighter submarines required by Admiral Rickover.
The Navy asked Rickover to get funding for twelve of these boats through Congress . To this end, Rickover broke with the old naval tradition of naming submarines after marine animals and influenced twelve congressmen in their decision by suggesting that they name the boats after their hometowns. According to legend, he convinced them with the words “ Fish don't vote ” , in German “ Fish don't vote ”.
construction
The boats differed from Rickover's original concept, however, as the proposed S6G pressurized water reactor was too heavy for its design. To compensate for this, the material thickness of the hull was reduced, which reduced the maximum diving depth to about 1000 feet (about 300 meters). In addition, space has been canceled for the crew, so that more sailors the principle of warm berth (English: hot bunking ) practice had, so sharing a bunk with a comrade, and each one has sleeps and a guard.
The order for the first twelve boats in the class went to the Electric Boat shipyard , a subsidiary of General Dynamics in Groton , Connecticut . Electric Boat's cost calculation was based on follow-up orders to amortize development costs. However, these did not materialize, especially since the welds on some boats did not meet the requirements of the Navy and consequently had to be significantly improved. These shortcomings resulted in five of the first twelve Los Angeles units being built at Newport News Shipbuilding in Newport News , Virginia . The Navy withdrew the exclusive contract from Electric Boat, but had to pay a large part of the costs itself. Of the remaining 19 boats that were manufactured up to 1977, eleven were built by Electric Boat after the company had gotten its technical problems under control. The other eight units were keeled and manufactured by Newport News Shipbuilding. The construction program was thus completed for the time being.
When Ronald Reagan presented his Navy of 600 Ships Program in 1980 , this included a new construction project for additional Los Angeles-class units. An improved version, called Flight II , was commissioned. These received additional vertical launch tubes for cruise missiles. In a third modification stage from 1985 ( Flight III , the so-called 688 (I) for improved , in German: improved) another 24 units were manufactured, which, in addition to an improved reactor, also received a more favorable arrangement of the down elevator.
While the first two construction lots were still built traditionally, a modular construction method was used from USS Scranton (SSN-756) , in which the individual construction sections already received a large part of their interior equipment and were then welded together. For this reason, starting with SSN-756, the classic keel-laying no longer existed - these boats no longer ran in the classic way, instead the building dock was flooded and the boat flooded out.
units
The first unit in the class, which also gave it its name, was the USS Los Angeles (SSN-688) . She was ordered in January 1971 and delivered to the Navy in November 1976. The final unit in the class, the USS Cheyenne (SSN-773) was ordered in November 1989 and has been in service since 1996. A total of 62 units were manufactured.
The first to be decommissioned in 1995 was the USS Baton Rouge (SSN-689) , and another 18 units followed by 2010.
The hull numbers of the boats run from SSN-688 to SSN-725 and SSN-750 to SSN-773. In between are the 14 SSBN and 4 SSGN submarines of the Ohio class on SSBN-726 to SSBN-743 , the numbers 744 to 749 were not assigned.
All units were named after cities in the United States ; only SSN-709 was named USS Hyman G. Rickover to honor the initiator of this submarine class.
costs
Based on the monetary value of 1990, building one unit costs around 900 million US dollars. The cost of operating a boat is around $ 21 million annually , according to Navy Visibility and Management of Operating and Support Costs . However, the significant cost of replacing the reactor's nuclear fuel assemblies for Flight I units must be taken into account approximately every 15 to 20 years. For this reason, too, some of the early Los Angeles class boats were taken out of service after this period. The cost of a major overhaul with replacement of the fuel element is around 406 million US dollars. The savings compared to this engineered refueling overhaul are almost 210 million US dollars, as the decommissioning costs add up to about 196 million US dollars.
future
In 1995 the first unit of the class was decommissioned, further units of Flight I followed. It is expected that the modified boats of the Flight II and 688 (I) will remain in service well into the 21st century. Originally, 30 years of service were planned, however experience with boats of the Sturgeon class shows that service time extensions of up to ten years are possible and realistic. Together with a docking time of around two years for the necessary work, a total operating time of 42 years can be achieved.
The direct successor to the Los Angeles class, the Seawolf class , consists of only three units, as further construction of this class could not be financed, not least due to the enormous unit costs. Of the newest class of hunting submarines, the Virginia class , only nine units entered service in 2012. It is planned to increase this number to 30 by 2020. However, due to the high cost of both models - around two billion US dollars per unit - a reduction in the construction program cannot be ruled out.
For these reasons, it can be assumed that the Los Angeles class will make up most of the US Navy's submarine fleet by around 2025.
technology
The Los Angeles-class units are nuclear powered submarines used for escort protection, submarine hunting, attacks on land targets with conventional cruise missiles, SEAL commandos, and reconnaissance purposes. They are powered by a pressurized water nuclear reactor that drives a single screw at the stern.
hull
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The hull of the Los Angeles class boats is about 110 meters long and 10 meters wide. It consists of a cylindrical tube, which is closed at the bow with a semicircular lid and tapers conically towards the stern. Compared to an “Albacore hull”, this construction method has few disadvantages for maneuverability, but it is considerably easier to build and enables higher speed due to lower flow resistance. In order to offer as little water resistance as possible, the boat has a relatively small and narrow tower , and the deck is almost free of protruding parts. Indispensable facilities, such as the bollards for mooring the lines in the harbor, are retractable. Overall, this design offers reduced water resistance and very good noise insulation.
Pressure hull
The pressure body is made of highly elastic HY-80 steel with a guaranteed yield strength ( yield strength ) of 80,000 psi ( pounds per square inch ). This is the load limit of materials up to which no permanent deformation occurs and corresponds to a pressure of around 5516 bar . Another advantage of this steel, which is mainly used in shipbuilding, is its good weldability.
In Flight I and Flight II, the front downplanes were still attached to the tower due to the better hydrodynamic effect. Since the area of operations in the north polar region became more and more important, they were - starting with the boats of Flight III - relocated to the front fuselage to make it easier to emerge through arctic ice.
The main ballast tanks are located at the foremost end of the bow and at the rearmost end of the stern. Smaller trim tanks are arranged between them in order to be able to precisely control the floating state underwater. The larger ballast tanks are located outside the pressure hull .
Since Flight II, the entire fuselage has been provided with anechoic tiles as standard . This foam-like covering absorbs sonar waves that hit it from the outside instead of redirecting them back to the transmitter, making enemy reconnaissance more difficult. In addition, the soft structure of these tiles has a dampening effect on the transmission of the boat's own noises into the surrounding water. The older units of Flight I were retrofitted with these tiles.
Interior layout
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The Los Angeles class boats are divided into two compartments, separated by watertight bulkheads . The aft part is a little longer than the front.
The front part of the boat consists of three decks. The torpedo room, in which the torpedo tubes and their operating devices are located, is located in the lower deck. The torpedoes are stacked in racks on the walls until the tubes are loaded. The middle deck houses the accommodations as well as common rooms for the crew. The NCOs 'mess (also called the goat stable ), the officers' mess and the ship's kitchen are also located there .
The control rooms occupy the upper deck. In addition to the control center (the Conn or Control room ), in which the officer on watch supervises and which contains the facilities and operator stations for control, navigation and weapon control, also the sonar center and the radio rooms.
A little more than the rear half of the fuselage is taken up by the reactor and the propulsion systems. Due to its heavy weight, the reactor lies exactly in the middle of the boat, which makes trimming easier. Further astern are the turbines, the gearbox, the control room for the reactor control, a nuclear laboratory and the aft diving cells.
drive
The Los Angeles class boats get their main energy from a pressurized water reactor of the type S6G ( S for submarine, 6 for generation, G denotes the manufacturer, General Electric ). The high-pressure steam generated by this reactor is fed to two steam turbines , which drive the individual shaft via a reduction gear . All machines and units are mounted on so-called rafts , which cushion the vibrations and thus prevent the vibrations from being transmitted through the shell into the water. The propeller has seven sickle-shaped blades and is made of bronze. Other smaller turbines are used for power supply.
A core of type D1G-2 with 148 megawatts works in the reactors of Flight I and Flight II , in those of Flight III of type D2W with 165 megawatts of power. The older type delivers 22,000 kW (29,500 PS) drive power to the shaft, the newer D2W around 24,300 kW (32,500 PS). When older units are overhauled, the reactor core is replaced by the newer model. This is necessary so that the ships can maintain their maximum speed after the equipment with the anechoic tiles , as these increase the flow resistance. One reactor filling is sufficient for 15 to 20 years.
As an auxiliary drive there on each boat a Notdieselmotor type 38D8Q manufactured by Fairbanks-Morse , who can operate a deployable outboard motor in case of failure of the nuclear reactor or the drive train. It can also be used to charge the batteries in the bow. This unit can also be used to charge the large battery banks under the torpedo room, with which the energy-intensive restart of the reactor can be carried out.
electronics
Communication systems
A Los Angeles-class submarine has systems on board for sparking on numerous frequency bands . The only band that can be used while diving below the periscope depth of 60 feet (a little more than 18 meters) is ELF , which is received at around 80 Hz . The " Sanguine " transmitter system , which is operated on the US mainland in the states of Wisconsin and Michigan near the Great Lakes, serves as the transmitter .
Since only extremely low data throughputs are possible with ELF (a few characters per minute), only standardized code groups are sent to the submarines via this; for further communication the submarine has to go to periscope depth. The situation is similar with longitudinal waves (VLF, below 30 kHz), which, however, can only penetrate about 30 meters deep into the water. The submarine can only receive on both bands because very large antennas are required for transmission. The submarine has to deploy a towing wire antenna in order to be able to monitor the frequency bands. However, this limits its maneuverability, as the antenna breaks very easily when cornering quickly and in tight corners and when driving in reverse.
At periscope depth, the submarine can transmit on numerous frequencies (except ELF and VLF) using extendable antennas that break through the water surface. This method is mainly used for communication between ships positioned close together. For tactical communication with the home base and the task force, UHF connections are usually used via communications satellites via the Navy Ultra High Frequency Satellite Communications System (UHF SATCOM). For submarines, the Submarine Satellite Information Exchange Sub-System (SSIXS) is used here (in German: sub-system for satellite information exchange with submarines ).
Two submerged submarines can also connect over a short distance using the Gertrude system . Sound waves are emitted into the water with a so-called transducer like a loudspeaker, which the second boat picks up with its sonar device and converts into speech. This enables a usable voice connection, which can, however, under certain circumstances be picked up by enemy ships and submarines positioned nearby.
As a further option, a submarine can eject a one-way transmitter ( SLOT = Submarine Launched One-way Transmitter ) from a three-inch lock at the bow. This buoy rises to the surface and sends a previously stored message to a satellite.
Sonar systems
The most important tracking system for a submarine is its sonar . It's the only way to spot other ships, submarines, and even low-flying aircraft while submerged. Other sources of sound, such as torpedoes, decoys, but also schools of fish and whales can be located here.
For the acoustic detection of surface and underwater targets, the Los Angeles class submarines have a low-frequency bow sonar system of the type BQQ-E made by IBM . The older units of Flight I were initially equipped with the BQQ-5D system; in the meantime, all units still in service are likely to be retrofitted to the more modern electric model. The system consists of a spherical housing (the so-called sonar dome ) with a diameter of 4.5 m in the bow of the submarine. In active mode, it emits short pulses (so-called pings ) of around 75 kW acoustic power. In passive mode, no power is emitted, but only obeyed after noises in the water. In addition, there are lateral sensors around the ship that mainly listen in low frequency ranges.
The use of a passive towing sonar , of which each boat has two on board, has proven to be very effective . This is constructed as a cable with a chain of hydrophones (sound transducers) that is unwound and towed behind the submarine at a certain distance. By placing the hydrophones away from the stern of the submarine, the disturbance of the sonar image due to the ship's own noise is greatly minimized and the blind spot of the bow sonar is compensated to the rear. The older of the systems used is the TB-16D, which is reeled up in the bow and unwound on a rail in a bead-shaped channel along the hull, where it exits the stern stabilizer on the starboard side. With a total length of around 780 meters, the last 72 meters are equipped with hydrophones. The more modern TB-23 can be extended even further, hydrophones are distributed over the last 290 meters. It exits at the port stabilizer and does not require a guide channel on the hull as the coil is located in the stern. Since 2001 the ships have been upgraded to the most modern TB-29 system, which is even more powerful.
On the tower - facing the bow - there is a high-frequency MIDAS ( Mine Detection & Avoidance System / Sonar ) sonar , which can detect small objects such as sea mines and is used for navigation in ice fields.
Radio measurement and radar systems
The most important passive detection system for electromagnetic radiation is the WLR-8 (V) , a signal receiver on an extendable mast that is used at periscope depth. This device is able to pick up radio and radar signals in a wide frequency spectrum and thus detect enemy units beyond the range of the sonar.
The units of the Los Angeles class are equipped with an extendable AN / BPS-15 navigation radar, which is only used as a navigation aid when driving above water, for example when entering ports and driving in narrow waterways.
Periscopes
The only visual detection system is the periscope . Every submarine is equipped with two of these systems, a so-called attack periscope and a search periscope. The attack periscope has a smaller head, which means that it offers less radar reflective surface and is more difficult to spot by the enemy. The angle of view and the image quality are limited, however. The search periscope is available for a panoramic view and for longer observations. It has a larger design and, in addition to better image quality, offers a wider image section; however, its size makes it easier to spot from enemy ships. The periscopes offer both a magnification option and a night vision mode via residual light intensifier and the option of taking photos of the field of view.
Combat system
The units of the last contract section of type 688 (I) have the fully integrated submarine combat control system BSY-1 (pronounced in the slang of the Navy busy one , to German about: the Efficient ) that all tracking and weapon systems on board each networked. Most importantly, this reduces the time it takes to aim and fire a torpedo at a target.
Armament
The armament of the Los Angeles class submarines consists of four torpedo tubes , which are installed in the bow behind the sonar dome at an angle to the outboard. These tubes are 533 millimeters (21 inches) in diameter. The torpedoes are ejected from these tubes using compressed air. Torpedoes of the Mark 48 ADCAP type with a range of 35 kilometers (estimated - about 19 nautical miles), anti-ship missiles of the UGM-84F Sub-Harpoon type (range about 125 km / about 67.5 NM) and conventional cruise missiles of the UGM type can be fired -109 Tomahawk capable of attacking targets over 1000 km (540 NM) away. Furthermore, the submarines can be used to lay sea mines. Two types of mines can be used for this: the Mark 60 CAPTOR and the Mark 67 Submarine Launched Mobile Mine (SLMM). The SLMM is a mine based on the Mark 37 torpedo, which is remotely controlled to reach its pre-programmed deposit point and is remotely armed. A total of 24 of the weapons just described can be reloaded.
During the Cold War until 1989, the UUM-44 Subroc was also in use, a nuclear depth charge ejected through the torpedo tube and equipped with a rocket engine, which could fire a 250 kT warhead on a ballistic trajectory up to 30 kilometers.
So that the submarines of the class could reach speeds of over 30 knots, the number of torpedo tubes had to be limited to four as a compromise. This design decision was heavily criticized because it is difficult to attack larger units, especially because the torpedoes are wire-guided and the barrel can only be reloaded after the weapon has been hit without losing the ability to steer the torpedo.
A Vertical Launching System (VLS) is also installed on the bow, directly behind the sonar dome, on boats from the Flight II modification level. Conventional cruise missiles of the Tomahawk type for attacks on land targets (TLAM) can be launched from these twelve vertically installed tubes, which are located outside the pressure hull. The individual VLS pipes cannot be reloaded at sea. When designing the submarine class, space was already planned for such a system. The range of uses and the firepower of the Flight III boats against land targets have been considerably expanded by this system compared to the earlier construction lots.
Photo details
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crew
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13 officers and 116 NCOs and men serve on board the Los Angeles class boats . A mission trip usually takes six months. A single watch on board lasts six hours; The time zone applicable on board is Zulu time (GMT or UTC), as the crew is on duty regardless of the time of day or night.
On the middle deck of the front section, both bedrooms and common rooms are separated according to crew as well as NCOs and officers. The three messes (again separated according to rank groups) serve as a dining room, lounge with television with space for drinks and vending machines. The galley served at any guard hot meals, prepared on long patrols of frozen and dried food. For shorter missions, fresh food can be carried in one of the two cold rooms.
A sleeping place consists of three berths arranged one above the other with the dimensions 183 × 91 and a height of 61 (all dimensions in centimeters), which is shielded from the corridor by a curtain. Each crew member has a small box in which personal items can be stowed. Around 40% of the crew ranks share a bunk. They sleep alternately depending on the shift to be worked. This is referred to in marine jargon as hot bunking (in German: "warm bunk"). The senior NCOs and officers sleep in similar areas, but each have their own bunks.
The commander is the only member of the crew who has a cabin. This is around 3 × 2.5 meters and contains a bed and a wet room with toilet, a desk with a safe for secret documents. A multifunctional screen is also installed, giving him access to all information about the boat such as speed, course, depth and the tactical situation at all times.
Mission profile
By carrying the UGM-109 Tomahawk, Los Angeles-class submarines have the ability to attack land targets. Boats of this class have already been involved in attacks with these cruise missiles several times, for example during Operation Desert Storm in 1991, in the attack on an alleged chemical weapons factory in Sudan in 1993, in the war in Afghanistan in 2001 and in the third Gulf War in 2003 .
For use against submarines, the Los Angeles class units carry up to 24 Mark 48 ADCAP torpedoes. With these wire-guided torpedoes, the submarines can attack multiple targets at the same time. In addition to the Mark 48 ADCAP, anti-ship missiles of the UGM-84F Sub-Harpoon type can also be used against surface units. In addition, the boats are capable of laying sea mines .
No submarine of the class has been used in a combat situation against a sea target, it found only sinkings in the context of so-called SINKEX ( Sinking Exercise , German: exercise in meditation ) instead. In addition, some decommissioned ships were sunk as artificial reefs, such as the M / V New Carissa on March 11, 1999 by the USS Bremerton (SSN-698) .
The Los Angeles class also takes on escort duties. An aircraft carrier combat group, for example, usually includes two submarines, which, together with the ships of the surface escort (several cruisers and destroyers) and helicopters, search for underwater targets. The submarines operate outside the ring of the escort ships, whereby one submarine usually drives ahead while the other falls back and searches for pursuers in the wake of the group. Another tactic is for both boats to move in front of the combat group, one of which sprints forward, stops and listens for threats for a period of time, while the other provides cover. The two submarines regularly take turns in their task in this process.
The Los Angeles class submarines are so-called hunting submarines (English: Hunter / Killer sub , German: Jäger / Vollstrecker ). During the Cold War , their primary task was to shadow Soviet missile submarines (SSBN) on their patrols off the American coasts and later also more modern Soviet SSBNs in so-called bastions near their home and sink them in the event of an impending nuclear attack. Even after the end of the Cold War, Los Angeles-class submarines were regularly on patrol. In addition to Russian and Chinese waters, the targets of such operations are the crisis regions in Asia ( Formosa Strait , North Korea) and the Persian Gulf .
Further possible uses of the 688 are photo, radio and sonar reconnaissance and the implementation of secret service operations such as commandos. They can use their antennas to conduct electronic reconnaissance (ELINT) and electronic support measures (ESM). For optimal results, the boats have to go very close to the coast and also violate the territorial waters of sovereign states. Another task that Los Angeles units can take on is the photo reconnaissance of new units of foreign navies as well as acoustic reconnaissance, such as the recording of screw noises and the recording of ship noise profiles.
The boats of the class are also suitable for dropping off special units such as SEAL teams off foreign coasts and picking them up again after the mission.
Accidents
So far, no Los Angeles class unit has been lost, but there have been a number of accidents involving this class of boat. In addition to smaller fires on Los Angeles-class submarines, there were collisions and grounding.
In 1986 the USS Augusta (SSN-710) and the Soviet K-279 collided in the Atlantic. Another collision occurred in 1992 between USS Baton Rouge (SSN-689) and K-239 in the Barents Sea . None of these incidents resulted in injuries.
The incident with the most media coverage occurred on February 9, 2001, around nine nautical miles from Diamond Head, off Hawaii, when the USS Greeneville (SSN-772) rammed the Japanese fishing training ship Ehime Maru during a training exercise , causing the Japanese ship to crash sank in a very short time due to its severe damage. Nine Japanese sailors were killed. It was later criticized that a group of visitors on board was present in the command center during this maneuver.
There were repeated groundings, some of which caused great damage to the affected submarine. The most momentous incident of this type occurred on January 8, 2005, when the USS San Francisco (SSN-711) crashed into an undersea mountain at 35 knots (about 40 mph), killing one crew member and injuring 97 others .
On October 13, 2012, there was a collision between the submarine USS Montpelier and the Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruiser USS San Jacinto . According to the US Navy, nobody was injured and both ships were able to continue on their own. Reuters news agency reported, citing an anonymous source, that the cruiser's sonar dome was damaged.
Trivia
- Many of Tom Clancy's novels feature Los Angeles-class submarines , including the USS Dallas in Hunt for Red October . The USS Chicago is a key location in his novel In the Storm , the USS Cheyenne has a leading role in the novel SSN . Patrick Robinson's novels also revolve around events involving Los Angeles-class submarines .
- On the big screen, the Los Angeles class is shown in the movie The Hunt for Red October . Filming took place on board the USS Houston .
- The first computer game to be released in 1988 was the simulation 688 Attack Sub by Electronic Arts (EA). Here it was possible to operate a submarine of this class on the PC and to drive combat missions. The three submarine simulations from Sonalysts are more up-to- date and modern : In 688 (I) Hunter / Killer , Sub Command and Dangerous Waters the submarines of the class are simulated relatively true to the original; the player can man all important positions on the boats and master numerous missions based on the real world situation.
literature
- John L. Birkler: The US Submarine Production Base: An Analysis of Cost, Schedule, and Risk for Selected Force Structures. RAND Corporation, Santa Monica CA 1994, ISBN 0-8330-1548-6 .
- Tom Clancy: Nuclear Submarine. Journey inside a nuclear warship. Heine, Munich 1995, 1997, ISBN 3-453-12300-X .
- David Miller, John Jordan: Modern Submarines. Stocker Schmid, Zurich 1987, 1999 (2nd edition). ISBN 3-7276-7088-6 (increasingly outdated standard work on underwater warfare).
Web links
- US Navy fact file (with links to the units' websites)
- Los Angeles class on globalsecurity.org (English)
Individual evidence
- ↑ SSN-688 Los Angeles-class Engineered Refueling Overhaul (ERO) on globalsecurity.org (English)
- ↑ Detailed description of the Los Angeles class. fas.org (English)
- ↑ Cruiser collides with nuclear sub off US East Coast , BBC. October 14, 2012.
