Censorship in the Soviet Union

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Censorship in the Soviet Union was the control of Soviet authorities and the Communist Party over the content and distribution of printed works, pieces of music, dramaturgical works, works of the performing arts, photographs, radio and television broadcasts. It was carried out with the aim of restricting or banning thoughts and messages that were dangerous for the power of the Soviet organs and therefore undesirable.

The Soviet censorship system was the most comprehensive information control system in history to date. It monitored all official channels for disseminating information: books, magazines, radio, television, cinema, theater, etc. Censorship was exercised by delivering works to special state institutions whose supreme authority was the Central Administration of Literature and Publishing Affairs ( Glawlit ). The dissemination of misinformation and self-censorship were also common.

The censorship in the USSR was primarily ideological . Historians have shown that Soviet censorship did not filter scenes of violence as long as they conformed to ideological guidelines. This concerned, for example, the display of the annihilation of the enemies of Soviet power.

The main focus of Soviet censorship activities were:

• so-called "anti-Soviet propaganda", including all works that did not agree with the direction of the ideological guidelines, even if the political system in the USSR was not attacked directly
• military and economic secrets including information about the locations of prisons and forced labor camps
• negative information about the state of affairs in the Soviet Union (for example, disasters, economic problems, conflicts between nationalities, negative social phenomena and the like).

Information such as uncomfortable allusions (allusions) to reality should be filtered.

The majority of historians emphasize the totalitarian character of Soviet censorship and attribute control to the censoring organs in the interests of the communist party, which is the sole ruling party in the Soviet Union. Russian civil rights activists claim that the practice of censorship severely disrupted the international relations of the USSR.

There are different views on the censorship of scientific and technical information. The former high-ranking General Directorate for the Protection of State Secrets in the Press staff Vladimir Solodin claims that censorship never controlled technical and scientific literature, but a number of scientists argues that prohibitions and censorship in the field of sciences such as nuclear physics , psychology , sociology , cybernetics , biology and genetics were common . Apart from that, the works of individual authors were prohibited regardless of their form and content.

According to the information security specialist NW Stolyarov, there was an unnecessarily large number of state secrets in the USSR and the prohibited dissemination of institutional secrets to the public was therefore just as common. The resulting excessive secrecy then meant that the scientific institutes were no longer able to provide serious, critical analyzes.

Historical precursors

An example of censorship in the Russian Empire is this edition of the book Memories from My Life by NI Gretsch (1886). The censors replaced unwanted text passages with dots.

Reading was banned at the same time as the first books at the time of the Christianization of the Kievan Rus . The first surviving “List of Harmful Books” dates back to 1073.

The actual censorship arose in Russia in the second half of the 16th century with the appearance of the printing press . Initially limited to religious subjects, censorship activities later expanded to include secular subjects.

In the last quarter of the 18th century, there was a de facto state monopoly on the printing of books in the Russian Empire . The last years of the reign of Tsar Nicholas I (1848–1855) are called “Epoch of Censorship Terror” or “Dark Seven Years” . Author Arlen Bljum wrote that there were many similarities between the methods of censorship of this period and those of communist censorship.

A particularly sharp critic of the Russian censors in the 19th century was the writer Mikhail Evgrafowitsch Saltykow-Shchedrin . Notwithstanding these obstacles, 14,000 magazines were published in Russia between 1901 and 1916, 6,000 of them in Saint Petersburg and Moscow alone . As Professor Pawel Reifman wrote, censorship was severe in pre-revolutionary Russia, but in the Soviet Union it reached a hitherto unknown influence and became all-encompassing and all-powerful.

Introduction of censorship

Harsh censorship was imposed by the Bolsheviks soon after they came to power on October 25th ^. / 7th November 1917 ^greg. introduced in Russia. Printing works were placed under the control of the new rulers and the printing of so-called "bourgeois newspapers" was stopped. Lenin explained: “We have already stated earlier that the bourgeois newspapers will be closed as soon as we have power in our hands. To tolerate the existence of such newspapers would be to stop being socialists. "

Already on October 27th ^. / November 9, 1917 ^greg. The Council of People's Commissars (Sownarkom) passed the Decree on the Press , which provided for the closure of newspapers that called for disobedience to the new government, "caused unrest by publishing false information" and called for "acts of a criminal nature".

Bolsheviks opposed to Lenin compared the decree when it was announced with the tsarist censorship regulation of 1890 and pointed out that both regulations were similar in content. On the basis of the decree on the press , from October 1917 to the end of the year 150 and to June 1918 a further 320 opposition newspapers were banned and closed.

On November 4th ^jul. / November 17, 1917 ^greg. the All-Russian Central Executive Committee adopted the resolution of the Bolshevik faction in support of the sovnarkom press policy by a majority. On November 6th, ^July / November 19, 1917 ^greg. called the printing technicians union, led by opposition Mensheviks , to a general protest strike against the closure of newspapers. However, this did not work because the majority of Russian printing technicians did not support the call.

On November 8, 1917, the Sovnarkom passed a Decree on the Monopoly for Printing Advertisements , which provided for the printing of new advertisements by the communist government exclusively through state-owned newspapers. As a result of this decree, privately run newspapers lost many readers and ran into financial problems.

On January 28, 1918, the Sovnarkom passed the decree on revolutionary press tribunals, which imposed penalties for “counter-revolutionary activities” ranging from banning newspapers to losing political rights and imprisonment. The tribunals had the opportunity to prevent newspaper editions from appearing if they “spread false information”. The press tribunals existed until May 1918.

On March 4, 1918, the Sovnarkom adopted the resolution “On Control of Cinema Enterprises”, which placed the hitherto private cinemas under the control of the local Soviets. From August 1919 all photo and film studios were nationalized.

From 1918 to 1919, all private printing presses were confiscated and the paper industry was nationalized, so that newspapers could no longer appear without the permission of the government and the Communist Party. The legal basis of this state of affairs was laid in the 1918 Constitution of the Russian Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), in which, according to the concept of class struggle, freedom of expression was guaranteed only to the social classes of workers and peasants, but not to the other classes of Russian society.

The Communist Party ruling in the RSFSR and later the Soviet Union proclaimed "the socio-political and idealistic unity of society". Ideological pluralism was rejected in principle:

«Ленинская партия… непримиримо выступает против любых взглядов и действий, противориримо выступает против любых взглядов и действий, противориримо.

"[The] Lenin party [...] is irreconcilable against any views and actions that contradict communist ideology."

- А. М. Румянцев (Red.) : Научный коммунизм. Словарь , Lemma Социально-политическое и идейное единство общества

In the 3rd edition of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia (1969–1978) under the lemma "censorship" one could read:

"Конституция СССР в соответствии с интересами народа и в целях укрепления и развития социалистического строя гарантирует гражданам свободу печати. Государственный контроль установлен с тем, чтобы не допустить опубликования в открытой печати и распространения средствами массовой информации сведений, составляющих государственную тайну, и др. сведений, которые могут нанести ущерб интересам трудящихся. »

“The Constitution of the USSR guarantees the citizens freedom of the press in accordance with the interests of the people and for the consolidation and development of the socialist order. State control is established so that the publication of information that constitutes state secrets and its dissemination in the mass media does not harm the interests of the working people. "

According to historian Alexander Nekritsch , the aim of Soviet censorship was “to develop a new collective memory among the people; to purify the memory of the real events and to exclude from this pure past all that was inconsistent with it or directly opposed the historical claims of the Communist Party. "

Military censorship and political control of the OGPU

In connection with the beginning of the Russian Civil War , military censorship emerged in the areas controlled by the Red Army , which was responsible for controlling all issues related to military affairs. Initially a matter for the Revolutionary Military Council and the People's Commissar for Post and Telegraphy, the area of ​​activity of military censorship was transferred to the Cheka secret police (later OGPU ) in 1921 .

On June 21, 1918, the chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Republic Leon Trotsky confirmed that "there is a military censorship of newspapers, magazines and all works by full-time press workers" and that "a list of information that is subject to preliminary inspection [by the military censorship]" was defined. An “instruction of the military censors” was drawn up and the censorship department of the Revolutionary Military Council was established. On December 23, 1918, a new "Guide to Military Censorship" was published. As part of this instruction, the censorship departments in the Red Army associations were created. The “Guide to Military Censorship” was refined and improved every year.

On August 10, 1920, the Revolutionary Military Council passed a document according to which all editorial offices of newspapers, magazines, photographers etc. were obliged to “hand in two proof copies to the military censorship and that in the period from the submission to the military censorship all press materials presumably connected with the publication (with the exception of forms, trading books, etc.) are subject to a provisional publication ban until their publication with the approval of the military censors. […] It is mandatory that all new films must be tested by a representative of the military censorship before they are delivered to the cinemas. ”In accordance with the responsibilities of the military censorship, control of the post, newspapers and telegraphy was transferred to the Cheka secret police. The complete handover of all functions of military censorship to the Cheka was completed in August 1921.

On December 21, 1921, a department for political control was set up within the OGPU, whose area of ​​responsibility was the censorship of the post office and telegraphic correspondence. The powers of this department were more extensive than those of the recently abolished military censorship: in addition to checking and confiscating letters and telegrams, the employees of this department carried out checks on printing works and bookstores, and sifted through printed matter, sound carriers and films imported into and exported to Soviet Russia. From March 8, 1922, the surveillance of the activity of cinemas and theaters was introduced. The political control department was first headed by BE Etingof, who was later replaced by IS Surta.

Furthermore, while looking at their work, the political control staff made the proposal to abolish the superfluous responsibilities of Glawlit and the Main Committee for Control of Drama and Repertoire (Glawrepertkom) for literary works. For example, following a reference from this department of the OGPU, an anthology of stories by Boris Andrejewitsch Pilnjak with the title Смертельное манит (German: Todbringendes lures ), which had already been censored, was confiscated.

In August 1922, the political control staff checked 135,000 of 300,000 parcels and all 285,000 letters sent abroad by the RSFSR.

After the civil war

After the end of the civil war and the proclamation of the New Economic Policy , many new publishers, newspapers and magazines emerged in the RSFSR, which formed a new independent press. The party-loyal Soviet press experienced its “worst crisis” during this time. At the same time, there was a public discussion between supporters Gavriil Ilyich Myasnikov , who demanded democratization and freedom of the press for the entire political spectrum, and supporters of Lenin.

Lenin's response to Myasnikov's demands was as follows:

«Свобода печати в РСФСР, окружённой врагами всего мира, есть свобода политической РСФСР, окружённой врагами всего мира, есть свобода политической колитической организ кружеской организ кружеской организ крагами. Это факт неопровержимый. Буржуазия (во всём мире) ещё сильнее нас и во много раз. Дать ей ещё такое оружие, как свобода политической организации (свободу печати, ибо печать есть центр и основа политической организации) значит облегчать дело врагу, помогать классовому врагу. Мы самоубийством кончать: не желаем и потому этого не сделаем. »

“The freedom of the press in the RSFSR, surrounded by enemies from all over the world, is the freedom of political organization for the bourgeoisie and their most loyal servants - the Mensheviks and the Social Revolutionaries . That is an irrefutable fact. The middle class (in the whole world) is many times stronger than us. To give the bourgeoisie weapons like a liberalization of the political system (freedom of the press is a center and a basis of political organization) means to facilitate the activities of the enemy, to help the class enemy. We'd commit suicide. We don't want that and that's why we won't do it. "

- Letter from Lenin to Myasnikov of August 5, 1921 : reproduced in Жирков: История цензуры в России XIX — XX вв. Учебное пособие , see also Institute for Marxism-Leninism in the Central Committee of the CPSU, (ed.): Lenin Works - Volume 32: December 1920 - August 1921 , Dietz-Verlag Ost-Berlin 1961

In addition to the sentence, famous in Russia, about "[...] what is the most important of all the arts ... the cinema", Lenin said in the same conversation with the People's Commissar for Education (Narkompros) Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky about the censorship of the films:

«Конечно, цензура всё-таки нужна. Ленты контрреволюционные и безнравственные не должны иметь место. »

“Of course, censorship is still necessary. Stripes that are counter-revolutionary and immoral must have no place. "

- Ленин : Reproduced in Жирков: История цензуры в России XIX — XX вв. Учебное пособие

Lenin called for stricter censorship regulations as well as the expatriation of a large group of writers, philosophers and other scientists and artists who were viewed by the Bolsheviks as enemies of the Soviet power (→ Philosophenschiff ). Myasnikov was arrested in May 1923, and in this way, including his supporters, was removed from the political scene in the Soviet Union.

centralization

During the 1920s, the individual organs of Soviet censorship were centralized. As a result of several reorganizations, they became Glawlit, the main administration for literary and publishing affairs. The censorship system developed during these years proved so effective that it remained virtually unchanged until the collapse of the Soviet Union .

During this period, the censorship regulations were further tightened. In order to discover anti-Soviet works already during their creation, camouflaged employees of the Glawlit were smuggled into the environment of Soviet writers. One of the first victims of the new censorship authority was the writer Mikhail Bulgakov with his story Dog Heart . The publication of information about the Soviet concentration camps, train accidents, reports on meetings of the Youth Commission, "information about strikes, anti-Soviet mass actions, manifestations, riots and riots" and the like was prohibited. The repertoires of theaters, lectures in village clubs and even simple wall newspapers were under the control of the Glawlit.

In 1925 reports of suicides and cases of mental illness in connection with unemployment and hunger were forbidden, one was not allowed to “ write about the degree of soiling of the bread with weevils , mites and other pests in order to avoid panic […] and malicious reporting of these facts prevent."

In 1929 the Glawlit stipulated that the implementation of dance events should be subject to approval: “From this point in time, the implementation of a dance event must be carried out by the Gublit [Dept. der Glawlit] and the competent administration for political education. "

Gosisdat

According to Russian historians, the period from 1919 to 1921 played a significant role in the emergence of Soviet censorship because it was during this period that the first attempt at centralization was made. The publishing departments of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (WZIK), the Moscow and Petrograd Soviets and other councils were merged into the State Publishing House of the RSFSR (Gosisdat). On May 21, 1919, the merger was established by ordinance of the WZIK. Wazlaw Borowski was appointed director of Gosisdat . The Gosisdat became a state authority and held censorship over all branches of the publishing house until the Glawlit appeared. The censorship department in Gosisdat was called Politdienst. It was headed by Nikolai Leonidowitsch Meshcheryakov , who was subsequently appointed the first director of the Glawlit.

Creation of the Glawlit

Nikolai Leonidowitsch Meshcheryakov was the first head of the Soviet censorship authority Glawlit

On June 6, 1922, by decree of the Sownarkom of the RSFSR, the Glawlit was created as a subordinate authority of the People's Commissariat for Education (Narkompros) with the aim of “unifying all censorship organs of the printing industry”. Formally, the Glawlit was subordinate to the Narkompros and later to the Council of Ministers of the USSR until 1946, but in fact the censorship was exercised by the Communist Party. The candidacy of the directors of the Glawlit was confirmed by the Central Committee of the CPSU on the proposal of the chairman of the party's press and publishing department. After the establishment of the USSR on December 30, 1922, the Glawlit was organized on the following levels: In addition to the Union Glawlit, which was the supreme authority for the entire Soviet Union, there was a network of local sub-authorities. The only Soviet republic that did not have a local Glawlit authority was the RSFSR. The Union Glawlit was responsible for them.

On February 9, 1923, the aforementioned main committee for the control of the drama and repertoire (Glawrepertkom) was created in the organizational structure of the Glawlit.

In 1925, a first version of a “list of information not permitted for publication in the public press” was drawn up under the top secret level of secrecy . The text of this first list had 16 pages and contained 96 bullet points. In addition to this directory, circulars were drawn up with references to information to be censored. Their numbers grew rapidly. In the version of the document used in the last years of the Soviet Union, which had long taken the form of a book, there were 213 sections. Each of these sections contained an average of 5 to 6, sometimes up to 12 bullet points.

The verb salitowat was also created as an activity term for obtaining the permission to publish from the censors of the Glawlit. The historian Arlen Bljum wrote:

"Без разрешительной визы органов Главлита не могло появиться ни одно печатное произведение, имеющее хотя бы оттенок вербального смысла - вплоть до почтовой марки, визитной карточки, спичечной наклейки и пригласительного билета."

"Without the license from the organs of the Glawlit, no printed work could appear that had at least the nuance of a verbal sense - including postage stamps, business cards, matchboxes and invitations."

- Arlen Bljum : Soviet censorship in the era of total terror

Publications of the Communist Party, the Communist International (Comintern), publications of the Gosisdat, the Izvestia newspaper and the scientific work of members of the Academy of Sciences were excluded from the control of the Glawlit (i.e. from all censorship with the exception of military personnel) . Furthermore, the publications of the Institute for Scientific Information on Social Sciences (INION) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and, with regard to certain information, a number of journals have been excluded from the temporary censorship. Instead of the Glawlit, these institutions had their own internal censorship organs.

Violations of the censorship regulations by authors were punished with the following measures:

1. Conversation between author and censor
2. two or three warnings from the censor
3. Intervention of the organs of the Communist Party, summoning of the accused
4. Intervention by the State Security (GPU, OGPU, NKVD, KGB)

On March 7, 1927, the head of the Glawlit Pawel Ivanovich Lebedev-Polyansky presented a written report on the work of his authority in the organizational office of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. In it, the self-image of the Glawlit was particularly clearly emphasized:

"[...] В области художественной литературы, по вопросам искусства, театра и музыки ликвидировать литературу, направленную против советского строительства [...] Литературу по вопросам философии, социологии, ярко идеалистического направления не разрешать, пропуская лишь в ограниченном тираже классическую литературу и научного характера [ …] Можно и должно проявлять строгость по отношению к изданиям со вполне оформившимися бурмившимися бурмившимися бурмившимися бурмившимися бурмена. Необходимо проявлять беспощадность по отношению к таким художественно-литературным группировкам [...]

"[...] In the field of fiction, books on art, theater and music, to abolish that literature that is directed against the Soviet construction [...] literature on philosophy, sociology in which the idealistic direction is represented with exception not to allow limited editions of the classics and scholarly works [...] One can and must be strict with regard to the publications of bourgeois writers, who definitely adhere to the formalities of censorship. You have to show ruthlessness towards such artistic-literary groups [...] "

On April 13, 1928, by decree of the Sownarkom, the Central Administration for Matters of Artistic Literature and the Arts (Glawiskusstwo) was created. Their areas of responsibility overlapped so often with those of the Glawrepertkom that on February 26, 1929 the Sownarkom of the RSFSR issued an order on the delimitation of the functions of Glawrepertkom and Glawiskusstwo , in which the Glawrepertkom the task of "the political control of the repertoire of the theater" without Interference "in one or the other interpretation or style of performance" was assigned.

Origin of broadcasting

Practically at the same time as the appearance of regular radio broadcasts in the USSR, a system of censoring these broadcasts was introduced in 1924. An order from the stock corporation “Radioperedatschi” (German radio broadcast) finally stipulated in 1927 that all broadcasts should have a text that was checked in advance and approved by the censors.

In 1928 the work of Radioperedatschi was judged to be inefficient and the company was then liquidated. By resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party , the Union Committee for Broadcasting was founded on September 10, 1931, under the leadership of the People's Commissariat for Post and Telecommunications (Narkompotschtel for short, in Russian: Наркомпочтель ). In January 1933 it was renamed the “Union Committee for the Creation and Transmission of Radio Broadcasts” (Gosteleradio) by decree of the Sownarkom and represented the state equivalent of the publishing house Gosisdat for the radio medium.

Establishment of the Spezchran

At the beginning of the 1920s, a campaign was launched to remove literature that was “unrelated to ideas” from the holdings of Russian libraries. Lenin's wife, Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya , among others, was responsible for the implementation of this campaign .

At first the books were simply destroyed (→ book destruction ), but from 1926 onwards so-called special storage departments (Spezchran) were created in the large libraries, in which, by order of the censorship organs, those books and periodicals were placed that could only be accessed if a special one was received Censorship exemption could gain access. The regulation on specchran in libraries issued in November 1926 stipulated which literature was to be included in these secret collections:

1. Literature that appeared in the USSR and has been removed from general use,
2. Russian literature created in exile that had scientific or political significance and
3. Works that have been given to public libraries for special storage by other authorities.

The first Spezchran were created in the largest libraries on the basis of the insignificant holdings of the "secret departments" from the time of the tsars that still existed up to the Russian Revolution . In contrast, the scope of the Soviet Spezchran was simply gigantic. Some of these departments held up to half a million books and periodicals by 1987.

The composition of the literature supplied to the Spezchran changed constantly and was documented in detail. The works of persecuted writers were always subject to admission to the Spezchran. Works printed abroad were subjected to a particularly biased assessment. And the amount of printed matter withheld from general use also included more than 400 leading Western political newspapers and all works by Russian emigrants regardless of their content.

Any foreign literature could be divided into two broad categories: literature for general use, which was available in shops, libraries, and similar establishments, and literature which could only be used within the Spezchran. There were four different access levels for the literature in the Spezchran, which were designated as secret 1 , secret 2 , secret 3 and secret 4 . These access levels were set for the entire content of a Spezchran department. For example, the Spezchran of the library of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in Leningrad had the access level Secret 4 . The privilege of access Secret 1 , which de facto meant full access to all contents of all Spezchran, was only granted to members of the Communist Party Central Committee, members of the state security organs , employees of the Lenin Library and members of the INION. The lower the level of access, the smaller the volume of literature available in the Spezchran. Under the category Secret 4 , only around a quarter of all literature intended for restricted use was available. Around 1965, there were 24,433 books in the Secret 4 classified specialty of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

The note about the access level to the Spezchran was entered in the user file by the Spezchran censor. From June 10, 1938, stamps in the shape of a hexagon were used, which were called "disks". One disk means Secret 4 access level , further disks each have higher access levels.

The building of the former Lenin Library (today the Russian State Library) contained a Spezchran with the particularly secret books of special literary research in the Soviet Union

The special literary research , the holdings of which was in the Spezchran of the Lenin Library, divided them into the following groups:

• Russian literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and Russian-speaking Soviet authors such as Anna Andrejewna Akhmatova , Ossip Emiljewitsch Mandelstam , Michail Afanassjewitsch Bulgakow , Igor Severyanin , Alexei Michailowitsch Remisow , Fyodor Sologub , etc.
• foreign language literature, hardly published in the USSR, it included authors such as Marcel Proust , John Dos Passos and others
• Tamizdat literature, that is, the works of banned Russian and Soviet writers published abroad
• Books of religious content: in addition to the Bible , Koran and Talmud, this also included the works of Russian religious philosophers
• Books on western philosophical directions and psychology
• Soviet and foreign editions on semiotics , structuralism , etc. (for example, the books by Juri Michailowitsch Lotman , Michail Michailowitsch Bachtin or Boris Michailowitsch Eichenbaum ).

In addition, scientific literature on topics of biology , nuclear physics , sociology , cybernetics and genetics was also stored in this specchran . In addition, the holdings were steadily supplemented with literature that had been given to the library for safekeeping by various authorities under the secrecy level "For official use only". Mainly technical literature or economic statistics.

Protection of state secrets

Until 1921, no attempts were made in Soviet Russia to standardize the rules for processing and storing secret documents . On October 13, 1921, the Sownarkom decree confirmed the "Directory of secret information not intended for public dissemination". The documents to be kept secret were divided into information of a military nature and of an economic nature. On August 20, 1922, the Communist Party Secretariat approved the "Ordinance on the Safekeeping and Transportation of Classified Information". This document was the first to instruct the creation of confidentiality departments in all state agencies for the organization and keeping of secret files.

On April 24, 1926, the Sovnarkom confirmed the creation of a "directory of documents, the contents of which are state secrets to be specially protected". The documents were divided into three groups: military information, economic information and other information. In addition, three levels of secrecy were introduced: “top secret”, “secret” and “not to be disclosed”. In June 1926 a special department of the OGPU published the "List of items of top secret, secret and undisclosed correspondence". This was even more detailed than the Sovnarkom document and divided the contents into four groups: military information, financial information, political information including the internal information of the Communist Party and other information.

At the end of the 1920s, the composition of the confidentiality authorities was standardized and a standardized nomenclature of the agencies of the confidentiality structure in the state institutions and authorities was defined. In the largest people's commissariats, secrecy departments were created, in the remaining secret services - which on the smaller scale of these authorities ultimately also represented something like departments. The structure of the confidentiality departments was structured as follows: an office for processing classified information, a typewriter office, a stenography office, a control group, a group for document distribution and the office for access authorization and information.

In 1929 the "instruction of the local organs of the OGPU to control the state of the confidentiality departments and the implementation of the management of the institutions and authorities" was put into practice. As a result, the control of the confidentiality regulations was imposed on the subordinate departments of the OGPU.

Stalinist era (1930 to 1950)

This period in the development of Soviet censorship is described by the historian Arlen Bljum as the "epoch of total terror" or by Gennady Schirkow as the phase of "total censorship by the communist party". These years were shaped by the complex system of censorship, from self-censorship to the control of the communist party over the state censorship apparatus. During this time, not only any works by persecuted writers, but even any mention of their authors were forbidden (→ Damnatio memoriae ). Entire branches of science, especially in the humanities and the performing and visual arts , were de jure non-existent in the Soviet Union during this period. Through the extreme exercise of censorship measures, according to Merle Fainsod, “the libraries became the repositories of Stalinist orthodoxy. [...] The symbol of the censor became the intellectual mark of the Stalinist era. "

1930 until the beginning of the German-Soviet War

One of the leaders of the Kampfbund for the liberation of the working class was Alexander Malchenko . His picture was removed from the 1897 photograph of Lenin's group of comrades in arms after his arrest in 1929.

On September 5, 1930, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU passed a resolution on "the exemption of the central apparatus of the Glawlit from the activity of preliminary inspection of the printed material". Contrary to what the decision title suggests, the work was expanded by creating the institution of the Glawlit plenipotentiaries at state and social publishers, radio stations, telegraphy agencies, post offices and customs offices in its place. These Glawlit authorized representatives were under the authority of the (central) Glawlit, but were employees of the institutions in which they carried out their work. From 1931, the Glawlit plenipotentiaries were liable for unauthorized publications of "anti-Soviet or Soviet reality distorting" material. Unauthorized publication was deemed a crime.

The first purges took place in 1930 and, like the " Trotskyists ", the first research into information theory was banned by the Soviet authorities. The management of the Communist Institute for Journalism (KISCH), to which the journalist Mikhail Semjonowitsch Gus and the director Alexander Lwowitsch Kurs belonged, was defamed as an “importer of bourgeois newspaper reports”.

At the beginning of the 1930s, mentioning of famine (→ forced collectivization in the Soviet Union , → Holodomor ), natural disasters and even bad weather was prohibited in the USSR . At the same time it was also banned from publishing information about anti-Semitic statements. Anti-Semitism in the period before the Russian Revolution was without exception portrayed as if it had been provoked solely by the tsarist government. The short story "Gambrinus" by Alexander Ivanovich Kuprin , which appeared in an anthology in 1937 , was therefore only published in abridged form.

During this time, the pedology (study of the behavior and development of children) , which was modern in the 1920s, was rejected as “non-Marxist”. As a result, all books on pedology were removed from the libraries and bookstores, as well as all bibliographic materials that referenced those books. Incidentally, they were even listed in the Glawlit lists of forbidden books until 1987.

On July 6, 1931, the Sownarkom published a new provision on the Glawlit. As Gennady Schirkow noted about this, "it was the first time in the practice of the state, which still described itself as socialist, that a temporary and public censorship was introduced at the same time". In the same year, the journalist Boris Mikhailovich Wolin was appointed the new head of the Glawlit. He advocated the consolidation of all types of censorship (military censorship, the censorship of foreign documents and political-ideological censorship) as well as the unification of all regional Glawlit authorities into a central institution for the entire Soviet Union, which was subordinate to the Sovnarkom. Therefore, according to Peter Huebner, the Glawlit received "an almost absolutist power" through the new provision.

In 1933, military censorship began to be tightened. In January 1933, the Sovnarkom passed the Ordinance on Strengthening the Protection of Military Secrets , which provided for the establishment of an institute authorized by the Sovnarkom for the protection of military secrets in the press. The Ordinance on the Plenipotentiary of the Sovnarkom for the Protection of Military Secrets in the Departments of Military Censorship was adopted in November 1933. The Plenipotentiary of Sovnarkom, who was also the director of the Slavlit of the RSFSR, was responsible for the protection of military secrets in the press on the territory of the entire USSR. Glawlit director Wolin saw the main task of his authority in the temporary censorship of printed matter.

In the years 1933 to around the beginning of 1935, the number of books removed from the libraries was initially reduced due to the directive on the order, completion, storage and confiscation of book collections in the libraries of the People's Commissar for Education (Narkompros), but from mid-1935 the cleaning of the libraries intensified again. According to the accounting documents researched by Arlen Bljum, “in July 1935 alone, around 20,000 books were confiscated from 1,078 Leningrad libraries and bookstores by 500 verified communists, which were then destroyed in waste incineration plants”. The cleaning of the libraries was also uncoordinated and was carried out excessively due to the zeal of local NKVD functionaries. For example, the library of Koselsk district was so thoroughly cleared that the deputy head of the library administration of the RSFSR demanded that the NKVD replenish the holdings in May 1936.

On June 1, 1935, the Order of the People's Commissar for Defense (NKO) No. 031 (0131) on the organization of military censorship in the Red Army in the army and navy came into force: with it, the tasks of military censorship, which had been in effect since 1921 in the The area of ​​responsibility of the State Security were handed back to the Red Army .

According to a decision of the organization office of the Central Committee of the CPSU on July 9, 1935, the activities of the radio committee were reorganized. The censorship of radio broadcasts was also changed due to Order No. 7 of the People's Commissar for Education of December 27, 1935. The Glawlit was entrusted with the post-censorship and the "operational-organizational implementation of the censorship of the nationwide and local radio". An independent group of censors made up of Glawlit representatives was integrated into the administration of the nationwide radio and organized the provisional censorship of radio programs. The radio committee worked out a detailed procedure for the review of all texts from radio broadcasts by the pre-censors.

In the years of 1937 and 1938, which were marked by the Great Terror , the censorship policy changed again. Previously, the ideologically different content of a book was decisive for its transfer to the Spezchran, but from now on the person of the author became the decisive factor for the censorship of a book: If the author was declared an enemy of the people , his books were immediately removed from the libraries. The content of the books was meaningless - all works, including all scientific and technical work, were removed. Apart from the removal of the books, the author was also no longer referenced in other works or was quoted without mentioning the name. During these two years, 16,453 books were banned and 24,138,799 printed copies were removed from libraries and bookstores due to censorship measures.

At the end of the 1930s the Glawlit monitored around 70,000 libraries, in addition to 1,800 magazines, almost 40,000 books with a total circulation of 700 million copies were checked by the preliminary censorship. The Glawlit censorship authority had 5,800 employees in 1938.

After the signing of the German-Soviet non-aggression pact , anti-fascist literature was removed from the libraries and works criticizing German National Socialism were removed from the theater programs and the holdings of the film distributors . The publication of critical articles about Adolf Hitler and other leaders of the NSDAP was prohibited from August 1939. In addition, works about the Prussian-Russian War and other military conflicts between Russia and Germany were banned. This ban was only lifted in 1941 with the outbreak of the German-Soviet War .

Military censorship during the German-Soviet War

On June 2, 1941, the chairman of the Glawlit Nikolai Georgievich Sadschikow passed the project on the determination of a main censor “with the aim of strengthening military censorship in the USSR” to the Agitation and Propaganda Service of the CPSU Central Committee (Agitprop). It was proposed by the military censorship staff to create the post of chief censor and to transfer a number of Glawlit staff to military service. The proposal was based on the argument that all belligerent nations had strengthened their military censorship. Sadschikow also called for an increase in the staff of the censorship authorities. As Pavel Reifman wrote, "There were still 20 days before the war began, but the issue of military censorship was already dealt with as if the war had already started." However, the military historian Lev Alexandrovich Besymensky can resolve this contradiction : The agents of the headquarters for reconnaissance of the Red Army (GRU) did not miss the German deployment in the spring of 1941. However, the information passed on was dismissed by the top management level of the Soviet Union as misinformation launched by Great Britain. In the lower ranks, however, preparatory measures were carried out on a smaller scale.

After the start of the war, military censorship was a subdivision of the GRU military intelligence service. On October 23, 1942, the status of the Central Military Censorship Service was upgraded. On the orders of the People's Commissar for Defense, Stalin, he was removed from the area of ​​the Central Enlightenment Administration and subordinated directly to the People's Commissariat for Defense. On September 18, 1943, the military censorship was assigned to the General Staff of the Red Army to improve its leadership.

On December 16, 1943, the Order of the People's Commissar for Defense No. 0451 on the Status of Military Censorship in the Red Army (for the duration of the war) was enforced in place of the provision of July 22, 1935 on military censorship. This order stipulated that "the organs of military censorship in the Red Army are in control of the content of all printed matter, radio broadcasts and movies to ensure that these propaganda media cannot be misused for the publication of military secrets." Except for censorship were just orders and directives. All military censors were subordinated to superiors in the Department of Military Censorship of the General Staff. The censorship work was classified as secret. Therefore, "all changes by censors or confiscations could only be made known to the responsible editor, his deputy or your direct superior."

On February 15, 1944, Order No. 034 of the Deputy People's Commissar for Defense Alexei Innokentjewitsch Antonov laid down “Rules for the Protection of Military Secrets in the Red Army Press (for the Duration of the War)”, in which the unauthorized dissemination of military secrets is expressly stated Treason was called.

Public mention of the existence of censorship in the USSR was banned during the war. In 1943, the book by Glawlit director Sadschikow with the title Censorship in the Days of the Great Patriotic War came under this ban . Since the existence of censorship was well known, it was an open secret (in Russian also known as "fool's secret ").

A violation of the censorship regulations in the dissemination of information was, in the best case, punished with forced labor with a duration of up to three months or according to Section 185 of the Soviet Criminal Code of 1926 with the amendments of June 1, 1942 or similar paragraphs of the criminal codes of the others Condemned Union Republics.

Late Stalinist Period (1945 to 1953)

During the German-Soviet War, censorship focused on protecting military secrets, but after the fighting ended in May 1945, a period of ideological cleansing of literature began again. In 1946, for example, the “Black Book”, largely developed by Ilya Grigorjewitsch Ehrenburg and Wassili Semjonowitsch Grossman , was censored - the first documentary work on the crimes of the German occupiers against the Jewish population in the USSR during the Shoah . It did not correspond to the ideological requirements because, in line with reality, it emphasized the victim role of the Soviet Jews within the framework of all nationalities of the USSR.

At the beginning of the 1950s, a large-scale censorship campaign was carried out in Leningrad. The works of authors recently arrested as a result of the Leningrad affair were confiscated, as well as materials relating to the period of the Leningrad blockade . In particular, according to the order of the director of the Glawlit, copies of Olga Feodorovna Bergholz's book Here Speaks Leningrad , published in 1946, were searched for.

The censors sought to monitor not only information within the USSR but also reports published abroad by non-Soviet journalists. On February 25, 1946, a new ordinance of the Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee on the censorship of messages from the USSR came into effect.

As of 1947, the Glawlit censorship authority was divided into seven departments, one of which was responsible for military censorship, one for censoring news reports from the Soviet Union to foreign countries and the remaining five for ideological censorship within the USSR.

Shortly after the end of the war, so-called “booty films” by international directors were shown in the cinemas for some time. In the years that followed, Hollywood's products disappeared from the screen again, and from all international film production, Soviet viewers only saw French comedies and Indian melodramas . Incidentally, these films were also temporarily censored and cut or the subtitles changed according to the censors' specifications.

In the history of the censorship of cinema films in the USSR, the whereabouts of the film, directed by Olexandr Dovschenko, entitled Forgive America! remarkable. The film was an agitational pamphlet based on the motifs of the book The Freedom of American Diplomats . The book was by Anabell Bakard, a politically motivated defector from the USA. When the shooting of the film was almost finished, the director received an order to stop the shooting. The unfinished film remained in the archives for 46 years and was not shown publicly until 1995.

A similar fate befell the second part of the film Ivan the Terrible by Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein , the performance of which was initially forbidden due to unsatisfactory reflection on the official historical view of history. It was only shown in cinemas in 1958 after the "art critics" and colleagues of Eisenstein's Sergei Appolinarijewitsch Gerassimow and Ivan Alexandrowitsch Pyrjew supported the performance.

From 1932 to 1952 inclusive, the Glawlit of the USSR and the equivalent authorities in the Union Republics issued 289 lists, bibliographical registers and orders for the confiscation of printed copies.

Squad problems

In the Stalinist period, the employees of the Glawlit often only had intermediate educational qualifications. For example, in 1940 only 506 of a total of 5,000 censors in the RSFSR had a higher school qualification that was roughly comparable to that of a German grammar school. The main reason for this situation was the requirement that the Glawlit employees should come from a proletarian environment that was as reliable as possible. In practice, they often hired former farmers who had recently moved to the cities. As early as 1933, the Glawlit director Boris Wolin complained about the lack of qualified personnel in Russia. The same problem occurred in Belarus and Ukraine. The incompetence of the censors led to curiosities: in 1937 a censor deleted a section of a poem by Vladimir Mayakovsky because, in his opinion, this passage “distorted Mayakovsky”. One of the Rajon plenipotentiaries of the Glawlit suggested to publish only a note about an elaboration of a work, because in this turret lathes were mentioned. He assumed that these machines were used to make revolvers and that publication of the work would accordingly be a violation of military secrecy. For a similar reason, a censor renamed the old Russian Igor Song (rus. Слово о полку Игореве , literal translation: "Word / song about the regiment / army of Igor") in song about Igor's military unit in order.

On August 17, 1944, the propaganda administration of the CPSU Central Committee, in connection with the censorship of the works of the author Al Ivanov, wrote a document on serious shortcomings in the work of the Glawlit . Said AI Ivanov collaborated with the German occupiers during World War II, which resulted in complete censorship of his books in the Soviet Union. In this case, however, the treatises of Major General Alexei Ivanovich Ivanov were also placed on the index, who was the director of the Academy of Military Medicine of the Soviet Navy and who had neither collaborated with the Germans nor had any relationship with AI Ivanov.

Control by the communist party

The Communist Party's apparent direct influence on the work of censorship began in 1925 and expanded rapidly in the 1930s.

The most important source of direct control of the Glawlit by the CPSU is the following series of ordinances of the Central Committee of the CPSU:

• On Party Politics in the Field of Fiction (1925)
• About the work of the publishers (1931)
• On the transformation of the literary-artistic associations (1932)
• About the children's book publisher (1933)
• On the literary critics and the bibliography (1940)

In addition, ordinances issued between 1946 and 1948 (for example on the magazines Stern and Leningrad ) are historical evidence of the Communist Party's influence on censorship:

«Партийный диктат и вместе с ним партийная цензура развивались в 30—40-е годы с геоместе с ним партийная цензура развивались в 30—40-е годы с геоместе с ним партийная прогались в 30—40-е годы с геоместе с ним пеое прометитрическое прометисер. Всё решали партийные структуры, начиная от Политбюро, его семёрки, пятёрки, тройки, Генсека. »

“The dictates of the communist party and the censorship by the party intensified in the 1930s to 1940s with a linear progression to one another. Everything was decided by party structures, starting with the entire Politburo, later by seven, five and three Politburo members and finally by the Secretary General alone. "

- Professor GW Schirkow : History of censorship in Russia in the 19th and 20th centuries

The regional Glawlit authorities in the Union Republics issued their own censorship notices. In May 1950, the Communist Party of Belarus adopted the Ordinance On Measures to End the Revelation of State Secrets in Museums . In the museum about the Great Patriotic War in the BSSR, information about the cattle requisitioned by the Germans, which were later asserted as reparation claims, was removed. A map showing the locations of partisan units during the war and other things also disappeared.

Stalin Purges

→ Main article : Stalinist purges

The censors worked closely with the Soviet State Security authorities. Sergei Ingulow, director of Glawlit from 1935 to 1938, wrote as early as 1928:

«Критика должна иметь последствия! Аресты, судебную расправу, суровые приговоры, физические и моральные расстрелы […] »

“Criticism must have consequences! Arrests, legal settlements, severe judgments, physical and moral shootings [...] "

- Sergei Ingulow : Reproduced in Ермаков: Ножницы небытия. Сергей Борисович Ингулов (1893–1938)

Ingulow himself was arrested on December 17, 1937, released from his office and shot on September 3, 1938 for "counterrevolutionary activity".

A large number of cases are known in which ordinary typographical errors noticed by the censors were interpreted as an anti-state crime and the relevant documents were handed over to the Soviet State Security.

On June 21, 1943, the Glawlit director Sadschikow sent the secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU Pusin a secret report about two misprints in the Krasnovodsk newspaper Der Kommunist : On the same day an “l” was forgotten in the word “Commander-in-Chief”. May an “r” in the word “Stalingrad”. Sajikov noted in his report:

«Сообщая об этом, считаю, что эти контрреволюционные опечатки - дело рук врага. Об этих фактах мною сообщено также в НКГБ […] »

“As I report on it, I feel that these counter-revolutionary misprints must be an act of the enemy. I have therefore communicated these facts to the NKGB [...] "

On April 5, 1947, the Glavlit director Omelchenko wrote to the head of the MGB Viktor Abakumov :

«В некоторой части тиража журнала« Молодой колхозник »№ 1 за 1947 год в посвящении к стихотворению" Счастье "было тоже допущено грубое искажение: вместо текста -« В 1920 году В. И. Ленин о х отился в Брянских лесах »напечатано:« В 1920 году В. И. Ленин о к отился в Брянских лесах ». Эти факты, по-моему, заслуживают внимания Министерства Государственной Безопасности. »

"In some parts of the 1947 edition of Der Junge Kolkhozbauer, issue 1, the dedication of the poem Glück allowed the following gross distortion: Instead of the text" In 1920 Lenin hunted in the Brjansk forests "became" 1920 Lenin threw boys in the Brjansk forests " printed. In my opinion, these facts deserve the attention of the State Security. "

The censors were also affected by the purges carried out by the Soviet State Security: at the time when the Glawlit director Ingulov was arrested and shot, dozens of Glawlit employees disappeared with him. The directors of the Georgian, Azerbaijani and Ukrainian Glawlit were also "exposed" as enemies of the people. Almost all of the Glawlit censors were replaced by new ones during this period.

In the years following the Stalin era, the essential legal bases of the harsh censorship were Section 70 of the RSFSR Criminal Code (“Anti-Soviet Agitation and Propaganda”) and Section 190 (1) (“Spreading knowingly false statements about the Soviet order”) and corresponding paragraphs in the criminal codes of the Union Republics. Based on these paragraphs, according to the statistics of the KGB, 3448 people were convicted from 1958 to 1966 and another 1583 people were convicted from 1967 to 1975. From 1956 until the censorship regulations were relaxed in 1987, a total of 8,145 people were convicted.

1953 to 1966

After the death of Stalin there was an insignificant weakening of the censorship regulations known as the “ thaw period ”. This weakening of the censorship regulations lasted until 1964, but in the period up to 1967 the restrictions were tightened again.

Khrushchev's secret speech " On the personality cult and its consequences " on XX. The CPSU party congress was soon perceived in the Soviet Union as the beginning of a process of democratization and liberalization.

The main medium of the representatives of the " thaw " was the literary magazine Nowy Mir (German: New World). Some works from this period also became very well known in the West. These include Vladimir Dudinzew's novel Man does not live on bread alone and Alexander Solzhenitsyn's short story A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich . Other important authors of the "thaw period" were Viktor Astafjew , Vladimir Tendryakov , Bella Akhmadulina , Robert Roshdestvensky , Andrei Voznesensky and Yevgeny Yevtushenko .

The status of the General Directorate for the Protection of State Secrets in the Press , which at that time guot - headquarters of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for the protection of military and state secrets (russ. Главное управление по охране военной и государственной тайны при Совете министров ) - was called, was through the subordination within the remit of the State Committee for Press and Information (Goskompetschati) has been demoted.

The number of employees of the censorship was reduced, in particular the censors, who worked in the editorial offices at the expense of the respective newspapers and publishers, were abolished. Books by authors who were legally rehabilitated after the end of the Stalin era were slowly being transferred from the Spezchran to the open collections of the libraries. In particular, the Central State Archive for Literature and Art (ZGALI) transferred around 30,000 previously secret archive materials to the open holdings. These included the works of Isaak Babel , Konstantin Balmont , Yevgeny Samjatin , Vsevolod Meyerhold , Dmitri Mereschkowskis , Boris Pilnjak, Vasily Rosanov , Igor Severjanin , Vladislav Khodasevich and other authors. From 1961 the documents were partially classified again and brought back to the Spezchran.

Censorship restricted the glorification of Stalin, sometimes to the point of erasing his name and image from works of art. Apart from Stalin, mention of some of his closest followers was also forbidden. In particular, after Lavrenti Berias was arrested and executed at the end of 1953, every subscription to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia received a letter with extensive papers on the lemma "Beringstrasse" in the following year:

"[...] рекомендую вам вырезать портрет и биографическую статью о враге народа и приклеить вменго" Бнеить вместо]

"[...] we recommend that you cut out the portrait and the biographical article about the enemy of the people and paste the lemma" Beringstrasse "in their place [...]"

In 1957, the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the USSR for Radio and Television was created. In this way, television as a new medium of information came under the jurisdiction of censorship.

During this time, the public hunt down the author Boris Pasternak took place because of his Soviet-critical novel Doctor Zhivago , published in Tamizdat , for which he was even to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1958 .

In the leadership of the CPSU, ideological differences also matured with regard to censorship policy. Nikita Khrushchev even planned to completely lift the ideological censorship and commissioned the philosopher and chairman of the agitprop Leonid Ilyichev with the preparation of a corresponding document. A group of leaders in the CPSU who considered this policy to be harmful and unacceptable, and whose leader was presumably Politburo member Mikhail Suslov , then provoked a conflict. For this purpose, an exhibition of avant-garde artists under the title The New Reality was prepared in the Moscow Manege in December 1962 and a visit to the exhibition by Khrushchev was organized. Unprepared for the perception of art, which differed significantly from the canon of socialist realism , Khrushchev was outraged by the exhibits, which was reinforced by Suslov. A propaganda campaign against formalism and abstractionism was launched in the press. There could now be no question of lifting the censorship.

After Nikita Khrushchev's forced resignation from the post of First Secretary of the CPSU and Leonid Brezhnev's takeover , the policy of relative openness and democratization began to be withdrawn.

The ideologist Mikhail Suslov got excited:

«Подумайте только, открываю утром" Известия и не знаю, что там прочитаю! "

"Just think about it, [one day] I'll open Izvestia in the morning and still don't know what I'll read in it!"

The arrest of the writers Andrei Sinjawski and Juli Danijel , who published their works in western Tamizdat, because this was not possible because of the censorship regulations in the USSR, was an important turning point towards a renewed tightening of the censorship regulations . The court process and the harsh verdict against the two of them (seven and five years in a labor camp respectively) made many people in the Soviet Union and abroad speak of a political settlement. More than 60 authors, including Alexander Solzhenitsyn, signed letters from the Soviet writers' association in which the two writers were protected.

Brezhnev stagnation (1966 to 1986)

Wladimir Majakowski and Lilja Brik (original photograph 1918, retouching from the 1960s)

During the era of the Brezhnev stagnation, censorship became an indispensable element of the Soviet propaganda machine, which now had a more conservative and protective function. New specialists were hired, most of whom had a very high level in the humanities. Pavel Romanov was director of the Glawlit for the entire period .

By the regulation of the Council of Ministers of August 18, 1966, the ideological control by the Glawlit was revalued, since the censorship authority was again subordinated to the Council of Ministers itself. The ways of cooperation between Glawlit and the subordinate organizations changed: the artists put their works in profiles of the respective organizations, which were associations of writers, sculptors, editorial offices of newspapers and magazines. From the profiles, the works were forwarded to the Glawlit, contact of the censors with the authors was strictly forbidden by official instructions.

The censors took up the fight with allusions, memories and other forms of parables. Not only the actually written word was censored, but also the content that the reader might think of.

The Russian historian and dissident Yuri Burtin wrote of the censorship of the second half of the 1960s:

"Порой рождался некий смешанный вариант, малознакомый мировой цензурной практике, но для нас достаточно обычный: это когда произведению сначала обдирали бока в предварительной цензуре, а стоило ему появиться в печати, как на него (по заранее принятому в" инстанциях "решению) спускали с цепи ‹партийную критику›, издательствам же ‹не рекомендовали его перепечатывать› »

“Sometimes a mixed variant of the little-known world of censorship practices is applied to us mere mortals: first, parts of the work are edited by the pre-censors, so that it takes effort to get it to print; but if it can be printed (in the edited version), the publishers will receive a notification that it is a 'criticism of the party', the 'printing of which is not recommended'. "

At the end of the 1960s, the publication of Adolf Hitler's short story Outlaw Number One by D. Melnikow and DL Tschornoi in the magazine "Nowi Mir" was prohibited on the grounds that the text played with "uncontrolled undertones". In the instructions of the Glawlit appeared the prohibition of subjects dealing with the Great Terror of the Stalin era. Information about the "detention" was assigned to the area of ​​state secrets.

At the end of 1967 an experiment was started with the broadcast of the TV station "Fourth Program". The station should have a high intellectual level and was designed for viewers with a higher education. The program was created under the idea of ​​promoting the same ideology as all other Soviet mass media, but on a higher intellectual level. The experiment lasted about a year until scientific experts from the higher party school of the CPSU published a negative article about it. The reviewers described the station as an ideologically misguided and politically damaging attempt to create an elitist program that was inaccessible to the masses. Because of this criticism, broadcasting was stopped again.

In general, live broadcasts on television were kept to a minimum during this time, and almost all programs went through extensive editing and pre-censorship control. In 1970 the State Committee for Radio and Television was renamed the State Committee of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union for Television and Radio by the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union. On July 5, 1978 it was renamed the State Committee of the USSR for Television and Radio. This reorganization placed television under the direct responsibility of head of state Leonid Brezhnev.

After the crackdown on the Prague Spring at the end of August 1968, Mikhail Suslov said while discussing a possible abolition of censorship:

«Известно, что между отменой цензуры в Чехословакии и вводом советских танков прошколо всего несекол. Я хочу знать, кто будет вводить танки к нам? »

“It is known that there were only a few months between the lifting of censorship in Czechoslovakia and the invasion of Soviet tanks. I want to know who should send the tanks to us, please? "

When, in the late 1960s, the Sino-Soviet rift due to mutual territorial claims on the Zhenbao Dao river island in Ussuri briefly escalated into an armed conflict (→ incident on the Ussuri ), the Glawlit received additional censorship: all publications related to the economic performance of the Soviet Far East were banned. Nothing more could be written about the sale of textiles or the amount of fish caught. Editors from the Soviet Far East complained because they no longer had any information to fill the pages of their local newspapers with. The ban was lifted after the situation on the Sino-Soviet border improved.

The well-known TV series " Seventeen Moments of Spring " was only released in 1973 thanks to the advocacy of KGB chairman Yuri Vladimirovich Andropov . Mikhail Suslov wanted to prevent the broadcast of the series, which, in his opinion, "did not show a pretty picture of the Soviet people at war". Andropov replied laconically that “the entire Soviet people no longer serve in the Schellenberg intelligence service ”.

List of Western musicians who, for various reasons, were considered "ideologically harmful" by the Nikolayev commissioner of the Komsomol, P. Grishin. Excerpts translation:
1. Sex Pistols - punk, violence
…
6. Kiss - neofascism, punk, violence
…
9. Iron Maiden - violence, religious obscurantism
…
14. Alice Cooper - violence, vandalism
15. Nazareth - violence, religious mysticism, sadism
16. Scorpions - violence
17. Dschinghis Khan - nationalism, anti-communism
...
19. Pink Floyd - criticism of the politics of the USSR (" Aggression of the USSR in Afghanistan ")
...
31. Julio Iglesias - neo-fascism
...

A mass cultural phenomenon of the time was the uncensored song that was spread word of mouth and through tape recordings. The most famous songwriter was the poet and actor Vladimir Semyonovich Vysotsky . On April 17, 1973 Vysotsky wrote to the candidate of the Politburo and Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU and Minister of Culture of the USSR Pyotr Demichev :

«Вы, вероятно, знаете, что в стране проще отыскать магнитофон, на котором звучат мои песнат мои песни, чтем кать, мои песне, чтем кать 9 лет я прошу об одном: дать мне возможность живого общения со зрителем, отобрать, певарать, песни мраглаасоесни мраглааанцоер.

“You probably know that in the country it is easier to find a tape recorder that can play my songs than one that doesn't. For nine years I have been asking you one thing: give me the opportunity to dialogue with the audience, select the songs for a concert, and make a program. "

On September 15, 1974, the so-called " Bulldozer Exhibition " of Moscow avant-garde artists was violently destroyed. The storming by a party loyal mob was officially welcomed by representatives of the style of socialist realism .

In addition to the fight against anti-Soviet agitation and the disclosure of secrets, Soviet censorship suppressed the excessive glorification of Stalin, which did not correspond to the current policy of the CPSU. On the one hand, the criticism of Stalin that prevailed during the thaw was limited. On the other hand, the victory in the Great Patriotic War , for example, had to be recognized as the merit of the Communist Party as a whole, and not as Stalin's personal victory.

The censorship had to control the musical repertoire of musicians. All songs that were allowed to be played in the Soviet Union had passed through the preliminary censorship, the program of concerts was checked regardless of the content of the music. In 1983 the Ministry of Culture of the USSR issued instructions that 80 percent of the repertoire of all professional and amateur musicians had to consist of songs and pieces by members of the Union of Soviet Composers . The average age of musicians in the Union of Soviet Composers was 60, and new members have not been accepted since 1973. Rock musicians were harassed. For example, the founder and song singer of the Russian rock band DDT Yuri Shevchuk was forced to sign a declaration in 1983 at the KGB headquarters in Ufa , according to which he should no longer write and compose his own songs.

With the increasing emergence of discotheques in the Soviet Union, the problem arose of where to carry out control of foreign music distributed on magnetic tapes and cassettes. The communist youth organization Komsomol was responsible for controlling the repertoire of the discos . For example, on January 10, 1985, the Nikolayev Commissioner of the Komsomol of Ukraine, P. Grishin, sent the Secretary General of the organization an "incomplete list of foreign musical groups and singers whose repertoire includes ideologically harmful works" in order to control the activities of the discotheques. The list shown here includes a. Entries on the Sex Pistols , Madness , Kiss , Styx , Iron Maiden , AC / DC , Black Sabbath , Alice Cooper , Tina Turner , Dschinghis Khan , Pink Floyd , Donna Summer , Canned Heat , Julio Iglesias , 10cc , the Scorpions and Blondie .

The following censorship practice was used for the Soviet newspapers in the Brezhnev era: First, the editor of the Glawlit handed over the proofs of the material prepared for publication in duplicate. A Glawlit employee sifted through the material and looked for information contained in the now very extensive list of information that was not allowed to be published in the press. The bans were partly conditional and partly absolute. Absolute bans on a certain topic were initiated beforehand by the relevant Soviet ministries. For all other cases there was a special “Intervention” form in which the censors passed their reservations on a specific text or formulation to the editor.

Censorship during the Afghanistan war

In 1980, the Russian film series The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes and Dr. Watson censored. According to the script, in A Study in Scarlet , Sherlock Holmes used his deductive method to conclude that the frustrated Dr. Watson must have returned from the war in Afghanistan. When the film was set to music, “Afghanistan” was replaced by “some eastern countries”, because Soviet ideologues wanted to avoid allusion to the recent invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet army .

After Andrei Sakharov foreign as a member of the Academy of Sciences media had given two interviews in which he the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan had criticized him were on January 22, 1980 all Awards including three from 1953 acquired until 1962 Order Hero of Socialist Labor revoked . On the same day he was exiled to Gorky without trial , where he was placed under house arrest .

The so-called “Afghan songs”, which was popular during the war years from 1979 to 1989, was banned until 1987.

Until the second half of 1980, the reports published in the Soviet media about the involvement of the Red Army in combat operations in Afghanistan were very scanty. According to a list of publishable information compiled by the Soviet Defense and Foreign Ministry in 1985, the Soviet media were allowed to report isolated incidents or fatal injuries to Soviet soldiers in the performance of their military duty (less than once a month), about the defense against Report rebel attacks and duties in providing international assistance to the Afghan people . The same document banned the publication of reports on specific Soviet operations at company level or higher, field reports, and broadcast live TV coverage from the battlefield.

literature

Russian

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• Arlen Viktorovich Bljum: Рукописи не горят? .. К 80-летию основания Главлита СССР и 10-летию его кончины. In: “Звезда” magazine, issue 6, 2002, pp. 201–211 - Moscow.
• Arlen Viktorovich Bljum: Советская цензура в эпоху тотального террора. 1929-1953. Академический проект Saint Petersburg, 2000, ISBN 5-7331-0190-3 , opentextnn.ru
• Arlen Viktorovich Bljum: Советская цензура эпохи большого террора. In: Journal Индекс / Досье на цензуру, Issue 2, 1997, index.org.ru
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• Татьяна Михайловна Горяева: Политическая цензура в СССР. 1917-1991 гг. ; Publishing house «Российская политическая энциклопедия» (РОССПЭН) Moscow, 2002; ISBN 5-8243-0279-0 .
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• М. В. Зеленов: Библиотечные чистки в 1932–1937 гг. в Советской России, opentextnn.ru - English: The Library Purges of 1932–1937 in Soviet Russia . In: International Journal for Russian & East European Bibliographic, Library & Publishing Studies. New Series , Vol. 14, 2000, pp. 42-57, London.
• Александр Колпакиди. Михаил Серяков: Щит и меч. Olma Media Group, Moscow 2002, ISBN 5-7654-1497-4 .
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• К. В. Лютова: Спецхран библиотеки Академии Наук, Издательский отдел БАН, Saint Petersburg 1999, vivovoco.astronet.ru
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• Владимир Александрович Невежин: "Если завтра в поход…": Подготовка к войне и идеологическая-30 прхагическая-30 прхаг 40 гава-30 . Publishers Яуза, Эксмо, Moscow 2007, ISBN 978-5-699-16625-1 , militera.lib.ru
• Павел Семёнович Рейфман: Из истории русской, советской и постсоветской цензуры. Курс лекций по истории литературы. Библиотека Гумер, 2003, gumer.info
• А. М. Румянцев (Red.): Научный коммунизм. Словарь. Политиздат, Moscow 1983
• Надежда Васильевна Рыжак: Цензура в СССР и Российская государственная библиотека. In: Доклад на Международной конференции «Румянцевские чтения-2005».
• Юрий Сааков: Высочайшая цензура. In: magazine Новый мир, issue 3/2004, magazines.russ.ru
• А. В. Соколов: Тотальная цензура. Опыт Советского Союза. In: Общая теория социальной коммуникации: Учебное пособие. Publishing house В. А. Михайлова, Saint Petersburg 2002, ISBN 5-8016-0091-4 , vuzlib.su
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• Сергей Чертопруд: Зарождение и становление системы защиты государственной тайны вгю Советском со18 советском Со18 Со18пем 1930. Агентура.ру. Проверено 11 апреля 2009, agentura.ru
• Alexander Nikolajewitsch Jakowlew (Ed.): Власть и художественная интеллигенция. Документы ЦК РКП (б) - ВКП (б), ВЧК - ОГПУ - НКВД о культурной политике. 1917-1953. Материк Publishing House, Moscow 2002, ISBN 5-85646-040-5 .
• Collective of authors: История книги. Работы отдела редких книг. Publishing house «Книга», Moscow 1978, orel.rsl.ru (PDF)

German

• Anna Amelina: Propaganda or Autonomy ?: Russian television from 1970 to today . Transcript-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 3-89942-483-2 .
• Lev Besymensky: Stalin and Hitler - the poker game of the dictators . Structure of the Taschenbuch Verlag, Berlin 2004, ISBN 3-7466-8109-X .
• Ivo Bock (Ed.): Sharply monitored communication: censorship systems in Eastern (Central) Europe (1960s-1980s) . LIT Verlag, 2011, ISBN 978-3-643-11181-4 .
• Arlen Viktorowitsch Bljum: Censorship in the USSR . Part 1: Behind the Scenes of the 'Ministry of Truth' 1917–1929 . Project, Bochum 1999, ISBN 3-89733-034-2 .
• Arlen Viktorowitsch Bljum: Censorship in the USSR . Part 2: Archive documents 1917–1991 . Project, Bochum 1999, ISBN 3-89733-035-0 .
• Wolfgang Eichwede, Ivo Bock (eds.): Samizdat: alternative culture in Central and Eastern Europe; the 60s to 80s . Edition Temmen, Bremen 2000, ISBN 3-86108-338-8 .
• Artur W. Just: The press of the Soviet Union - methods of dictatorial mass leadership . Berlin 1931.
• Wolfgang Kasack: The Soviet literary censorship. In: Osteuropa , Vol. 35, January 1985, pp. 71-86.
• David King : Stalin's retouching, photo and art manipulation in the Soviet Union . Hamburger Edition, 1997, ISBN 3-930908-33-6 .
• Monika Müller: Between caesura and censorship. Soviet television under Gorbachev . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2001, ISBN 3-531-13495-7 .
• Pekka Roisko: Keeper of the Grail of a system that is going under. Mass media censorship in the USSR 1981–1991 . Böhlau, Cologne / Weimar / Vienna 2015, ISBN 978-3-412-22501-8 .
• Paul Roth : Commanded Public Opinion - Soviet Media Policy . Busse-Seewald Verlag, 1986, ISBN 3-512-00643-4 .
• Paul Roth: Sow-Inform - communications and information policy of the Soviet Union . Droste Verlag, Düsseldorf 1980, ISBN 3-7700-4034-1 .
• J. Soenke: Studies on contemporary censorship systems . Frankfurt (Main) 1941.
• Klaus Waschik: Virtual Reality. Soviet image and censorship politics as a memory control in the 1930s . In: Zeithistorische Forschungen / Studies in Contemporary History , 7, 2010, pp. 30–54.
• Hauke ​​Wendler: Russia's press between independence and censorship. The role of the print media in the process of political system change from 1990 to 1993 . Münster 1995, ISBN 3-8258-2460-8 .

English

• Merle Fainsod: Smolensk Under Soviet Rule . Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA 1958 (work on the archive of the Smolensk Oblast and from 1929 to 1937 of the Western Oblast, which also contained documents from the local Glawlit, captured by the German Wehrmacht in July 1941 and encompassed the period from 1917 to 1939 )
• Arkadii Gaew: Soviet Press Control . In: Bulletin of the Institute for the Study of the History and Culture of the USSR , Issue 5, 1955

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Gaew: Soviet Press Control. P. 3.
2. ↑ ^{a b} Горяева: История советской политической цензуры. Документы и комментарии
3. ↑ Блюм: Рукописи не горят? .. К 80-летию основания Главлита СССР и 10-летию его кончины , S. ??
4. ↑ Фёдоров: Права ребенка и проблема насилия на российском экране , S. ??
5. ↑ Лапин: В погоне за рейтингами ; S. ??
6. ↑ Латынина: "Пережиток Средневековья" или элемент культуры? , S. ??
7. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o} Жирков: История цензуры в России XIX — XX вв. Учебное пособие
8. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Блюм: Советская цензура в эпоху тотального террора. 1929-1953
9. ↑ Международный пакт о гражданских и политических правах, Ст. 19 ( Memento from November 10, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
10. ↑ Хроника текущих событий. Выпуск 45
11. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Лютова: Спецхран библиотеки Академии Наук
12. ↑ Колчинский Э. И .: Несостоявшийся «союз» философии и биологии (20-30-е гг.) ; Репрессированная наука: Сборник. - Наука, 1991. - С. 34-70.
13. ↑ Бабков В. В .: Медицинская генетика в СССР ; Вестник РАН. - Наука, 2001. - № 10. - С. 928-937.
14. ↑ ^{a b c} Мазурицкий А. М. Влияние Главлита на состояние библиотечных фондов в 30-е годы XX века. «Библиотеки и ассоциации в меняющемся мире: новые технологии и новые формы сотрудничества». Научно-техническая библиотека Киевского политехнического института имени Денисенко (июнь 2000). - Материалы 7 Международной конференции Крым-2000. Проверено 26 March 2009.
15. ↑ ^{a b c d} Организация защиты государственной тайны в России ( online )
16. ↑ Н. А. Кобяк: Списки отреченных книг (статья в Словаре книжников и книжности Древней Руси )
17. ↑ Авторское право: Учебное пособие
18. ↑ Collective of authors: История книги. Работы отдела редких книг. «Книга» Publishing House, Moscow 1978; orel.rsl.ru (PDF)
19. ↑ ^{a b c d} Рейфман: Из истории русской, советской и постсоветской цензуры. Курс лекций по истории литературы
20. ↑ Ленин, Владимир Ильич: Сочинения. изд-е 4-е. Т. 26 стр. 253.
21. ↑ Декреты Советской власти ; Политиздат Moscow, 1957
22. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Молчанов: Газетная пресса России в годы революции и Гражданской войны (окт. 1917-1920 гг.)
23. ^ The Soviet press history in documents ; Karl Marx University Leipzig. Institute for Press History., Faculty of Journalism. Distance learning department, 1963
24. ↑ Декрет СНК РСФСР от November 8, 1917 о государственной монополии на печатание объявлений
25. ↑ Декрет СНК РСФСР о Революционном трибунале печати (28 января 1918) ( Memento from May 9, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
26. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Суров: Краткий обзор цензурной политики советского государства
27. ↑ Lemma: Социально-политическое и идейное единство общества in Научный коммунизм. Словарь , Под редакцией академика А. М. Румянцева. - 4th - М .: Политиздат, 1983
28. ↑ Некрич, Александр Моисеевич: Отрешись от страха. Нева: журнал. - М .: 1995. - № 6.
29. ↑ Константин Мильчин: Что наша жизнь? .. Цензура. (German: What is our life? ... censorship. ); Русский журнал (6 декабря 2002)
30. ↑ Клепиков Н. Н .: Становление органов политической цензуры на Европейском Севере РСФСР / СССР в 1920—1930-е гг.
31. ↑ Колпакиди, Серяков: Щит и меч ; Pp. 357-358.
32. ↑ Олег Борисович Мазохин: Образование, развитие сил и средств экономических подразделений ВЧУ ; ОПУ ; ФСБ, 18 февраля 2005.
33. ↑ ^{a b} Яковлев (Ed.): Власть и художественная интеллигенция.
34. ↑ Александр Николаевич Яковлев: Сумерки. ' ( Memento from May 9, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) In: Newspaper Народная воля, № 159-160, Минск, 2007
35. ↑ see end of the short story Dog Heart (accessed on August 9, 2009)
36. ↑ ^{a b} А. Суетнов: Тур вокруг цензуры. Недальняя история , magazine Журналистика и медиарынок , issue 09/2006
37. ↑ Соколов: Тотальная цензура. Опыт Советского Союза
38. ^ Biography of Nikolai Meshcheryakov
39. ↑ ^{a b} Roth: Sow-Inform , p. 96
40. ↑ ^{a b c d} Владимир Александрович Невежин: "Если завтра в поход…": Подготовка к войне и. Идеологиане иг идеологиаческа к войне и. ; Publishers Яуза, Эксмо Moscow 2007; ISBN 978-5-699-16625-1
41. ^ Translation from Roth: Sow-Inform , p. 97
42. ↑ ^{a b c} Александр Добровольский. Министерство непечати // Московский комсомолец: газета. - 2006. Интервью с Владимиром Симаньковым ( page no longer available , search in web archives: online )
43. ↑ Пивоваров Ю. С. Рецензия на книгу «Мой XX век. Воспоминания »( online ( Memento from May 27, 2011 in the Internet Archive ))
44. ↑ Roth: Sow-Inform , p. 98
45. ↑ Biography of Pawel Iwanowitsch Lebedew-Polyanski
46. ↑ Политический контроль советского радиовещания Эхо Москвы (11 октября 2008). (Accessed March 27, 2009)
47. ↑ Н. В. Махотина, О. П. Федотова: Фонд литературы ограниченного распространения ГПНТБ СО РАН: предпосылки к исследованию ( PDF ( Memento of 26 May 2011 at the Internet Archive ))
48. ↑ М. Д. Дворкина: Библиотека до 1931 года и после… (Из истории Государственной общественно, 1931 политической) ; 19–41. Государственная общественно-политическая библиотека Moscow ( online ( memento from February 28, 2009 in the Internet Archive ))
49. ↑ С. Джимбинов: Эпитафия спецхрану? .. in the magazine Новый мир , No. 5 1990 ( online )
50. ↑ В.Г. Мосолов: Alma mater ; Государственная общественно-политическая библиотека Moscow ( online ( memento from August 8, 2007 in the web archive archive.today ))
51. ↑ Надежда Васильевна Рыжак: Цензура в СССР и Российская государственная библиотека in Доклад на Международной конференции "Румянцевские чтения-2005" , ( online ( Memento of 29 February 2008 at the Internet Archive ))
52. ↑ ^{a b} Сергей Чертопруд: Зарождение и становление системы защиты государственной тайны в Советское Со18 советское Со18 Советском 1930. Агентура.ру. Проверено 11 апреля 2009. ( online ( memento from September 16, 2009 in the Internet Archive ))
53. ↑ Блюм: Советская цензура эпохи большого террора
54. ^ Fainsod: Smolensk Under Soviet Rule , p. 377
55. ^ King: The Commissar Vanishes
56. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Данилов: Главукрцензура
57. ↑ Алексеев: Замечание об истории социологии «с человеческим лицом»
58. ^ Peter Huebner: literary policy. In: Oskar Anweiler , Karl-Heinz Ruffmann : Cultural Policy of the Soviet Union (= Kröner's pocket edition, volume 429). Kröner, Stuttgart 1973, ISBN 3-520-42901-2 , pp. 190–249.
59. ↑ А. И. Кондратенко: Партийное имя профессора - Борис Волин , page no longer available , search in web archives: education.rekom.ru
60. ↑ Протокол заседания Политбюро № 145, 1933 г. ( kommersant.ru )
61. ^ Fainsod: Smolensk under Soviet Rule , p. 376
62. ↑ Горяева: Политический контроль советского радиовещания в 1920-х - 1930-х годах. Документированная история.
63. ↑ Зеленов: Библиотечные чистки в 1932–1937 гг. в Советской России
64. ↑ Блюм: Начало Второй мировой войны
65. ↑ Besymensiki: Stalin and Hitler - The dictators ' poker game , p. 398ff
66. ↑ Приказ Народного Комиссара Обороны CCCP о реорганизации Главного разведывательного управления Генерального штаба Красной Армии № 00222 от 23 октября 1952 года. РГВА, ф. 4, оп. 11, д. 68, л. 347-348
67. ↑ Приказ Народного Комиссара Обороны CCCP о включении отдела военной цензуры в состав Генерального штаба Красной Армии № 0420 от 18 сентября 1943 года. РГВА, ф. 4, оп. 11, д. 76, л. 183.
68. ↑ Приказ народного комиссара обороны № 0451 от 16 декабря 1943 г., г. Москва. О введении в действие «Положения о военной цензуре в Красной Армии (на военное время)»
69. ↑ Правила по сохранению военной тайны в печати Красной Армии (на военное время) ( online )
70. ↑ current paragraph 185 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation: http://ukru.ru/code/08/185/index.htm
71. ↑ Г. Александров. Докладная записка агитпропа ЦК А. А. Жданову по вопросу издания «Чёрной книги». Сталин и космополитизм. Фонд Александра Яковлева (03 февраля 1947). ( online ( memento from August 19, 2011 on WebCite ))
72. ↑ Блюм, Арлен Викторович. Блокадная тема в цензурной блокаде // Нева: журнал. - СПб .: 2004. - № 1. - С. 238-245. ( online ( Memento from December 5, 2008 in the Internet Archive ))
73. ↑ Постановление политбюро ЦК ВКП (б) о цензуре информации из СССР. Сталин и космополитизм. Фонд Александра Яковлева (25 февраля 1946). ( online ( Memento of the original from May 10, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. ) 
74. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Марцев: Цензура в БССР
75. ↑ Аронсон: Неархивируемое
76. ↑ Сааков: Высочайшая цензура
77. ↑ Белла Езерская: Трагедия художника in the magazine Вестник , issue 11/2002, New York ( online )
78. ↑ Леонид Школьник: Интеллектуальное кино Сергея Эйзенштейна , "Еврейский журнал" ( online ( memento from April 30, 2015 in the Internet Archive ))
79. ↑ Ермаков: Ножницы небытия. Сергей Борисович Ингулов (1893–1938)
80. ↑ СВОДКА № 10 важнейших изъятий, задержаний и конфискаций, произведенных органами Главлита. 1936 , electronic journal Мир истории 1999. - № 4. - ISSN  1561-8463 ( online ( memento of January 31, 2012 in the Internet Archive ))
81. ↑ Николай Руденский. В СССР цензуры не было. Грани.ру (16 декабря 2000). ( online ( Memento from May 10, 2009 in the Internet Archive ))
82. ↑ Письмо Ю. В. Андропова в ЦК КПСС № 3213-А от December 29, 1975: ( online ( memento of the original from March 16, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to instructions and then remove this notice. ) 
83. ↑ Владимир Александрович Козлов: Крамола: инакомыслие в СССР при Хрущеве и Брежневе. 1953–1982 годы. ; Journal Отечественная история , No. 4 2003, p. 99 ( online )
84. ↑ Волкова: "Я считаю, что всё это должно быть в РГАЛИ ..." Беседа в Российском государыском государаском госудаарсуственнора архали, 54, 54, к65 , p
85. ↑ Николай Молок: Пропали комиссары , article in the newspaper Известия, Moscow edition February 22, 2006
86. ↑ Письмо Г. Андреева и А. Кашина из Западной Германии К. Е. Ворошилову с требованием прекращения травли Б. Л. Пастернака. Альманах Россия. XX век. Фонд Александра Яковлева (28 ноября 1958). ( online , accessed October 11, 2009)
87. ↑ Голяховский: Путь хирурга. Полвека в СССР
88. ↑ Леонид Александрович Кацва: Общественно-политическая жизнь СССР во второй половине 1950-х годов , newspaper История Moscow: пруды Чистые, Issue 4 2001 ( online )
89. ↑ Андрей Морозов, Евгений Евтушенко: ... Брежнев говорил обо мне: "! А что я могу с ним сделать .." , newspaper Столичные новости Киев Issue 27, 2005 (No. 364) ( online ( Memento of 12 May 2009 at the Internet Archive ) )
90. ↑ Нина Михайловна Молева: Манеж, которого никто не видел , Moscow Moscow magazine 2003 ( online )
91. ↑ Элий Михайлович Белютин: 1 декабря 1962 г. Манеж ; Ogonyok Moscow magazine issue 49 1997
92. ↑ Гаман-Голутвина и др .: История России 1945 - 2008 ; P. 192.
93. ↑ Алексеева: История инакомыслия в СССР: новейший период.
94. ↑ Лидия Корнеевна Чуковская: Михаилу Шолохову, автору "Тихого Дона" (25 May 1966). - Letter of support for Sinjawski and Danijel, accessed on October 11, 2009 ( online )
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96. ↑ ^{a b} Войнович В. Н. : Главный цензор . In: Галерея Владимира Войновича . Archived from the original on March 4, 2009. Retrieved March 29, 2009.
97. ↑ Стругацкий Б. Н. : «Из-за советской цензуры мы внесли 980 изменений в‹ Обитаемый остров ›» . Archived from the original on May 10, 2009. Retrieved March 29, 2009.
98. ↑ Виноградов И. И. : Слово и дело . In: Континент . No. 134, 2007. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
99. ↑ Прищепа В. П .: Позиционная борьба с цензурой . In: Л. Н. Макарова (Ed.): Российского Отечества поэт (Е.А. Евтушенко: 1965–1995 гг.) . Издательство Хакасского государственного университета им. Н. Ф. Катанова, Абакан 1996, ISBN 5-7810-0019-4 , pp. 344 (Russian, russofile.ru [accessed September 30, 2010]).
100. ↑ Рудольф Андреевич Борецкий: В Бермудском треугольнике ТВ . Икар, МГУ, Moscow 1998, Chapter 1: Аршином общим не измерить (Russian, В Бермудском треугольнике ТВ ( Memento of 3 April 2013 Internet Archive [accessed on 30 September 2010])).
101. ↑ СМИ в отсутствие Ариадны ( Russian , Сборник) In: Законодательство Российской Федерации о о срерации о сиадним массовойм массовоник . Институт "Открытое общество" , Центр "Право и средства массовой информации". 1996. Archived from the original on April 4, 2009. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
102. ↑ Минералов Ю. И. Отзыв о кандидатской диссертации Дмитриева Дмитрия Петровича «" Новый мир "А. Т. Твардовского » ( Memento from May 10, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
103. ↑ Тихонов Вячеслав Васильевич . In: Актеры советского и российского кино . Retrieved May 20, 2009.
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105. ↑ В.П. Стельмах: Владимир Высоцкий и цензура , Доклад на Международной конференции Владимир Владимир Высоцкий и цензура 1960 . 8-12 апреля 1998
106. ↑ In the USSR, Sherlock Holmes was censored (Russian) . NTV . Archived from the original on May 9, 2009. Retrieved March 29, 2009.
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108. ↑ W. Ogrysko: The phenomenon of Afghan songs . Russian service of the BBC. Retrieved March 29, 2009.

Remarks

1. ↑ This refers to several articles in the newspaper Rabotschi Prut ( Pravda under a different name after it was banned in 1913), for example from 15 September ^July / September 28, 1917 ^greg. . See Roth: Sow-Inform , p. 33
2. ↑ For Lenin, the press was not a simple medium for transmitting information from 1897 to 1900, but a central component in the creation of “a revolutionary organization of the proletariat”, that is, a propaganda instrument for gaining a large number of followers and guiding them.
3. ↑ In the Russian original of the text, the term “Aktiengesellschaft” actually appears.
4. ↑ From July 1944, Belarusian nationalists supported by the Germans waged a guerrilla war against the Red Army, which lasted until around 1957 through American support during the Cold War. Belarusian Nazi during the World War II and their work for the Cold War . ( Memento of October 24, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Interviews with the contemporary witness Sigizmund Stankewitsch and others: ruessmeyer.de (PDF) The figure was removed in 1950 because the Belarusian farmers had little or nothing at all from the German reparations payments and therefore the dissatisfaction with the Soviet administration and thus the influx of anti-Soviet partisans was further increased. Some of the rural population lived in caves until 1950, which they had dug as a makeshift after the Soviet reconquest. Interviews with Sigizmund Stankewitsch and others: ruessmeyer.de (PDF)
5. ↑ In Russian, this distortion is caused by simply exchanging the letter "х" with "к" in the word "о х отился". In any case, this is a misprint that can easily be overlooked.
6. ^ GULag prisoners and exiles no longer had civil rights. That is why the term Soviet citizen is inappropriate.