Conservatism in the United States

For related and other uses, see Conservatism (disambiguation)

American conservatism is a political movement that incorporates many different ideologies under the blanket heading of conservative. Included are social conservatives, economic conservatives, and religious conservatives.

Individuals or groups who identify themselves as conservative tend to vote Republican or Libertarian, and may include:

Economic conservatives and libertarians who favor free markets and limited government.
Social conservatives who seek to defend what they see as traditional values.
Religious conservatives who favor the incorporation of religious teachings into state organizations, such as the public schools and the courts, and who favor a system of laws based on religious commandments and prohibitions.
Supporters of a strong American military.
Supporters judicial restraint and opponents of judicial activism.
Supporters of states' rights.

Modern American conservatism coalesced in the latter half of the 20th century, responding over time to the political and social change associated with events such as the Great Depression, the Cold War, and the counterculture stemming from the American Civil Rights Movement. Its prominence has been aided, in part, to the emergence of vocal and influential economists, politicians, writers, and media personalities.

History

The Loyalists of the American Revolution were mostly political conservatives, some of whom produced political discourse of a high order, including lawyer Joseph Galloway and governor-historian Thomas Hutchinson . After the war, most leaders emigrated or became apolitical; few played a major role after the war in America; Samuel Seabury was an exception. The exiles did help shape Canadian conservatism in a royalist rather than republican direction.

The Founding Fathers created the single most important set of political ideas in American history, known as republicanism, that all groups have drawn from. The Federalist Party, followers of Alexander Hamilton, developed an important variation of republicanism that can be considered conservative. Strongly opposed to aristocracy and forms of established power, they emphasized civic virtue as the core American value. The Federalists spoke for the propertied interests and the upper classes of the main cities. They envisioned a modernizing land of banks and factories.

On many issues American conservatism also derives from the republicanism of Thomas Jefferson and his followers, especially John Randolph of Roanoke and his "Old Republican" followers. They idealized the yeoman farmer as the epitome of civic virtue, warned that banking and industry led to the use of money to buy government support, and loss of independence by voters. Jefferson himself was a vehement opponent of what today is called, "judicial activism."[1] The Jeffersonians stressed States' Rights and small government. In the 1830-54 period the Whig Party included conservatives such as Daniel Webster of New Hampshire.

South Carolina Democrat John C. Calhoun introduced the word "conservative" into U.S. politics in the 1830s. The word was originally used by post-1815 French royalists and later by British Tories. Calhoun argued that a conservative minority should be able to limit the power of a "majority dictatorship" because tradition represents the wisdom of past generations. (This argument echoes one made by Edmund Burke, the founder of British conservatism, in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)).

Since 1865 the Republican party has identified itself with President Abraham Lincoln, who was the ideological heir of the Whigs and of both Jefferson and Hamilton. As the Gettysburg Address shows, Lincoln cast himself as a second Jefferson bringing a second birth of freedom to the nation that had been born 86 years before in Jefferson's Declaration. The Copperheads of the Civil War reflected a reactionary opposition to modernity of the sort repudiated by modern conservatives.

In the late 19th century the Bourbon Democrats led by President Grover Cleveland preached against corruption, high taxes (tariffs), and imperialism, and supported the gold standard and business interests. They were overthrown by William Jennings Bryan in 1896, who moved the Democratic party permanently to the left.

The 1896 presidential election was the first with a conservative versus liberal theme. Republican William McKinley won using the pro-business slogan "sound money and protection," while the anti-bank, anti-modernity populism of the Democratic nominee, William Jennings Bryan, had a lasting effect on his party.

Early 20th Century

In the Progressive Era (1890s-1932), regulation of industry expanded as conservatives led by Senator Nelson Aldrich of Rhode Island were put on the defensive. However Aldrich's proposal for a strong national banking system was enacted as the Federal Reserve System in 1913. Theodore Roosevelt, the dominant personality of the era, was both liberal and conservative by turns. As a conservative he led the fight to make the country a major naval power, and demanded entry into World War I to stop the German attacks on civilization. William Howard Taft promoted a strong federal judiciary that would overrule excessive legislation. Taft defeated Roosevelt on that issue in 1912, forcing Roosevelt out of the GOP and turning it to the right for decades. As president, Taft remade the Supreme Court with five appointments, over which he presided as chief justice in 1921-32.

Pro-business Republicans returned to dominance in 1920 with the election of President Warren G. Harding. The presidency of Calvin Coolidge (1923-29) was a high water mark for conservatism, both politically and intellectually. Classic writing of the period includes Democracy and Leadership (1924) by Irving Babbitt and H.L. Mencken's magazine American Mercury (1924-33). The Efficiency Movement attracted many conservatives such as Herbert Hoover with its pro-business, pro-engineer approach to solving social and economic problems.

During the Depression, other conservatives participated in the taxpayers' revolt at the local level. From 1930 to 1933, Americans formed as many as three thousand taxpayers' leagues to protest high property taxes. These groups endorsed measures to limit and rollback taxes, lowered penalties on tax delinquents, and cuts in government spending. A few also called for illegal resistance (or tax strikes). Probably the best known of these was led by the Association of Real Estate Taxpayers in Chicago which, at its height, had 30,000 dues-paying members.

The Depression brought liberals to power under President Franklin Roosevelt (1933). Indeed the term "liberal" now came to mean a supporter of the New Deal. In 1934 Al Smith and pro-business Democrats formed the American Liberty League to fight the new liberalism, but failed. In 1936 the Republicans rejected Hoover and tried the more liberal Alf Landon, who carried only Maine and Vermont. When Roosevelt tried to pack the Supreme Court in 1937 the conservatives finally cooperated across party lines and defeated it with help from Vice President John Nance Garner. Roosevelt unsuccessfully tried to purge the conservative Democrats in the 1938 election. The conservatives in Congress then formed a bi-partisan informal Conservative Coalition of Republicans and southern Democrats. It largely controlled Congress from 1937 to 1964. Its most prominent leaders were Senator Robert Taft, a Republican of Ohio, and Senator Walter George, Democrat of Georgia.

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1936 cartoon shows GOP building its platform from the conservative planks abandonned by the Democrats

In the United States, the Old Right, also called the Old Guard, was a group of libertarian, free-market anti-interventionists, originally associated with Midwestern Republicans and Southern Democrats. The Republicans (but not the southern Democrats) were isolationists in 1939-41, (see America First), and later opposed NATO and U.S. military intervention in Korea. According to historian Murray Rothbard, "the libertarian intellectuals were in the minority...[and] theirs was the only thought-out contrasting ideology to the New Deal."

Later 20th century: Goldwater, Buckley, the Dixiecrats

By 1950, American liberalism was so dominant intellectually that author Lionel Trilling could dismiss contemporary conservatism as "irritable mental gestures which seek to resemble ideas." [Lapham 2004]

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William F. Buckley

In the 1950s, principles for a conservative political movement were hashed out in books like Russell Kirk's The Conservative Mind (1953) and in the pages of the magazine National Review, founded by William F. Buckley Jr. in 1955.

Whereas Taft's Old Right had been isolationist the new conservatism favored American intervention overseas to oppose communism. It looked to the Founding Fathers for historical inspiration as opposed to Calhoun and the antebellum South.

Ironically, as the Democratic Party became identified with the American Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s through 1970s, many former southern Democrats joined the Republican Party, even in the face of greater proportional support for civil rights legislation among Republicans, thereby increasingly cementing the Republicans' alignment as a conservative party. Senator Barry Goldwater, sometimes known as "Mr. Conservative," argued in his 1960 Conscience of a Conservative that conservatives split on the issue of civil rights due to some conservatives advocating ends (integration, even in the face of what they saw as unconstitutional Federal involvement) and some advocating means (constitutionality above all else, even in the face of segregation). Republicans joined northern Democrats to override a filibuster of the Civil Rights Act in 1964, an event that marked the end of the Conservative Coalition. Later that year, Goldwater was resoundingly defeated by President Lyndon B. Johnson.

Out of this defeat emerged the New Right, a political movement that coalesced through grassroots organizing in the years preceding Goldwater's 1964 presidential campaign. The American New Right is distinct from and opposed to the more moderate/liberal tradition of the so-called Rockefeller Republicans, and succeeded in building a policy approach and electoral apparatus that propelled Ronald Reagan into the White House in the 1980 presidential election.

Nixon, Reagan, and Bush

The Republican administrations of President Richard Nixon in the 1970s were characterized more by their emphasis on realpolitik, détente, and economic policies such as wage and price controls, than by their adherence to conservative views in foreign and economic policy.

Thus, it was not until the election of 1980 and the subsequent eight years of Ronald Reagan's presidency that the American conservative movement truly achieved ascendancy. In that election, Republicans took control of the U.S. Senate for the first time since 1954, and conservative principles dominated Reagan's economic and foreign policies, with supply side economics and strict opposition to Soviet Communism defining the Administration's philosophy.

An icon of the American conservative movement, Reagan is credited by his supporters with transforming the politics of 1980s America, galvanizing the success of the Republican Party, uniting a coalition of economic conservatives who supported his economic policies, known as "Reaganomics," foreign policy conservatives who favored his staunch opposition to Communism and the Soviet Union over the détente of his predecessors, and social conservatives who identified with Reagan's conservative religious and social ideals.

It is hotly debated whether the successive Republican Administrations of Presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush are truly conservative. George W. Bush campaigned in 2000 as a "compassionate conservative," but in his second term, conservative critics have negatively cited his expansion of the Medicare program and his increases in Federal spending; in contrast, he is often lauded by some conservatives for his commitment to conservative social and religious values, tax-cut initiatives, and a strong national defense.

Types of conservatism

Defining "American conservatism" requires a definition of conservatism in general, and the term is applied to a number of ideas and ideologies, some more closely related to core conservative beliefs than others.

1. Classical or institutional conservatism - Opposition to rapid change in governmental and societal institutions. This kind of conservatism is anti-ideological insofar as it emphasizes process (slow change) over product (any particular form of government). To the classical conservative, whether one arrives at a right- or left-leaning government is less important than whether change is effected through rule of law rather than through revolution and sudden innovation.

2. Ideological conservatism or right-wing conservatism -- In contrast to the anti-ideological classical conservatism, right-wing conservatism is, as its name implies, ideological. It is typified by three distinct subideologies: social conservatism, fiscal conservatism, and economic liberalism. Together, these subideologies comprise the conservative ideology of people in some English-speaking countries: separately, these subideologies are incorporated into other political positions.

3. Neoconservatism, in its United States usage, has come to refer to the views of a subclass of conservatives who support a more assertive foreign policy coupled with one or more other facets of social conservatism, in contrast to the typically isolationist views of early- and mid-20th Century conservatives. Neoconservatism was first described by a group of disaffected liberals, and thus Irving Kristol, usually credited as its intellectual progenitor, defined a "neoconservative" as "a liberal who was mugged by reality." Although originally regarded as an approach to domestic policy (the founding instrument of the movement, Kristol's The Public Interest periodical, did not even cover foreign affairs), through the influence of figures like Dick Cheney, Robert Kagan, Richard Perle, Ken Adelman and (Irving's son) William Kristol, it has become more famous for its association with the foreign policy of the George W. Bush Administration.

4. Small government conservatism -- In contrast to cultural conservatism, which in recent years has greatly increased the power of the federal government over the states, and more than doubled federal spending, small government conservatives look for a decreased role of the federal government, a return to the states of the power to set educational standards, to legalize or prohibit drugs, abortion, welfare, gun ownership, pornography, marriage, and religion. Small government conservatives agree with cultural conservatives on the strict interpretation of the constitution, but rather than focusing of the strict interpretation of the bill of rights, they focus on the strict interpretation of the clause that reserves to the states all powers not specifically granted to the federal government. The framers of the constitution were suspicious of a centralized, unitary state like the United Kingdom, from which they had just won their freedom.

Conservatism as "Ideology," or political philosophy

In contrast to classical conservatism, social conservatism and economic conservatism are inherently concerned with consequences as well as means (with the modest program of fiscal conservatism lying somewhere between classical conservatism and these more consequentialist political philosophies). Classical conservatives are inherently anti-ideological (some would even say anti-philosophical [2]), promoting rather, as Russell Kirk explains, a steady flow of "prescription and prejudice". Kirk's use of the word "prejudice" here is not intended to carry its contemporary pejorative connotation: a conservative himself, he believes that the inherited wisdom of the ages may be a better guide than apparently rational individual judgment.

There are two types of Social conservatives--the traditional and the religious. Traditional conservatives oppose radical social change, such as was found in the culture wars of the 1960s. They are patriotic and oppose gun control and leniency towards those accused of crimes. They generally oppose welfare as unnecessary and counterproductive.

Religious conservatives are usually evangelical and fundamentalist Protestants. They maintain that the United States is a Christian nation, and that that view should be supported by the schools and the courts. They strongly oppose legal abortion and homosexuality, and most also oppose the so-called "right to die" for the terminally ill, asserting that only God can decide when it is time for a person to die.

Economic conservatives want low taxes, and generally favor taxes on wages and spending, with lower taxes on capital gains and no tax at all on inherited wealth (the "death tax"). They also support broad deregulation of industry. For some this is a matter of principle, as it is for the libertarians and others influenced by thinkers such as Ludwig von Mises, who believed that government intervention in the economy is inevitably wasteful and inherently corrupt and immoral. For others, "free market economics" simply represents the most efficient way to promote economic growth: they support it not based on some moral principle, but pragmatically, because it "works."

Throughout much of the 20th century, one of the primary forces uniting the occasionally disparate strands of conservatism, and uniting conservatives with their liberal and socialist opponents, was an opposition to communism, which was seen not only as an enemy of the traditional order, but also of western freedom and democracy.

Social conservatism and tradition

Main article: Social conservatism

Social conservatism or "Cultural Conservatism" is generally dominated by defense of traditional social norms and values, of local customs and of societal evolution, rather than social upheaval, though the distinction is not absolute. Often based upon religion, modern cultural conservatives, in contrast to "small-government" conservatives and "states-rights" advocates, increasingly turn to the federal government to overrule the states in order to preserve educational and moral standards.

Social conservatives emphasize traditional views of social units such as the family, church, or locale. Social conservatives would typically define family in terms of local histories and tastes. To the Muslim or fundamentalist Mormon, social conservatism may entail support for polygamy. To the Protestant or Catholic, social conservatism may entail support for defining marriage as between a man and a woman and laws placing restrictions on abortion.

From this same respect for local traditions comes the correlation between conservatism and patriotism. Conservatives, out of their respect for traditional, established institutions, tend to strongly identify with nationalist movements, existing governments, and its defenders: police, the military, and national poets, authors, and artists. Conservatives hold that military institutions embody admirable values like honor, duty, courage, and loyalty. Military institutions are independent sources of tradition and ritual pageantry that conservatives tend to admire. In its degenerative form, such respect may become typified by jingoism, populism, and perhaps even bigotry or isolationism.

Support for socially conservative policies may not indicate political conservatism. For example, many Communist parties and most Communist regimes have been very puritanical with respect to sexuality, arguing, for instance, that homosexuality was a bourgeois vice. Examples include the "No Child Left Behind" program, support for a constitutional amendment prohibiting homosexual marriage, support for federal laws overruling states that attempt to legalize marijuana or assisted suicide, and increased power for the federal government to search and detain citizens.

Conversely, while classical conservatives may embrace traditional values in their personal lives, they are generally wary of government intervention into the private lives of citizens, even when that intervention is in support of traditional values.

Fiscal conservatism

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Although often conjoined to social or classical conservatism, fiscal conservatism is less of a broad political philosophy and is simply is the stance that the government must "live within its means". Above all, fiscal conservatives oppose excessive government debt; this belief in balanced budgets tends to be coupled with a belief that government welfare programs should be narrowly tailored and that tax rates should be low, which implies relatively small government institutions.

This belief in small government combines with fiscal conservatism to produce a broader economic liberalism, which wishes to minimize government intervention in the economy. This amounts to support for laissez-faire economics. This economic liberalism borrows from two schools of thought: the classical liberals' pragmatism and the libertarian's notion of "rights." The classical liberal maintains that free markets work best, while the libertarian contends that free markets are the only ethical markets.

Burke, in his Reflections on the Revolution in France, articulated the principles of fiscal conservatism:

...[I]t is to the property of the citizen, and not to the demands of the creditor of the state, that the first and original faith of civil society is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior in time, paramount in title, superior in equity. The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of a participation in the goods of some community, were no part of the creditor's security, expressed or implied...[T]he public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large.

In other words, a government doesn't have the right to run up large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer; the taxpayers' right not to be taxed oppressively takes precedence even over paying back debts a government may have imprudently undertaken.

Fiscal conservatives tend to be conservative in their entire outlook as are most otherwise defined conservatives, but necessarily, conservative goals at times prohibit certain fiscal conservative goals, vide the Reagan administration due to Cold War expenses. Correspondingly, a nonconservative entity, which holds the notion of fiscal conservatism in low, or, rather, in lower regard than most other considerations may achieve said goals, vide the Clinton administration, though arguably and most probably due to the fiscally conservative Republican majority in the Congress. Regardless, having a balanced budget or, more generally, reducing nondefense discretionary spending is a "conservative" principle, but, as discussed below, there is much more to a broader economic conservatism.

Economic liberalism

The economic philosophy of conservatives in America tends to be liberalism. Economic liberalism can go well beyond fiscal conservatism's concern for fiscal prudence, to a belief or principle that it is not prudent for governments to intervene in markets. It is also, sometimes, extended to a broader "small government" philosophy. Economic liberalism is associated with free-market, or laissez-faire economics.

Economic liberalism, insofar as it is ideological, owes its creation to the "classical liberal" tradition, in the vein of Adam Smith, Friedrich A. Hayek, Milton Friedman, and Ludwig von Mises.

Classical liberals and libertarians support free markets on moral, ideological grounds: principles of individual liberty morally dictate support for free markets. Supporters of the moral grounds for free markets include Ayn Rand and Ludwig von Mises. The liberal tradition is suspicious of government authority, and prefers individual choice, and hence tends to see capitalist economics as the preferable means of achieving economic ends.

Modern conservatives, on the other hand, derive support for free markets from practical grounds. Free markets, they argue, are the most productive markets. Thus the modern conservative supports free markets not out of necessity, but out of expedience. The support is not moral or ideological, but driven on the Burkean notion of prescription: what works best is what is right.

Another reason why conservatives support a smaller role for the government in the economy is the belief in the importance of the civil society. As noted by Alexis de Tocqueville, a bigger role of the government in the economy will make people feel less responsible for the society. The responsibilities must then be taken over by the government, requiring higher taxes. In his book Democracy in America, De Tocqueville describes this as "soft oppression".

It must be noted that while classical liberals and modern conservatives reached free markets through different means historically, to-date the lines have blurred. Rarely will a politician claim that free markets are "simply more productive" or "simply the right thing to do" but a combination of both. This blurring is very much a product of the merging of the classical liberal and modern conservative positions under the "umbrella" of the conservative movement.

The archetypal free-market conservative administrations of the late 20th century -- the Margaret Thatcher government in the UK and the Ronald Reagan government in the U.S. -- both held the unfettered operation of the market to be the cornerstone of contemporary modern conservatism (this philosophy is sometimes called neoliberalism). To that end, Thatcher privatized British Airways, with remarkable success, and British Rail, with rather more negative results. Thatcher cut taxes and slowed governmental growth. Reagan raised taxes and increased government growth. In constant dollars, US government spending increased from about 700 billion in his first year in office to about 900 billion in his last year, according to the World Almanac.

The interests of capitalism, fiscal and economic liberalism, and free-market economy do not necessarily coincide with those of social conservatism. At times, aspects of capitalism and free markets have been profoundly subversive of the existing social order, as in economic modernization, or of traditional attitudes toward the proper position of sex in society, as in the now near-universal availability of pornography. To that end, on issues at the intersection of economic and social policy, conservatives of one school or another are often at odds.

Conservatism in the United States electoral politics

In the United States, the Republican Party is generally considered to be the party of conservatism. This has been the case since the 1960s, when the conservative wing of that party consolidated its hold, causing it to shift permanently to the right of the Democratic Party; also, in varying degrees at various times over the second half of the twentieth century, numerous conservative white southerners left the Democratic Party and (in most cases) became Republicans.

In addition, many United States libertarians, in the Libertarian Party and even some in the Republican Party, see themselves as conservative, even though they advocate significant economic and social changes – for instance, further dismantling the welfare system or liberalizing drug policy. They see these as conservative policies because they conform to the spirit of individual liberty that they consider to be a traditional American value. It should be noted that although libertarians have had closer ties with conservatives, they do not typically believe themselves to be conservative.

On the other end of the scale, some Americans see themselves as conservative while not being supporters of free market policies. These people generally favor protectionist trade policies and government intervention in the market to preserve American jobs. Many of these conservatives were originally supporters of neoliberalism who changed their stance after perceiving that countries such as China were benefiting from that system at the expense of American production. However, despite of their support for protectionism, they still tend to favor other elements of free market philosophy.

Finally, some see the entire American political mainstream as having reached a conservative consensus, with the federal government being run by successive "Republicrat" and right-wing Republican administrations. In support of this theory, they point out that the only recent Democratic President (Bill Clinton) was from the moderate-to-conservative wing of the Democratic Party. They also suggest that many progressives are switching to the Green Party and thus largely leaving the electable mainstream. In a February 2005 speech, Republican political consultant Karl Rove declared, "Conservatism is the dominant political creed in America."

Americans are often stereotyped by western Europeans as conservative due to the religious and right-wing tendencies as well as what the Europeans consider to be puritan attitudes towards sex and drugs (particularly alcohol).

Conservative geography, "Red States"

Today in the U.S., geographically the South, the less industrial parts of the Midwest, and the non-coastal West plus Alaska are conservative strongholds. However, the division of the United States into conservative red states and liberal blue states is artificial and does not reflect the actual distribution of voters of either stripe. College towns are liberal and Democratic. People who live in rural areas and the suburbs tend to be conservative (socially, culturally, or fiscally) and vote Republican. People who live in the urban cores of large metropolitan areas tend to be liberal and vote Democrat. The medium cities are split. Thus, within each state, there is a division between city and country, between town and gown. [3][4]

Conservative political movements

Contemporary political conservatism — the actual politics of people and parties professing to be conservative — in most western democratic countries is an amalgam of social and institutional conservatism, generally combined with fiscal conservatism, and usually containing elements of broader economic conservatism as well. As with liberalism, it is a pragmatic and protean politics, opportunistic at times, rooted more in a tradition than in any formal set of principles.

It is certainly possible for one to be a fiscal and economic conservative but not a social conservative; in the United States at present, this is the stance of libertarianism. It is also possible to be a social conservative but not an economic conservative — at present, this is a common political stance in, for example, Ireland — or to be a fiscal conservative without being either a social conservative or a broader economic conservative, such as the "deficit hawks" of the Democratic Party (United States). In general use, the unqualified term "conservative" is often applied to social conservatives who are not fiscal or economic conservatives. It is rarely applied in the opposite case, except in specific contrast to those who are neither.

It can be argued that classical conservatism tends to represent the interests of the Establishment. Yet, this is not always the case. Considering the conservative's opposition to political abstractions, the "true" conservative ought never support a contrived social state, be that on the left (Communism) or on the right (Fascism). There is an independent justification of the attitude of conservatism, which tends to favour what is organic and has been shaped by history, against the planned and artificial.

Criticisms

Criticism of American conservatism is often directed at positions taken by the conservative party or the Republicans, which may not actually be consertaive in nature. As an example, entitlement spending accelerated at the fastest rate under George W. Bush. From a fiscal conservative standpoint, deficit spending to expand entitlements is criticized by both liberals and conservatives alike.

References

Historical (to 1980)

David T. Beito, Taxpayers in Revolt: Tax Resistance during the Great Depression. University of North Carolina Press, 1989.
Daniel Bell, ed, The Radical Right. Doubleday 1963.
Davidson, Donald. The Attack on Leviathan: Regionalism and Nationalism in the United States University of North Carolina Press, 1938.
Coser Lewis A., and Irving Howe, eds. The New Conservatives: A Critique from the Left New American Library, 1976.
Charles W. Dunn and J. David Woodard; The Conservative Tradition in America Rowman & Littlefield, 1996
Filler, Louis. Dictionary of American Conservatism Philosophical Library, (1987)
Bruce Frohnen et al eds. American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia (2006) ISBN 9781932236446
Genovese, Eugene. The Southern Tradition: The Achievement and Limitations of an American Conservatism Harvard University Press, 1994
Gottfried, Paul, and Thomas Fleming. The Conservative Movement Twayne, 1988.
Guttman, Allan. The Conservative Tradition in America Oxford University Press, 1967.
Jeffrey Hart. The Making of the American Conservative Mind: The National Review and Its Times (2005)
Russell Kirk. The Conservative Mind. Regnery Publishing; 7th edition (2001): ISBN 0895261715
Huntington Samuel P. "Conservatism as an Ideology." American Political Science Review 52 (June 1957): 454-73.
Kendall Willmoore, and George W. Carey. "Towards a Definition of 'Conservatism.' " Journal of Politics 26 (May 1964): 406-22.
Lora, Ronald. Conservative Minds in America Greenwood, 1976.
Ronald Lora; The Conservative Press in Twentieth-Century America Greenwood Press, 1999
Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776-1876 (2002)
Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938-1952 2000.
Frank S. Meyer, ed. What Is Conservatism? 1964.
George Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 (1978)
Nisbet Robert A. Conservatism: Dream and Reality. University of Minnesota Press, 1986.
Patterson, James. Congressional Conservatism and the New Deal: The Growth of the Conservative Coalition in Congress, 1933-39 (1967)
Rick Perlstein. Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus (2004) on 1964
David W. Reinhard; Republican Right since 1945 University Press of Kentucky, 1983
Ribuffo, Leo P. 1983. The Old Christian Right: The Protestant Far Right from the Great Depression to the Cold War. Temple University Press.
Rossiter, Clinton. Conservatism in America. 2nd ed. Harvard University Press, 1982.
Shelley II, Mack C. The Permanent Majority: The Conservative Coalition in the United States Congress (1983)
Melvin J. Thorne; American Conservative Thought since World War II: The Core Ideas Greenwood: 1990
Peter Viereck; Conservatism: from John Adams to Churchill 1956, 1978
Wilensky, Norman N. Conservatives in the Progressive Era: The Taft Republicans of 1912 (1965).

Biographies

Robert M. Crunden. The Mind and Art of Albert Jay Nock (1964)
Dierenfield, Bruce J. Keeper of the Rules: Congressman Howard W. Smith of Virginia (1987), leader of the Conservative coalition in Congress
Dunn, Charles & Woodward, David: The Conservative Tradition in America (1996)
Fergurson, Ernest B. Hard Right: The Rise of Jesse Helms Norton, 1986
Fite, Gilbert. Richard B. Russell, Jr, Senator from Georgia (2002) leader of the Conservative coalition in Congress
Goldberg, Robert Alan. Barry Goldwater (1995)
John B. Judis, William F. Buckley, Jr.: Patron Saint of the Conservatives (1988)
Daniel Kelly. James Burnham and the Struggle for the World: A Life (2002)
Patterson, James T. Mr. Republican: A Biography of Robert A. Taft (1972)
Marion Elizabeth Rodgers, Mencken: The American Iconoclast (2005)
Michael P. Federici. Eric Voegelin: The Restoration of Order (2002)
Pemberton, William E. Exit with Honor: The Life and Presidency of Ronald Reagan (1998)
Kevin J. Smant, Principles and Heresies: Frank S. Meyer and the Shaping of the American Conservative Movement (2002) (ISBN 1882926722)
Smith, Richard Norton. An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover (1994) covers 1933-64
Sam Tanenhaus. Whittaker Chambers: A Biography (1997) (ISBN 0394585593)
Whittaker Chambers, Witness (1952), a memoir his Communist years

Recent Politics

John B. Bader; Taking the Initiative: Leadership Agendas in Congress and the "Contract with America" Georgetown University Press, (1996)
Berkowitz, Peter . Varieties Of Conservatism In America (2004)
Allan Bloom. The Closing of the American Mind (1988)
Diamond, Sara. Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States. (1995) , sharply negative
Gerson, Mark. The Neoconservative Vision: From the Cold War to Culture Wars (1997)
Halper, Stefan & Clarke, Jonathan, America Alone: The Neo-Conservatives and the Global Order (Cambridge University Press, 2004) ISBN 0521838347
Himmelstein, Jerome and J. A. McRae Jr., "'Social Conservatism, New Republicans and the 1980 Election'", Public Opinion Quarterly, 48 (1984), 595-605.
Koopman; Douglas L. Hostile Takeover: The House Republican Party, 1980-1995 Rowman & Littlefield, 1996
Lapham, Lewis H. "Tentacles of Rage" in Harper's, September 2004, p. 31-41.
Martin, William. 1996. With God on Our Side: The Rise of the Religious Right in America, New York: Broadway Books.
Micklethwait, John, and Adrian Wooldridge. The Right Nation (2004)
Geoffrey Nunberg. Talking Right: How Conservatives Turned Liberalism into a Tax-Raising, Latte-Drinking, Sushi-Eating, Volvo-Driving, New York Times-Reading, Body-Piercing, Hollywood-Loving, Left-Wing Freak Show (2006)
Geoffrey Nunberg, "Language and Politics"
Rae; Nicol C. Conservative Reformers: The Republican Freshmen and the Lessons of the 104th Congress M. E. Sharpe, 1998
Schoenwald; Jonathan . A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (2002)
Stelzer, Irwin. Neo-conservatism (2004)

Primary sources

Buckley, William F., Jr., ed. Up from Liberalism Stein and Day, (1958)
Buckley, William F., Jr., ed. Did You Ever See a Dream Walking? American Conservative Thought in the 20th Century Bobbs-Merrill, (1970)
Mark Gerson, ed., The Essential Neo-Conservative Reader (Perseus Publishing, (1997)) ISBN 0201154889
Irving Kristol, Neoconservatism: the Autobiography of an Idea, ISBN 0028740211
Gregory L. Schneider, ed. Conservatism in America Since 1930: A Reader (2003)
Irwin Stelzer ed. The NeoCon Reader (2005) ISBN 0802141935
Wolfe, Gregory. Right Minds: A Sourcebook of American Conservative Thought. Regnery, (1987)

External links

Conservative Predominance in the U.S. : A Moment or an Era ? 21 experts from the U.S. and abroad, including former Bush speechwriter David Frum, ponder the future of conservatism. Videos and texts online.
California Patriot – "Berkeley's conservative voice"
Council of Conservative Citizens
Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Conservatism
Conservative debate
The American Conservative – Paleoconservative Magazine
Chronicles Magazine
The Origins of the Modern American Conservative Movement
National Review – influential conservative political magazine
SavetheGOP.com – Support for the U.S. Republican Party
FirstThings.com
Townhall.com – Conservative news, information, and commentary
The Heritage Foundation – Conservative think tank
CATO Institute – Libertarian think tank
Project for a New American Century – Neoconservative think tank

Conservatism in the United States

History

Early 20th Century

Later 20th century: Goldwater, Buckley, the Dixiecrats

Nixon, Reagan, and Bush

Types of conservatism

Conservatism as "Ideology," or political philosophy

Social conservatism and tradition

Fiscal conservatism

Economic liberalism

Conservatism in the United States electoral politics

Conservative geography, "Red States"

Other topics

Conservatism and change

Conservatism and conservation

Contemporary conservative platform

Conservatism and the Courts

Semantics of Conservatism

Talk Radio