Alternative medicine

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Alternative medicine (also alternative medicine ) and complementary medicine (also complementary medicine ) are collective names for treatment methods and diagnostic concepts that can be seen as alternatives or supplements to scientifically based methods of medicine .

Alternative and complementary medical treatment methods include naturopathy , body therapy methods , some relaxation methods and treatment methods such as homeopathy , osteopathy and autologous blood therapy as well as methods of anthroposophic medicine and traditional Chinese medicine . For many alternative medical therapies, neither a scientifically plausible pharmacological mechanism of action nor a pharmacological effect that exceeded a placebo effect could be foundbeyond, be proven. Some methods of alternative medicine can be assigned to the pseudosciences .

Attempts at definition and term variants

There is currently no generally accepted definition of “alternative medicine”. The Pschyrembel for naturopathy and alternative healing methods describes "alternative medicine" as a "controversial and fuzzy collective term for diagnostic and therapeutic methods that are outside of conventional medicine". The term suggests “that these methods can be used instead of conventional medicine ; There is a lack of convincing data for clinical evaluation in terms of efficacy and safety for many alternative medicine methods; the theoretical explanatory models often appear speculative ”. In this respect, the term “alternative” medicine (similar to “alternative” facts ) can also be understood as an oxymoron .

According to Robert Jütte , only those healing methods should be designated as “alternative”, which in a certain medical culture, which is itself subject to a historical process of change, at a certain point in time or over a longer period of time, more or less strongly rejected by the prevailing medical direction because they partially or completely question the forms of therapy of the prevailing medical direction or aim at a direct and fundamental change in the medical system ”.

“Complementary” means complement - the addition of an established medical system to a “new whole”. The term “complementary medicine” is often used as a substitute for the term “alternative medicine”. “Complementary medicine” is intended to signal that the methods it describes should not be viewed as alternatives to established medicine, but rather as supplements. On the one hand, this corresponds to the habits of patients who ask for other methods in addition to conventional ones, and on the other hand, it communicates the intention of the providers of unconventional healing methods to work together with established medicine. The term is also used increasingly in Germany.

Both terms are sometimes used synonymously. A definition by the World Health Organization reads: “The terms 'complementary medicine' or 'alternative medicine' encompass a broad spectrum of healing methods that are not part of the tradition of the respective country and are not fully integrated into the dominant health system. In some countries they are used synonymously with the term 'traditional medicine'. ”In English-speaking countries, the abbreviation CAM (Complementary and alternative medicine) is used.

More recent approaches, similar to the New German Medicine , strive for a collaboration between conventional medicine and complementary medicine in integrative medicine . Depending on the ideological background also the following terms are used that are not quite accurate part or the whole field does not cover the whole: Unconventional Medical directions (UMR) , alternative medicine , alternative therapies , Alternative Medicine , Holistic Medicine , biological medicine , traditional medicine , Nature-Healing , Special therapy directions , non-established medicine and others. Bernhard Uehleke and Hans-Wolfgang Hoefert write: “The terms 'alternative' or 'complementary' used today sound relatively neutral and free of discriminatory evaluations. But they also hide the fact that recent medical history is also a history of mutual - definitely judgmental and discriminatory - terms, which at least latently has not yet been concluded. ”The terms paramedicine, pseudomedicine and outsider medicine are also used.

characteristics

According to Marcia Angell and Jerome P. Kassirer, editors-in-chief of the New England Journal of Medicine , what distinguishes alternative medicine most is that it has not been scientifically tested and that its proponents largely disapprove of the need for such tests. By “testing”, the authors mean strict safety and efficacy evidence as required by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the approval of drugs and by the best medical peer-reviewed journals for the publication of research results. Many alternative medicine proponents believe that the scientific method is inapplicable to their remedies. Instead, they rely on anecdotes and theories . Unlike the case reports of scientific medicine , anecdotes about alternative remedies are often poorly documented, published in the media for the general public and sold as sufficient evidence of the health promise of the method. According to the authors, alternative medicine is also characterized by an ideology that largely ignores biological mechanisms and often belittles modern science. One relies on supposedly old practices and natural remedies, which are presented as more effective and less toxic compared to conventional medicine.

Many approaches in alternative medicine are referred to as "natural", "biological", "alternative", " activating self-healing powers " or "holistic", which often means that it should be a treatment of "body, mind and soul". Such terms in product marketing are often used to target chemophobic feelings in customers.

In addition to therapeutic measures, complementary or alternative medicine also includes numerous diagnostic procedures. Scientifically meaningful data are available for applied kinesiology , hair analysis , iris diagnostics , Kirlian photography , commuting , pulse diagnostics and the Vegatest . The validity has not been proven for any of these methods ; on the contrary, the majority of studies argue against the value of these procedures. The danger of non-validated diagnostic methods is, among other things, that in the case of false positive diagnoses, useless treatments are carried out, which in the worst case also cause undesirable, superfluous side effects.

Alternative medical methods can be offered by doctors, but in Germany also by members of other health professions such as alternative practitioners . It is not uncommon for the therapy directions to be supported by social movements or certain ideological groups.

The medical historian Robert Jütte characterizes paradigmatic approaches of complementary and conventional medicine as follows:

Conventional medicine Complementary medicine
Disease theory aetiological - analytical phenomenological- synthetic
Therapeutic research quantitative , experimental qualitative , hermeneutical
therapy antagonistic regulative
Thinking style causal analogue
approach extensive separation between body and mind despite psychosomatic knowledge " holistic " approach
Biological model physiological, cell biological synergetic , vitalistic ("life force")
Relevance of knowledge operational control integrative meaning
Social integration professionalized medicine ( expert culture) participatory medicine (importance of the lay system)

Concept and term criticism

The drug commission of the German medical profession criticizes the efforts of some representatives of homeopathy or other “special” therapy directions to sell their drugs as support for conventional medical treatment (“complementary therapy”). According to the commission, it “does not seem very convincing” on the one hand to make use of the achievements of modern medicine in the case of serious illnesses such as tumor diseases and infectious diseases, but on the other hand to relativize their importance. Since the scientifically justified treatment procedures based solely on personal convictions are based on paradigms that are mutually exclusive, an “ecumenical community” of both seems unthinkable and all conjuring up of “commonality”, “complementarity”, “complementarity” or “expansion” is political opportune, but scientifically untenable. Scientific medicine and paramedicine are incompatible in their concepts. The tolerance of an enlightened citizen does not stand in the way of this statement.

According to Johannes Köbberling , the term “alternative medicine” suggests that there is actually an alternative to scientifically proven medicine. This alternative, however, consists only in the "declared renunciation of scientific methodology and all quality standards introduced for actual medicine".

According to the American biostatistician Rufus Baker Baussel, there is "no convincing, credible scientific evidence that CAM therapy is beneficial for any health disorder or that it reduces a medical symptom [...] better than a placebo".

Proof of effectiveness of alternative medicine is often based solely on anecdotal evidence : users of alternative medical procedures rely on their own therapeutic experience when questioning effectiveness, as this supposedly allows a sufficiently reliable distinction between usable and useless procedures. Such retrospective , subjective considerations, however, have no conclusive character (see fallacy and pseudo causality ).

The pharmacologist Gustav Kuschinsky commented on the assertion of a therapeutic drug effect without side effects : "A drug that is claimed to have no side effects is strongly suspected of not having any main effect."

The American doctor and skeptic Wallace Sampson criticizes that proponents of alternative medicine claim that contemporary biomedicine ignores psychological and social aspects. In fact, however, the practice of medicine is always holistic in its essence. Alternative medicine advocates ignored the fact that psychiatry, psychology, social and preventive medicine, and public health are integral parts of modern biomedical practice, as is the collaboration between doctors and clergy in most hospitals.

Classification

There is no generally accepted classification scheme.

For alternative medical procedures, Robert Jütte suggested the following classification scheme in 1996:

Based on the National Institutes of Health , the complementary medical procedures can be divided into four groups, some of which overlap.

  • Procedures that use natural products such as herbs, foods and vitamins or recommend diets whose effectiveness has not been scientifically proven or whose suitability is doubtful.
  • Procedures that postulate the unity of body and mind and want to use the interactions between body and mind. This includes methods such as yoga , tai chi , meditation , relaxation techniques and body therapies such as Feldenkrais or the Alexander technique . Some of these procedures are considered evidence-based medicine methods in psychotherapy
  • Manual procedures such as osteopathy, chiropractic therapy , massage .
  • Other procedures. In the broadest sense, methods that work with “energy fields” also belong to the alternative and complementary medical methods. This includes on the one hand methods such as Reiki and Therapeutic Touch and on the other hand methods that use electromagnetic fields for healing in an unconventional, scientifically unproven way.

There are also systems within alternative medicine that use several alternative medical procedures together and therefore do not fit into the scheme. In traditional European medicine, this includes, for example, homeopathy and naturopathy. Methods from non-European cultures include, for example, traditional Chinese medicine (acupuncture), Tibetan medicine , Ayurveda or Unani .

Exercise and sport were considered a panacea as early as the 19th century. In the exercise therapy based on this , alternative and conventional medical procedures come together, as attempts are made on the one hand to develop evidence-based principles and on the other hand to use the experience of trainers and running therapists. Due to the large number of scientific experiments over the past 30 years, evidence-based knowledge and procedures have increased significantly.

Health risks

In 2008, the data situation on the risks of alternative and complementary medical procedures was assessed as inadequate. For example, injuries, immune reactions and drug interactions were documented as serious direct risks. Indirect health risks lie in neglecting the necessary medical diagnostics and therapy. This particularly applies to life-threatening diseases such as cancer . As a result of alternative medical concepts and methods, even deaths of patients have been documented. About the rejection of vaccines may also lead to a collective danger for society (see vaccination fatigue ).

Edzard Ernst therefore criticizes doctors and naturopaths who offer alternative medicine: “Many alternative treatments are harmless. But unfortunately the practitioners are not always harmless. These people do not recognize their own limits. "

story

The term alternative medicine first appeared sporadically in English-speaking countries at the end of the 1940s and became a collective term for unconventional trends in medicine in the Federal Republic of Germany in the 1980s. Also in the 1980s, the term “complementary medicine” came to Germany via England. It can be proven in the German-speaking area since the late 1980s.

In terms of social and scientific history, alternative medicine of the present is a new and further manifestation of the medical reform and renewal movements that have accompanied the rise of scientific medicine since the end of the 18th century . The content and forms of the discussion are strikingly repeated in numerous attempts to create an alternative to established medicine. This seems to be independent of the current problems (“ medical crises ”) at different times . The criticisms concern attitudes towards nature , mind and body , illness versus health , the doctor-patient relationship and health economics .

Associated with this are conflicts of state politics and often bitter disputes, which are often riddled with personal attacks. The medical profession also competes with other professional groups such as midwives , alternative practitioners , dentists and psychologists .

Alternative healing culture in the Middle Ages

In the 6./7. Century the Byzantine Alexander von Tralleis as a supplement, but also as an alternative to conventional medical therapy methods.

Beginning in the 14th century can be found in Silesia an alternative healing culture that each of the scholastic medicine outgoing rationalization and "mathematization" of medicine (as can be demonstrated in a quantifiable Pharmacology in Montpellier) taught, and until the mid-15 Century lasted. The initiator of this “naturopathic wave” was the Dominican doctor Nikolaus von Polen ( Niklas von Mumpelier ), who worked in Kraków around 1278 and who was already calling for a structural change that would replace the healer in the place of the doctor, nature in place of medicine and experience Should put science in place. According to Nikolaus, a remedy can only be obtained from experience and a remedy an empiricum . In his writing called "Anti-Hippocrates" (or Anthippocras or Antipocras ) he accused Hippocratic medicine of having erased empirical medicine. Nikolaus was a bitter opponent of galenic medicine . He rejected its theoretical basis - the humoral pathology - and denigrated the doctors and pharmacists of his time with the intention of replacing them with the profession of naturopaths (Latin empirici ). Instead of the "expensive spices of the pharmacists " and the medicinal plants of his time, he favored the "hated representatives" of animals such as snakes , snails , toads , moles and mole crickets as remedies. (His repertoire of medicaments contains exclusively part of the therapy ). In doing so, he followed a kind of “negative signature theory ” or a “simile principle” that was later also found in Paracelsus . The medicines were often packaged in an amulet by the patients (according to Nicholas of Poland in a ring on the finger or in metal capsules hung around the neck).

Alternative medicine under National Socialism

A synthesis of medicine and naturopathy in the sense of a German medicine within the framework of the Reich Working Group for a New German Medicine , initially propagated by the National Socialists, did not go beyond individual approaches. There was, however, an ideological tendency towards everything “pure” and “unmixed”. In this context, whole grain nutrition was propagated as it was particularly pure and unadulterated. From 1936 the efforts to synthesize folk and naturopathy and medicine took a back seat to war preparations. The working group was dissolved again at the beginning of 1937. Homeopathy whose followers in 1938 with 10.4% not accounted for the major part of the trusting people "orthodox medical practitioners", found in National Socialism a number of proponents (see. Homeopathy in National Socialism ), wider investigations for introduction into the regular operation of medicine but had so crushing poor Results that these efforts have been abandoned.

distribution

Survey results on the spread of non-conventional healing methods vary considerably. In general, however, there has been a significant increase in demand for so-called naturopathic treatments in Germany over the past few decades, as well as for other forms of alternative medicine. Women, respondents with a high level of education, the chronically ill and people with a more health-conscious lifestyle, in particular, make extensive use of alternative medicine, often not as a substitute but as a supplement to conventional treatment. The Health Monitor 2002 showed that less than a third of the population had never come into contact with alternative medicine and around a quarter had only tried naturopathic substances or therapeutic methods. However, almost half had experience with other methods such as homeopathy, acupuncture, etc. Alternative healing methods were most frequently prescribed by general practitioners (around 2/3 of those affected). According to the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians, in 2004 15,970 doctors had the additional designation "chirotherapy", 13,502 the additional designation "naturopathic treatment" and 5,538 doctors the additional designation homeopathy . The number of doctors using acupuncture is estimated at 20,000 to 50,000. Presumably, many non-conventional methods are used even more frequently by alternative practitioners and in the context of self-treatment or lay treatment. Reliable data on this are not known. Complementary medical procedures are used by more than 100 million people in Europe.

There are an estimated 305,000 CAM providers in the EU , including 160,000 doctors. The number of doctors after therapy is distributed as follows: acupuncture (80,000), homeopathy (45,000), anthroposophic medicine (4,500) and neural therapy (1,500).

A significant explanation for the attractiveness of alternative medicine lies in the often negative evaluation of drug therapy. In clear contrast to this, non-evidence-based methods are sometimes given very general keywords such as gentle , natural and free from side effects . In the context of not wanting to admit their situation, terminally ill patients who are cared for by oncology and palliative care also turn to complementary medical or alternative medical offers. In addition, many patients experience a higher degree of care and communication from alternative therapists, so that a low-threshold psychotherapy or counseling offer is also taken advantage of here. The experience of a lack of speaking medicine is the motor of increasing demand here. The anthropological , based on a concept developed in the 1920s by the physician Viktor von Weizsäcker , and psychosomatic medicine try to meet this demand in the context of scientific medicine.

Economic importance

In 2018, sales of medicinal products in special therapeutic areas (homeopathy, anthroposophic medicine, phytotherapy) totaled 1.7 billion euros in Germany (the total pharmacy market recorded sales of 55.8 billion euros). In 2006, a total of around nine billion euros was spent on alternative medical products or services in Germany, which corresponded to an average of around 110 euros per inhabitant per year. Patients paid around five billion euros of this themselves, four billion euros were reimbursed by health insurers, and 40,000 doctors offered corresponding services.

In other countries, spending for Australia is estimated at AU $ 3.9 billion (as of 2016), for the UK at £ 4.5 billion (as of 2008) and for the USA at 30.2 billion US dollars (as of 2012) .

Environmental impact

The use of alternative medical methods also has an impact on the environment: for example, the use of ivory , shark teeth, tiger penises and other materials in traditional Chinese medicine threatens numerous animal species with extinction.

legal framework

Germany

The use of “alternative” treatment methods is generally permitted in Germany as long as there is no violation of morality within the meaning of § 138 BGB and § 228 StGB . Before using such methods, the patient must be fully informed about any risks and side effects . If a more promising recognized therapy is available, the patient must be informed about this as a matter of priority. At the expense of the statutory health insurance (GKV), only services that are necessary and economically justifiable may be billed; both are usually doubted for alternative methods. New examination and treatment methods may only be billed to the health insurance companies if the Federal Committee of Doctors and Health Insurance Companies assesses the diagnostic or therapeutic benefit, the medical necessity and the economic viability of the new method and issues recommendations on recognition in guidelines in accordance with Section 92 of Book V of the Social Code Has. Services in the context of alternative medical treatments are usually not covered by the German statutory health insurance and can then only be billed privately . The patient must be informed about any costs that may be borne by himself.

The debate about the implementation of alternative medical treatment methods or the prescription of corresponding drugs at the expense of the solidarity community repeatedly led to legal disputes. On December 1, 2011, the German Bundestag passed the law to improve care structures in statutory health insurance (GKV-VStG). This includes a clarification in the benefit law that insured persons with a life-threatening illness for which a generally recognized service corresponding to the medical standard is not available can claim a not yet generally recognized service if there is a prospect of healing or a noticeable positive effect the course of the disease exists (clarification of the scope of application of the decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of December 6, 2005, BvR 347/98).

Homeopathic preparations with a degree of dilution of at least 1: 10,000 and without a specific medical indication, as well as so-called " traditional herbal medicinal products " are exempt from the drug approval procedure in the EU according to Directive 2001/83 / EC . Such preparations can be placed on the market following a simplified registration procedure. For registration, only the pharmaceutical quality and safety, but not the therapeutic efficacy, have to be proven; an indication may not be given. The further approval is handled differently from country to country: According to the German Medicines Act , the experiences of the respective therapeutic directions must be taken into account when approving medicinal products for the therapeutic areas of homeopathy , anthroposophic medicine and phytotherapy . In addition, unlike functional medicinal products, the approval decision must include the assessment by an approval committee specially convened for the respective therapeutic direction ( internal consensus ). This consists of experts in the respective direction of therapy who have the relevant knowledge and have gained practical experience in the field of application.

The Drugs Commission of the German medical profession ruled in 1998 that the non-scientifically founded therapy directions “generally asserted particularities in order to evade the scientific examination of their hypotheses”. This applies to the forms explicitly mentioned in the Medicines Act such as "homeopathy", anthroposophically based healing methods and traditional phytopharmaceuticals as well as to the multitude of heterogeneous methods from Ayurveda to Bach flower therapy. The commission sees a "special position granted by politics" for the "special therapy directions" (homeopathy, anthroposophy, phytotherapy) and criticizes that this position not only lacks any scientific basis, but also means that effectiveness is measured with double standards. They mistakenly transfer concepts of the pluralism of values ​​practiced by the individual or the state into the evaluation of modern medicinal therapy, which is determined by scientific principles.

Switzerland

In Switzerland , procedures outside of science-based medicine were provisionally included in the catalog of services to be paid for by compulsory health insurance in 1999 (homeopathy, anthroposophic medicine, phytotherapy, traditional Chinese therapy and neural therapy). This provisional expired in 2005. The federal vote of May 17, 2009, however, resulted in a two-thirds majority in favor of a constitutional amendment that obliges the government to take complementary medical procedures into account again. As in other countries, the Swiss health insurances require proof of effectiveness, expediency and cost-effectiveness for methods to be reimbursed.

In order to implement this constitutional principle, the areas of homeopathy, anthroposophic medicine, phytotherapy, traditional Chinese therapy and neural therapy were paid for by the mandatory health insurance again under certain conditions from 2012 until provisionally in June 2017. At its meeting on June 16, 2017, the Federal Council approved the new ordinance provisions, which put complementary medical services on an equal footing with other medical specialties reimbursed by the OKP. The new regulations came into force on August 1, 2017.

Services in the fields of homeopathy, anthroposophic medicine, phytotherapy, traditional Chinese therapy and neural therapy are covered by the compulsory basic insurance if they are provided by doctors. Additional insurance can be taken out for services from the other areas of alternative medicine and by non-medical therapists. Most Swiss insurers base their decision on reimbursing the costs of alternative medical therapies on the certification of the service provider by independent testing agencies, e.g. B. the empirical medicine register (EMR). According to EMR, however, the quality label does not make any statement about effectiveness.

research

At some German universities there are research projects on complementary medicine, which are mainly funded by foundation funds, by health insurance companies as part of model projects and, to a small extent, by industry.

In 2012, the German Cancer Aid started the largest research project to date on the effectiveness of alternative medicine in combating cancer and provided 2.5 million euros for it. The interdisciplinary joint project called KOKON (Competence Network Complementary Medicine in Oncology ( see also: Complementary Oncology )) is coordinated by Oncology at the Nuremberg Clinic in cooperation with: University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, University Clinic Rostock, Charité Berlin, University Clinic Frankfurt am Main, Hans-Bredow Institute Hamburg, Clinic Fürth and Clinic for Tumor Biology Freiburg. Almost half of cancer patients want to contribute to their own healing through additional measures. From 2010 to the end of 2012, a three-year project funded by the European Union with 1.5 million euros ran under the acronym Cambrella , the aim of which was to establish a network of 16 European research institutions in 12 countries in the field of complementary medicine with the aim of international cooperation and coordination to build up.

A conceptual dialogue between complementary medicine directions and scientific medicine is the aim of the "Dialog Forum Pluralism in Medicine", which was founded in 2000 at the suggestion of Jörg-Dietrich Hoppe , then President of the German Medical Association and the German Medical Association. It advocates the increased integration of complementary medicine into conventional medicine.

Training opportunities

In medical studies in Germany, complementary medical content can be included in the cross-sectional area 12 (rehabilitation, physical medicine and naturopathic treatment) introduced in 2003.

For the complementary medical methods acupuncture, chirotherapy , homeopathy and naturopathy, the medical associations have issued further training regulations. After passing the test each allowed a qualification, medical additional designation be worn u. U. is also a prerequisite for accountability with the health insurance. For anthroposophic medicine, doctors have an internal recognition of the main activity “Anthroposophic Medicine (GAÄD)” by the Society of Anthroposophic Doctors in Germany (GAÄD).

Doctors, pharmacists, psychotherapists and other professional groups with an academic degree can complete a part-time master's degree in complementary medicine-cultural studies-healing at the European University Viadrina in Frankfurt (Oder). After four semesters and a successful examination, the graduates receive the title of Master of Arts.

See also

literature

  • Raymond Becker et al. (Ed.): New ways in medicine. Alternative Medicine - Curse or Blessing? Universitätsverlag Winter, Heidelberg 2010, ISBN 978-3-8253-5841-9 .
  • Krista Federspiel , Vera Herbst: The other medicine. Benefits and risks of gentle healing methods . Stiftung Warentest, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-924286-96-5 .
  • Colin Goldner : Alternative diagnostic and therapeutic methods. A critical inventory. Alibri Verlag, Aschaffenburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-86569-043-2 .
  • Robert Jütte : History of Alternative Medicine. From folk medicine to today's unconventional therapies. CH Beck, Munich 1996, ISBN 3-406-40495-2 .
  • Gundolf Keil : Medical Education and Alternative Medicine. In: Winfried Böhm , Martin Lindauer (ed.): “Not much knowledge saturates the soul”. Knowledge, recognition, education, training today. (= Third Symposium of the University of Würzburg. ) Ernst Klett, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-12-984580-1 , pp. 245-271.
  • Michael Prang: Alternative Medicine. What it does. When does it hurt? CH Beck, Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-406-65935-5 .

Web links

Wikibooks: Atlas of Alternative Treatments  - Learning and Teaching Materials
Commons : Alternative Medicine  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Alternative medicine  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ J. Köbberling: The concept of science in medicine. Working Group of the Scientific Medical Societies in Germany (AWMF). Retrieved March 27, 2017.
  2. ↑ R. Barker Bausell: Snake Oil Science: The Truth About Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-19-538342-3 . (Review) .
  3. ↑ a b Alternative medicine: The misconceptions of homeopathy. Retrieved May 15, 2020 .
  4. ↑ James Ladyman: Chapter 3: Towards a Demarcation of Science from Pseudoscience. In: M. Pigliucci, M. Boudry: Philosophy of Pseudoscience. Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-05196-3 , pp. 48-49.
  5. ↑ Raimo Tuomela: Chapter 4: Science, Protoscience, and Pseudoscience. In: Joseph C. Pitt, Marcello Pera: Rational Changes in Science: Essays on Scientific Reasoning . (= Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Volume 98). Springer, 1987, pp. 83-101.
  6. ↑ Marcela Ullmann: EU promotes complementary medicine . Interview with Wolfgang Weidenhammer. In: Naturamed: Research and Practice; The official organ of the Research Committee for Natural Medicine e. V. (KFN) and its international section CRNM . No. 3 . MiM-Verlags-Gesellschaft, 2010, ISSN  0931-1513 , p. 8-9 .
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  25. ^ A b Hans-Wolfgang Hoefert, Bernhard Uehleke: Complementary healing methods in health care. Analysis and evaluation . Huber, Bern 2009, ISBN 978-3-456-84700-9 , History of labeling, p. 10 .
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  28. ↑ Natalie Grams : Why do we call homeopathy pseudo and no longer alternative medicine? In: netzwerk-homoeopathie.info. Information network homeopathy , March 20, 2016, accessed on August 17, 2019 (German).
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  30. ^ Federal Ministry for Health, Family and Youth on Complementary Medicine. (No longer available online.) Bmgfj.gv.at, archived from the original on February 10, 2009 ; Retrieved September 25, 2010 .
  31. ↑ Jon Entine: How Chemophobia Threatens Public Health. (PDF) The American Council on Science and Health, accessed May 15, 2020 .
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