Cross (christianity)

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Caspar David Friedrich : Cross on the Baltic Sea, around 1815

The cross is one of the main symbols of Christianity .

introduction

Christ monogram
Staurogram

The original symbol of early Christianity is not the cross, but the staurogram and the Christ monogram ΧΡ (first letters Chi and Rho of the Greek spelling ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ 'Christ'). However, it was also arranged in an ornamental cross-shape early on. It was only in the fifth century, it stepped back, and the cross took on the role after the early as the 3rd century of use Bekreuzigens came with your fingers. The first form was the T-shaped crux commissa (tau cross, also Egyptian cross, now called Antonius cross ), from which the crux ansata (Coptic cross, handle cross ) arose early .

The crux immissa (high cross, Latin cross , passion cross ), which is common today, can be traced back to the 4th century (time of Emperor Constantine the Great , 324–337 AD) as a symbol and came up with the veneration of the cross of Christ.

Meaning of the cross

Exegetical meaning

According to the New Testament , Jesus Christ was executed on a cross. In its ancient Greek version, the New Testament knows two terms that are often given as “cross” in German translations. The seldom used term ξύλον xýlon originally only included the meaning “wood” in the sense of “tree, pole, beam”, but has also been translated as “cross” since the 1st century. It is found exclusively in the Gospel of John , the Acts of the Apostles, and accumulated in the Pauline letters .

The more frequently used term σταυρός staurós, on the other hand, comprises two levels of meaning, namely “wood” and “cross”, as the Greek does not differentiate between the material and the purpose of the object (the Hebrew etz means both wood and tree). This term can be found over forty times in the entire New Testament and was only narrowed down to the cross (crux, Latin) when it was translated into Latin, which historically represents the better translation.

Theological meaning and symbolism

The Christians believe that the crucifixion took place on a cross; accordingly the cross symbolizes the connection or the covenant between the earthly (horizontal axis of the cross) and the heavenly or divine (vertical axis of the cross). The cross symbolizes on the one hand the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ and on the other hand the bond of man with the earth and fellow human beings (horizontal axis of the cross) as well as with the divine (vertical axis of the cross). Vertical and horizontal also stand for the two sides of creation: heaven and earth, spirit and matter, soul and body, the male and the female in the biblical symbolism of numbers.

Through the rebellion and rebellion against God ( sin ) the original connection between man and God is torn or the covenant is broken. The resulting gap between sinful man and God can only be bridged through the intervention of God himself. Man is incapable of restoring the covenant and thus eliminating sin. This sin had to be atoned for so that man could be righteous before God. Through his death on the cross, through his shed “blood of the covenant” ( Mk 14.24  EU ; cf. Ex 24.8  EU ) in the “ covenant sacrifice”, Jesus Christ restored the connection between God and man. As the Son of God , he died for “ungodly sinners” ( Rom 5,6  EU ) and thus brought about the reconciliation between God and man (cf. 2 Cor 5,18-21  EU 2 Cor 5,18-21). The way to God is thus free for everyone who accepts this reconciliation. Therefore, the cross turns from the sign of the curse (cf. Gal 3,13  EU ; Dtn 21,23  EU ) to a sign of reconciliation , restoration, the relationship with God and the covenant and thus a sign of hope (“In the cross is salvation, is in the cross Life, there is hope in the cross ”, Antiphon on Good Friday ).

In Western cultures, the cross, used as a symbol of victory over death, is affixed to graves, and also as a symbol for death. The cross has stood in the Western Church since the 13th century as a symbol of the torments that Jesus Christ suffered on the crucifixion. According to the Gospels, the cross of Jesus was inscribed INRI .

A cross with the body of the crucified is called a crucifix .

Cross and sacrament

The origin and center of the Eucharist is the cross, because, according to the Church Fathers, the blood and water from the open side of the crucified Christ ( Jn 19.34  EU ) are symbols of the two main sacraments of the Church, the Eucharist and Baptism.

Cross of christ

Different forms of the Christian cross

The various forms of the cross are common motifs in heraldry , sphragistics and vexillology . There are often different names for the same representation. In heraldry, many crosses are named after the training of the cross ends. Examples are lilies end cross , apple Cross , nail Spitz Cross . If the representation consists of crossed symbolic branches, it is a branch cross . If this cross is rotated 45 degrees, a Burgundy cross is created . A wheel cross looks like a wagon wheel.

In general, a distinction is made in Christian crosses on the basis of the length of the lower cross arm between Greek or equal-armed cross and Latin or high cross.

image Remarks example
St. Andrew's Cross The inclined St. Andrew's cross , named after the apostle Andrew , who according to tradition was executed on such a cross. Martyrdom of andrew.jpg
St. Anthony's Cross The T-shaped Antony Cross is named after St. Anthony , who is represented with the crutch-shaped monk's staff. This cross is also called the tau cross , after the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet , tau . Several monastic orders use a tau cross as a pendant, including the Franciscans (see illustration). Franciscan Tau.JPG
Armenian Apostolic Cross The Armenian Cross has four arms that taper off slightly at their ends (curved lines) and are decorated. Usually the entire cross is richly decorated. They can be found in Armenia, Georgia, Turkey and Iran. The crosses are around 1700 years old. They are also often hammered into walls with the detailed patterns. Armenian cross
The Byzantine Cross The Byzantine cross has ends that widen outwards. It is a cross of the Byzantine Church and is used by the Greek Orthodox Church . Byzantine - Pectoral Cross with the Virgin and Child, Saints Peter, John, and George - Walters 542367.jpg
Greek cross The Greek cross has four arms of equal length and is often used in different variations in order decorations. The historically younger Swiss cross has been created independently of the Greek cross since the late Middle Ages as the Swiss coat of arms, which is also the emblem of the International Red Cross Committee . Greek cross
Celtic cross The Celtic Cross (also high cross ) is a Latin cross with a ring that is used particularly in Ireland and Scotland . It is often decorated with Celtic knots and can be depicted as a nimbus cross with elongated bars. Celtic tombstone.jpg
Coptic cross The Coptic Cross is a cross that is based on the ancient Egyptian Ankh symbol . In esotericism , the ankh is often used in a diverse and therefore not precisely determinable meaning. In popular culture , it is often used as a symbol of immortality or life force . For example in subcultures like the Gothic scene , where it is often worn as jewelry , in computer games and in films . Coptic cross
Latin cross The Latin Cross or Passion Cross is the most common cross in the western Latin churches. The longitudinal bar is longer than the transverse bar, which crosses the longitudinal bar above the middle. On the one hand, it symbolizes the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ. On the other hand, it symbolizes the connection of humans with the earth and fellow human beings (horizontal axis of the cross), as well as with the divine (vertical axis of the cross). Reliquary True Cross c800 Byzantine.jpg
Patriarchal Cross The patriarchal cross , also known as the Archbishop's Cross or Spanish Cross , is often depicted in images of church princes, especially bishops and cardinals. The smaller crossbar symbolizes the inscription on the cross. Template-Metropolitan Archbishop.svg
Petrus Cross The Petrus Cross is an upside down Latin cross. Catholic churches dedicated to St. Peter are consecrated, wear or carried a corresponding cross on the tower . Nowadays the inverted cross is also interpreted as a reversal of Christian values , for example in the context of modern occultism . In the black metal scene and the black scene , the inverted cross is therefore used separately from the religious context , similar to the drudenfoot , but often as a provocation . Cruc pet.jpg
Russian cross The Russian Cross is the cross of the Russian Orthodox Church in which two parallel horizontal cross arms intersect the vertical, the crossbar and titulus. Below is a third, inclined arm, representing the footstool. He urges a decision between heaven and hell. The uppermost transverse arm is roughly as wide as the left sloping foot arm. Kremlinvariousflickr13.jpg
Pope Cross The papal cross is the official symbol of the papal office. The three crossbars symbolize the three papal powers: priestly, pastoral and teaching authority. San Silvestro.JPG
Lorraine cross The Lorraine cross is a cross with two cross bars of equal length. Z krzyż pokutny Rydułtowy.jpg
Shamrock Cross (Lazarus Cross) The Lazarus cross ( shamrock cross ) is a symbol of the connection between the Christ cross and the Trinity. It has two bars of equal length that are perpendicular to each other in the middle. The four ends run into a three-leaf clover, stalked it is called the Brabant Cross . The third variant is dissolved in a nimbus cross in a pearl wreath
Clover leaf cross, stalked (Brabanterkreuz)
Shamrock cross, nimbed
Again cross The Wiederkreuz is a cross with a cross at each end. Beauchamp Elsing.jpg
Consecration Cross The nimbated consecration cross formed from curved lines and enclosed by a circle (Latin crux signata ) in the cafeteria (cover plate) of altars, on liturgical equipment and on the walls of church rooms, usually where the Apostles' candlesticks are or were; hence also called the Apostles' Cross. This cross shape can be found mainly in Catholic and pre-Reformation churches. Until the Reformation this cross was also used as a papal emblem, so you also find the name Papal Cross that but not with the current name papal cross be confused that a variation of the Patriarch cross represents three crossbar. In the general and non-Christian context it is also referred to as the wheel cross . Apostolic candlestick with cross
Maltese cross The Maltese Cross is the symbol of the Sovereign Order of Malta and adorns its flag . It is also run by the various institutions and organizations of the Order of Malta (e.g. Malteser Hilfsdienst in Germany, Malteser Hospitaldienst Austria in Austria). The various Protestant orders of St. John , their accident aids and the Order of Lazarus also use the Maltese cross. In contrast to normal crosses, it consists of eight points.
 Maltese cross
Santiago Cross The Santiago Cross or Jacob's Cross is the emblem of the Order of Santiago, founded in Spain in the 12th century . While the lateral cross arms end in a lily shape, the upper and lower arms are shaped like a weapon. It can be found along the Way of St. James and - more or less hidden - in many coats of arms of the cities in southern Spain that were formerly ruled by the Santiagoorden. Coat of arms of the city of Blanca
Calatrava cross The Calatrava cross is the emblem of the Calatrava order, founded in Spain in the 12th century . All four cross arms end in a lily shape. It can be found in many coats of arms of the cities in southern Spain that were formerly ruled by the Calatrava order. Coat of arms of the town of Canena
Avis cross The Avis Cross is the emblem of the Avis Knight Order , which was founded in Portugal in the 12th century and emerged from the Spanish Order of Calatrava. All four cross arms end in a lily shape.
Huguenot Cross The Huguenot Cross is a symbol often used by French-speaking Protestants and Huguenots . It is a Maltese cross, set with eight pearls.
Paw cross The paw cross , also called the Templar and Cannon Cross, is a cross with widened, often curved, bar ends. The paw cross can still be found today in various modified forms (e.g. in the Bundeswehr as a symbol of sovereignty and honor, the iron cross ). The shape with the straight arms, only bent outward at the end, is also known as the paw cross .
Paw cross
Iron Cross
Crutch cross The crutch cross , also crutch cross or hammer cross , is a cross with crossbars (crutches) at the four ends. The cross was a symbol of the Austro-Fascist Patriotic Front and the corporate state ruled by it . Cross cross emblem of the Patriotic Front
Anchor cross The anchor cross has all arms of the same length and is therefore a Greek cross. The arms end like an anchor . Today it will u. a. used as a merit cross.
Branch cross The branch cross got its name from the tree-shaped beams with stumps of branches. The cross shape is usually that of a Latin cross , but there are also those with forked crosses that are designed as a branch cross. This cross shape was most frequently used in the Gothic , for example in the Vienna Minorite Church ( 1275 ) but also in the Romanesque Hildesheim Cathedral ( 1015 ). The branch cross establishes the association with the " tree of life ", ie with eternal life. In the 19th century , branch crosses were often surrounded by vine or ivy leaves. Irregular cross of branches
Jerusalem cross The Jerusalem cross shows a Greek cross with a smaller Greek cross in each of the four quadrants . In early depictions, a cross is used instead of the large Greek cross . Godefrey of Bouillon.jpg
Union Jack The Union Jack is an overlay of the flag of England ( St. George's Cross ), the flag of Scotland ( St. Andrew's Cross ) and the former flag of Ireland ( St. Patrick's Cross ) .
LF cross This cross is the logo and identification mark of the Lebanese Christian party Forces Libanaises . The outer red cross symbolizes faith in Jesus Christ . The inner white cross symbolizes the suffering of Christians in Lebanon throughout history. The point at the lower end of the cross is supposed to represent the resistance and self-defense of the Christian minority.
Bolnissi Cross The Bolnissi Cross comes from the Bolnissi Sioni Church (5th century) in Bolnissi ( Georgia ).
Grapevine cross The grapevine cross , also Georgian cross or the cross of St. Nino, is the cross of the Georgian Orthodox Apostle Church . Its characteristic are the drooping arms. It is one of the main symbols of Georgian Orthodoxy and dates back to the 4th century when Christianity became the state religion in Georgia. Cross of Saint Nino in the Sioni Cathedral
Star of David with cross Combination of cross and Star of David , which of Messianic Jews is used Cross with Star of David

Further forms of the cross, also in a non-Christian context, can be found in the article Cross (symbol) .

History of the Christian Cross

History of origin

The history of the origin of the cross as a symbol of faith emerges from the New Testament . The words σταυρός staurós , σταυρόω stauróō , ἀνασταυρόω anastauróō and ξύλον xýlon used in the Greek original text are mostly translated as “cross” or “crucifixion” in the biblical context. The word staurós has, in addition to the meaning of “upright stake” or “wooden pole” (used mainly in the context of palisades and wooden bases), also that of “an object of execution for a crucifixion ”. Xýlon , which is often used as a synonym for staurós in the New Testament , means "wood". So it is either about the crossbeam that a person to be crucified had to carry to the place of execution, or the construction made of beams that had the shape of a T or a cross.

In early Christian times, the cross was unknown as a Christian symbol. Early Christian art only rarely depicted the story of the Passion, and especially the crucifixion. Probably the oldest individual depiction of the crucifixion is a jasper from Gaza (or possibly Syria ) of Egyptian-magical origin from the late second to early third century with the partial inscription ΥIE ΠATEP IHCOΥ XPICTE (roughly: "Son Father Jesus Christ"). The magical amulets of the early Christians were seldom tolerated by the church, but the cross only slowly found its way into official Christian art itself after the abolition of the crucifixion penalty (320). In 325 the tradition had to the Empress Dowager Helena the Cross of Christ found his tomb and cave. In 312 Emperor Constantine the Great its different interpreted by contemporary historians vision before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge , after which he (a corresponding field characters labarum ) with as Staurogramm what the legend who had make interpreted heavenly signs he helped to victory should.

The conversion of Constantine to Christianity and its recognition as the new state religion (391) under the successor Theodosius possibly gave the early Christians the opportunity to now publicly confess the death on the cross. In addition, after the abolition of the crucifixion penalty, there was no longer any inhibition of using an execution tool as a symbol. The cross can only be proven as a general Christian symbol since the time of the Great Migration (375–568 AD). The Council of Ephesus (431) is often mentioned as the “official introduction” of the cross as a Christian symbol. In 432 AD, for example, there is a depiction of the crucifixion on the portal of the Basilica Santa Sabina on the Aventine in Rome, but without a cross. The oldest known depiction of the crucifixion in a narrative context is that on an Italian ivory box, which is dated around 420.

Due to the absence of an early Christian iconography of the cross and crucifixion, it is speculated that the cross as a Christian symbol arose less from the fact of the crucifixion of Christ himself, but rather from the confrontation with the pagan environment. Many of the cults popular in Rome at the turn of the ages, but also the later Mithraism, knew cross-shaped and cross-like symbols, not least the sun wheel . The depiction of a crucifixion in a religious context is only known from a hematite jewelery stone from a previously unknown syncretistic Orphic - Bacchic cult in the 3rd century. From the first half of the third century. AD., However, is the 1856 in former guard rooms of a Roman building at Palatin discovered and "mock crucifix from Palatine" called Graffiti known in which the execution tool rather than T is represented, but as a cross.

In the Middle Ages , the importance of the cross symbolism grew through the numerous crucifixes , in particular through the numerous triumphal crosses in churches and cathedrals, which were created under the influence of the tropics , the ancient Roman victory crosses . An unusual interpretation of early crosses is known as μηχανή mêchanê , as the so-called "theater machine of Jesus Christ". A special depiction of the crucifixion contains a spatial iconography of the cross with an indicated rotation and a twisted or inclined suppedaneum , known above all from images of the crucifixion in the east and early medieval depictions in the west.

An extension of the picture by the Blessed Mother , surrounded by the three comforting women, seems to be a logical consequence.

Finally, the popular Calvary type emerged , a form of representation that not only included the classical, New Testament- based figures, but also represented a mass of spectators.

Representation of the Christian cross and the crucifixion of Christ in art

Early crosses in art (apse mosaic by Sant'Apollinare in Classe , Ravenna) show it without the figure of Christ, often as a shiny cross set with precious stones ( crux gemmata , gem cross ). Carolingian ivory reliefs depict the crucifixion as a scene with the allegory of the church as a female figure who catches the blood of Christ in a chalice.

Individual crosses with the plastic figure of Jesus are known as crucifixes . The Gero Cross in Cologne Cathedral from around 980 is considered one of the oldest surviving monumental crucifixes. Here Jesus is depicted in death. Otherwise the crucified one appears in works of the Romanesque as a distant God on the cross, who overcame death, free from pain. Only around 1200 does the expression of suffering intensify. Fork crosses like that of St. Maria in the Capitol in Cologne (around 1300) represent pain in the most extreme forms ( crucifixus dolorosus , crucifix full of pain), which calls for the viewer's compassion and promotes the humanization of the image of Christ. The royal crown from Romanesque representations is now being replaced by the crown of thorns .

The question of whether Jesus was nailed to the cross with three or four nails had long been debated by theologians, but until the High Middle Ages the feet of the crucified were always nailed next to each other and individually (so-called four-nail crucifix). With the transition to the three-nail cross, the standing posture of the crucified becomes a twisted one, which reinforces the idea of ​​the torment of Jesus.

During the crusade in 1204 it was believed that the real nails of the true cross of Christ had been found in Constantinople - there were supposedly three. It is unclear whether this is the reason for the transition to the three-nail cross, because the three-nail cross can be found before this date, for example in 1149 on the baptismal font of Tienen ( Tirlemont ) ( Musées royaux d'art et d'histoire , Brussels). As a result, this form of representation prevailed; it was not until the Baroque period that some artists such as Velazquez returned to the four-nail type. In the Middle Ages, the cross is often set up in churches as a large triumphal cross . The cross beams are sometimes designed as branches to mark the cross as a tree of life (Latin arbor vitae ) (Bernwardstür Hildesheim). If the instruments of the Passion are arranged around the cross, one speaks of the Arma-Christi-Cross .

Crucifixion pictures with secondary characters are called crucifixion groups . In traditional iconography, Mary is depicted on the left (that is, on the right as seen from the crucified Christ), and the disciple John on the right. The dying Jesus bends his head to the left. Mary Magdalene can step up as an additional person , she clings to the trunk of the cross. Representations of the crucifixion events on Mount Golgotha with the crosses of the two thieves crucified with Jesus are called Calvaries . As plastic groups, they were often set up in the open air. The figurative images of the crucifixion in late medieval painting are called populous Calvaries . Here Maria, Johannes, Maria Magdalena and other women usually appear together on the left, plus Longinus with the lance, Stephaton with the vinegar sponge, the henchmen who throw the dice around Christ's skirt, and other people who mock Jesus.

use

The cross appears in many places as a commitment to Christianity .

  • Many Christians wear the cross as an ornament on a necklace.
  • Catholics , Orthodox , and partly Protestants make the sign of the cross by making a cross with two hand movements and thus crossing themselves or blessing others with this sign.
Pilgrims with lecture cross on the way through the Eifel to Trier

Christian crosses in flags, banners, national emblems and coats of arms

In almost all European states , Christianity was a state-founding moment and as a result at least a state-supporting force or even state religion . Therefore, Christian crosses often appeared in the coats of arms, symbols, flags or flags of the respective rulers and can still be found there today.

National flags / war flags with crosses

flag date function Type of cross
Flag of Australia.svg May 22, 1909 Flag of Australia Union Jack
Flag of Burundi.svg June 28, 1967 Burundi flag St. Andrew's Cross
Flag of Denmark.svg 1219 Flag of Denmark Scandinavian cross
Flag of Dominica.svg 3rd November 1981 Flag of Dominica
Flag of the Dominican Republic.svg November 6, 1844 Flag of the Dominican Republic
Flag of Fiji.svg October 10, 1970 Flag of Fiji Union Jack with St. George's Cross in the coat of arms
Flag of Finland.svg May 29, 1918 Flag of Finland Scandinavian cross
Flag of Georgia.svg January 26, 2004 Flag of Georgia Jerusalem cross
Flag of Greece.svg March 1822 Flag of Greece greek cross
Flag of the United Kingdom.svg January 1, 1801 Flag of Great Britain Union Jack
Naval Ensign of India.svg Naval war flag of India George Cross
Flag of Iceland.svg June 19, 1915 Flag of Iceland Scandinavian cross
Flag of Jamaica.svg August 6, 1962 Flag of Jamaica St. Andrew's Cross
Naval Ensign of Latvia.svg Naval War Flag of Latvia Balkenkreuz
Flag of Liechtenstein.svg Flag of Liechtenstein Cross over the prince's hat
Flag of Malta.svg April 15, 1942 Flag of Malta George Cross
Flag of Moldova.svg Flag of the Republic of Moldova
Flag of New Zealand.svg April 15, 1942 New Zealand flag Union Jack
Flag of Norway.svg January 1, 1899 Flag of norway Scandinavian cross
Naval Ensign of Russia.svg Naval war flag of Russia St. Andrew's Cross
Flag of Sweden.svg January 22, 1906 Flag of Sweden Scandinavian cross
Flag of Switzerland.svg 4th July 1815 Flag and coat of arms of Switzerland Greek cross (also: Swiss cross )
Flag of Serbia.svg November 11, 2010 Flag of Serbia Serbian cross
Flag of Slovakia.svg 1990 Flag of slovakia Patriarchal Cross
Flag of Spain.svg 19th December 1981 Flag of Spain small Latin cross as decoration of the crown
Flag of Tonga.svg Flag of Tonga greek cross
Flag of Tuvalu.svg 1978 Flag of Tuvalus Union Jack

This is only an excerpt, the list could be continued indefinitely. The cross is also used in the German Armed Forces as a Tatzenkreuz (Baltic Cross of the Teutonic Order).

Islam

In Islam, the cross ( Arabic صليب, DMG ṣalīb ) as a symbol of Christianity was rejected early on. According to a hadith that has been handed down in various canonical collections, Jesus is supposed to break all crosses to pieces at the end of time. According to various traditions that can be traced back to his wife Aisha bint Abi Bakr , Mohammed had objects that bore cross symbols removed from his home and cross symbols cut out from clothing. In the areas of the Middle East conquered by the Muslims, the public display of crosses was also restricted. Abū Yūsuf reports in his “Book on the Property Tax” ( Kitāb al-Ḫarāǧ ) that Abū ʿUbaida ibn al-Jarrāh decreed when conquering Syria that crosses were only allowed to be shown publicly there once a year during a procession, but only outside of the Cities and far from Muslim settlements. Chālid ibn al-Walīd is said to have imposed a similar restriction on the Christians there when he conquered al-Hīra .

Picture gallery

Unicode

In the Unicode coding system , the Latin cross has the code numbers U + 271D LATIN CROSS (decimal 10013, ✝) and U + 2020 DAGGER cross, long (decimal 8224, †).

See also

Individual evidence

  1. ^ I. Schwarz-Winklhofer, H. Biedermann: The book of signs and symbols. Verlag für Collectors , Graz 1972, ISBN 3-85365-011-2 , Chapter Christian Symbol , pp. 73-98
  2. ↑ The ancient philological "Greek-German concise dictionary Gemoll" names stem and cross as the primary translation , the verb σταυρόω derived from this names the meanings "to strike a stake" and "crucify"
  3. ↑ A. Walde: Latin Etymological Dictionary ; Keyword crux.
  4. ↑ http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text;jsessionid=35789E31E4B541471770152A7CCCE623?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*s111%3Aentry+group%3D673D%3A . %
  5. ↑ Luc. Jud. Voc. 12.
  6. ↑ Felicity Harley & Jeffrey Spier, “55. Magical Amulet with Crucifixion “(The Christian Empire / 5. The Crucifixion), in: Jeffrey Spier, Picturing the Bible: The Earliest Christian Art , Fort Worth, 2007, p. 228 f.
  7. ↑ Figure: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/178/369679744_c398ba935e.jpg?v=0
  8. ↑ Figure: Archived copy ( Memento from May 3, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
  9. ↑ Figure: Archived copy ( Memento from May 3, 2006 in the Internet Archive )
  10. ↑ Cf. the Christian victory cross as tropaeum in Venantius Fortunatus , Pange Lingua , and the Christian tropaea as Arma Christi : http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Otterswang_Arma-Christi-Kreuz.jpg
  11. ↑ Ignatius of Antioch: Letter to the Ephesians IX.1: ἀναφερόμενοι εἰς τὰ ὕψη διὰ τῆς μηχανῆς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ , ὅς ἐστιν σταυρός
  12. ↑ On the latter cf. the references in Edward William Lane : Arabic-English Lexicon sv ṣ-lb (Vol. IV, p. 1712a).
  13. ↑ Cf. AJ Wensinck, D. Thomas: Art. "Ṣalīb" in The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition Vol. VIII, pp. 980a-981b, here 980b.

Web links

Commons : Crosses  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Wikiquote: Cross  - Quotes
Wikisource: Christian Symbolism, Art. Cross  - Sources and full texts