History of writing

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Replica of a cuneiform clay tablet

The history of writing encompasses many different scripts that were invented in different regions of the world. Some scripts have changed over millennia and evolved into the scripts used today.

This article covers historical scripts and the history of the scripts used today. The article Writings of the World gives an overview of today's scriptures .

The oldest writings

The Chinese characters found in Henan , which date back to around 6600 BC. Dated and interpreted as Jiahu script are considered by some researchers to be the oldest script at all. However, this is quite controversial as these characters exist in isolation, i.e. H. apparently without a high cultural context.

The same applies to the Vinča script in Southeast Europe. These are labeled objects from cultural sites of early settlements such as sculptures and cultural objects that were decorated with geometric patterns. A separate group of objects are those with sequences of incised characters that are recognizable as inscriptions and cannot be confused with ornaments. That would mean that the use of the writing dates back to around 5500 BC. Can be dated BC. For example, the clay tablets from Tărtăria (Romania) can be traced back to about 5300 BC. To be dated.

In the area of ​​the fertile crescent , the world's first generally recognized writing systems can be found in a city-state (from the 4th millennium BC ). Today it is assumed that the first writing in ancient Mesopotamia ( Sumerian language , Sumerian ) began with bookkeeping .

Reconstruction of the development of writing from approx. 3500 BC Chr. To v 1000th Chr. Based on the hypothesis that the Sumerian cuneiform compared to the Egyptian hieroglyphics , the older writing was ( See. Cretan hieroglyphs , Luwian hieroglyphs ; Elamite writings , Indus script ). The Mayan script , which originated outside Eurasia, is not taken into account here .

middle East

Around 2700 BC In Mesopotamia there was a change from stylized pictographic signs to cuneiform writing . The Egyptian hieroglyphs and the closely related hieratic script are just as old as the Mesopotamian script . The Phoenician alphabet script (approx. 11th century BC), from which the Aramaic script , the Hebrew script and the Arabic script developed, is considerably younger .

Cuneiform script in Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia of the 4th millennium BC BC, an area between the Tigris and the Euphrates , was divided into the Akkad Empire in the north and that of the Sumerians in the south. The first clay tablets with cuneiform writing were made in the Sumerian Uruk . These first written records did not represent myths or poems, but were primarily agricultural lists and tables that were understood as a mnemonic for bookkeeping and as information about the social administration of the empire (see Library in Mesopotamia ). The records made it clear that the Sumerians had invented a computation system and means of payment , as well as interest and loans .

The development of cuneiform writing could be traced by means of copies on a clay tablet that temple students made with their teachers. Initially, the signs used were pictograms , simplified pictorial representations of an object or being. As a result, several of these signs were combined to formulate a more complex train of thought, the birth of ideograms . The shape of the cuneiform characters was laid down in registers very early on.

A Roman reads a scroll - From a sarcophagus in the garden of Villa Balestra, Rome

Through centuries of further development and changes, the pictograms have changed around 2900 BC. BC lost their former function and their original reference. Now a single sign could have different meanings depending on the context. In the next development step, only one meaning was associated with a sign. From the original 1,500 pictograms, 600 characters were developed that were used regularly. Over time, the characters used related more and more to the sound values ​​of the words that were spoken. Characters were shown according to the rebus principle : a pictogram no longer stood for the object shown, but for a similarly spoken word. In Sumer, as in ancient Egypt , the signs were phonetic over a long period of time . In order to be able to read clearly, the writers had to introduce determinatives in order to classify the characters according to the meaning of the object and the meaning of the sound.

The around 2300 BC The beginning domination of the Akkadians led to the fact that around 2000 BC Chr. Only Akkadian was spoken. The cuneiform could now represent both Akkadian and ancient Sumerian , which had become a sacred language . The Kingdom of Babylon (from 1760 BC) and the Assyrian Empire in the north also adopted the cuneiform script. Now everything could be recorded in the scriptures. There was an exchange of letters between the peoples, a facility that would be called a post today, and envelopes made of clay. In addition to accounting and other important information, religious hymns , divination sayings, and literature (such as the Gilgamesh epic ) were written down. The privileged class of the writer developed , who had the reputation of an aristocrat. In the state, powerful positions could be filled, as there was access to a large amount of information. Writing schools have been set up, the discipline and rigor of which is also documented with homework.

Other peoples adopted the cuneiform script: The inhabitants of the country Elam with the capital Susa (today's Iran ) and the Hittites , whose Indo-European language differs very much from the Semitic Akkadian language. The Hittites initially replaced their own, completely different pictograms with cuneiform script. The Persian Empire also used cuneiform script a little later. The spread of cuneiform script ran in the north to Armenia , where Urartian was spoken, and in the south to Palestine , where Canaanite was the predominant language.

Writing media

The predominant writing media in Mesopotamia at this time (3000 BC to 500 BC) are mainly soft clay or stone, in which the writing was carved mainly on reliefs. Texts are also embossed in silver plates with a burin. Initially, a pointed stylus was used for clay , with which every character had to be scraped out of the clay. This method was abandoned and a tool with a blunt end was introduced: the wedge in the form of a reed or wooden pen. This was particularly advantageous for longer texts.

Hieroglyphics in Egypt

Egyptian hieroglyphics on a temple

The earliest hieroglyphic finds date from around 3200 BC. It is not certain, however, whether the script was not created earlier. Until about AD 390, the writing was essentially preserved; however, the number of characters used increased from around 700 to 5000. It was not until 1822 that the Egyptologist Jean-François Champollion deciphered the hieroglyphic script and thus made the history of ancient Egypt accessible.

Like the cuneiform pictograms of the same period, hieroglyphic writing consists of stylized drawings. But it differs from it in that the individual signs reproduce the sound of the spoken language. As a result, both concrete and abstract realities can be represented with their help. Agricultural and medical texts were written down as well as texts on educational issues, prayers, legends, legal texts and various kinds of literature. Hieroglyphic writing allows for enormous diversity and originality because it contains 3 types of characters:

  • Pictograms that represent stylized symbols for objects and living beings, but which can also express thoughts in a special combination of symbols,
  • Phonograms , often the same signs but identifying sounds, and
  • Determinatives , signs that make a distinction between pictograms and phonograms clear.

Hieroglyphs were regarded by the Egyptians as a gift from the gods and therefore sacred. This is probably why their name comes from the Greek hieros ("holy") and glyphine ("chisel in"). Accordingly, the gods were worshiped by the fact that their sacred symbols were immortalized on numerous grave and temple walls. Their own history was recorded, lists of kings, weddings and battles were written down, sales and marriage contracts were drawn up and a wealth of literary works was produced. A well-known literary monument is the book of the dead of the 19th dynasty from the 13th century BC. In addition, geographical and scientific documents, writings on pharmacy , medicine , divination , magic , culinary arts , astronomy and timekeeping were created . Already in the 3rd millennium BC Instead of the lunar calendar, the solar calendar with 365¼ days per year is introduced.

In ancient Egypt , too , the scribes' guild increasingly formed a privileged layer within society. Clerks controlled tax revenue and education, which was very complicated by the variety of hieroglyphic symbols. Only the most gifted students studied into adulthood. Dictations and transcription exercises were the order of the day. "Lazy" students should be disciplined through corporal punishment and even imprisonment.

Hieratic and demotic

In order to ensure fast writing, the scribes used not only the elaborate hieroglyphic script , but also italics , which is also called hieratic ("priestly"). It was narrated from Herodotus that it was mainly used by priests. It consists of the same elements as the hieroglyphs. However, because it was written quickly, the characters seem to "flow into one another" and, over time, there is an increasing alienation from the original images. Unlike hieroglyphs, hieratic is read from left to right. Around 650 BC An even more fluent and clearer cursive script, the Demotic , also called popular script , was developed. Its characters are related and it became a common font in Egypt. With the discovery of the Rosette Stone , Jean-François Champollion had the opportunity to decipher the hieroglyphs, since the carved text was written in three parallel versions: hieroglyphics, demotic and Greek.

Writing media

The Egyptians used stone and clay as writing media, but also rolls of papyrus , leather and linen , which they artistically decorated with colored pictures. The tools of scribes were

  • a mostly wooden case with several writing tubes that were either hammered flat at the end or cut at an angle,
  • a plate as a base and to smooth the papyrus,
  • a keg of black ink (made of soot powder and water, gum arabic was used as a binding agent),
  • one with red ink for titles, headings and chapter beginnings, as well as for god names (made from cinnabar powder , a mercury - sulfur compound or from lead oxide )
  • and a knife for cutting the papyrus.

The longest preserved papyrus measures 40 meters. Animal skin ( leather and parchment ) was mainly used for texts of great importance.

Early writings in the Aegean region

Already in the first half of the second millennium BC, the linear script A was used in Crete , which has only been partially deciphered to this day, as it is still unclear which language was recorded with it. It was followed by the linear script B developed from it , which was used mainly from the 14th to the 12th century BC. Was in use on the Greek mainland and on Crete, which had been conquered by the Mycenaeans . Linear B, like Linear A, is predominantly a syllabary and could be deciphered in 1952. It reproduces an old form of Greek ( Mycenaean Greek ). The Cypriot script , which followed the Cypro-Minoan script related to Linear A , is a pure syllabic script and was used in Cyprus from the 11th to the 3rd century BC. In use.

The Phoenician alphabet

The origin of the Phoenician alphabet is still unclear today. One hypothesis attributes this innovation within the scripts to a step-by-step converted cuneiform script. Another thesis says that the Phoenician signs were derived from the demotic . Attempts have also been made to trace the alphabet back to a Babylonian system of signs of the zodiac. Yet another highly controversial theory derives the Phoenician alphabet from the ancient Vinca script of the Balkans, i.e. it assumes its own set of characters, independent of the cuneiform script and the Egyptian hieroglyphs. In contrast, the derivation of the Phoenician script from the (proto) Sinaitic characters is well documented . There is also the thesis that the Phoenician alphabet was invented by a person. The fact that this writing system represents a qualitative leap speaks in favor of the latter (regardless of the external shape of the characters that may adjoin known shapes).

The discovery of the Wadi-el-Hol script in the Upper Egyptian desert in the 1990s gave new impetus to the theory that the Semitic consonant scripts arose under Egyptian influence. These are inscriptions on desert rocks that can be found alongside hundreds of Egyptian inscriptions. They are dated to around 1900 or 1800 BC. The originators were probably Semitic immigrants in Egyptian service.

The Phoenician alphabet initially only contained consonants . Later some of the consonants (alef, he, wav, jod) were also used as vowel signs . The Hebrew and Arabic alphabets have been supplemented with dots and ticks, which serve as vowel and pronunciation marks. The Greeks reinterpreted some sounds as vowels (e.g. ajin to o ) and added missing letters to the alphabet (e.g. psi ).

Aramaic and Hebrew script

In the 8th century BC In the land of Aram , in today's Syria , the Aramaic alphabet was used, which differs from the former Phoenician alphabet in only a few details. Several Old Testament books were written in this scripture . The oldest written finds of ancient Hebrew , also known as angular Hebrew , go back to the 7th century BC. BC back. Most of the Old Testament was written in Hebrew. Writing and language do not differ significantly from today's official written language of Israel . In addition to block letters, italic letters are used for everyday writing. The most famous fragments of writing are the leather scrolls from Qumran by the Dead Sea , which were written in Hebrew and Aramaic.

Arabic writing

The first Arabic inscriptions are dated to AD 512/513, but the spread of the writing only began when the companions of the Prophet Mohammed wrote the Koran as a message from Allah . With the flight of the prophet to Medina in the year 622 AD, the Muslim era began and with the preaching of the words of Muhammad by his successors, the Arabic script also spread .

Europe

Greek text in the form of a bustrophedon : the lines are arranged "furrowed", the direction of writing changes with each line.

origin

The starting point of the European scripts is the Greek script , from which the Latin script , the Cyrillic script and, ultimately, the runes can be derived. When the Greeks took over the Phoenician script (probably in the 10th century BC mainly via Crete), the Greeks not only took over the occasional use of some characters as vowels, but also added the characters Phi , Chi and Psi to the repertoire of the letters. They used the Semitic letter names almost unchanged ( alpha for Phoenician ʔalf , beta for bēt , gamma for gaml , etc.). With the temporary alternating writing direction (see graphic on the right), the direction of the characters was often reversed. Therefore, there are no letters of different meanings that are the mirror image of another letter. Through mediation through the Etruscans (see Etruscan script ), the Romans inherited the Greek alphabet, but they used shorter letter names ( ā , , , etc.).

Modern Latin alphabet

The western uniform script of the early Middle Ages goes back to Charlemagne . He, hardly able to write himself, tried to stop the cultural decline by promoting the Carolingian minuscule and to connect it to the educational traditions of antiquity. His most important advisor, Alkuin, was in charge .

With the Renaissance came in the Latin alphabet to distinguish between uppercase and lowercase letters ( capital letters and lowercase letters ) on. The humanists were looking for an easily readable script and developed the Renaissance Antiqua and the humanistic cursive from the Carolingian minuscule (see script reform in the Renaissance ).

Northern European runes

Around the 2nd century AD , the runes used by the Teutons emerged in northern Europe as an adaptation of the scripts used in southern Europe. Runes were primarily used for inscriptions on rune stones and came out of use in the course of the Christianization of the Teutons.

Chinese letters

In the 2nd millennium BC The Chinese script emerged . The oldest Chinese characters found so far are so-called oracle bones from around 1400 BC. In the middle of the first millennium BC, this developed into a script representing the entire language range, which was used between 200 BC. BC and AD 200 was brought into the classical system of order. These classic signs are essentially still in use today.

Oracle bones from the reign of King Wu Ding (late Shang dynasty ), around 1200 BC Chr.

The first characters used in China are pictograms. A complete abstraction from the pictograms, as in other scripts, did not take place in the Chinese script. Some of the original symbols are still recognizable in this font today.

During the writing reform in the People's Republic of China in the 20th century, simplified abbreviations that had been established in various manuscripts for centuries were combined and standardized.

The Chinese use brushes and black and red ink to calligraphy on paper and silk . Seal impressions were known long before the 14th century.

Japanese and Korean scripts

The Chinese script spread to Korea and from there to Japan, both countries with completely different languages. While Chinese is an isolating language in which every word is unchanged in every context, Korean and Japanese are agglutinating languages in which endings and particles are very important. This adaptation led to the development of two syllable alphabets in Japan , the so-called Morian script . Katakana for foreign words (initially in Buddhist texts) and Hiragana for Japanese particles. In Korea, King Sejong introduced an alphabet font in 1446 that has almost replaced the Chinese characters today. The Korean script ( Hangeul ) is a special type of alphabet : It mimics the square shape of the Chinese characters, but reproduces all the sounds of the Korean language. In addition, the adoption of the foreign script in both countries meant that the original pronunciation of the Korean or Japanese words was retained for most characters, but the Chinese pronunciation was also adopted with the Chinese characters.

Indian writings

Brahmi writing on an Ashoka column (approx. 250 BC )
Devanagari banners in the Indian city of Varanasi

All Indian scripts have a common origin and are derived from Phoenician / Aramaic alphabets. Based on the ancient Indian Brahmi script, which dates from around 250 BC. Was developed, syllabary scripts developed throughout the region . The best known of these scriptures is the Indian Devanagari script ( Deva = God, Nagari = city). A common feature of the Indian scripts is that they are syllabic scripts and almost all of them have the vowel "a" in almost every syllable. If another vowel should follow, this is indicated by diacritical marks above, below or next to the syllable. The type of writing that was developed also depended on the writing material used: In northern India, birch bark was scratched, so the characters here consisted of straight lines, whereas such a technique would split the palm leaves used in southern India. The South Indian scripts therefore have a "curled" appearance, while the North Indian scripts are more angular and all syllables look as if they were "hung on a clothesline". In North India Devanagari, the Bengali script , Gurmukhi and the Gujarati script are used, in South India the Tamil script , the Malayalam script , the Telugu script and the Kannada script . The Southeast Asian scripts such as the Burmese script , which essentially consists of circles, are derived from the South Indian scripts .

America

The Central American Maya script seems to be proof of an independent writing invention . The writing systems of the Aztecs and the Quipus ( khipu ) of the Incas were not full script . The characters of the Rongorongo script on Easter Island ( Rapanui ) have not yet been deciphered. The writings of the Cherokees and the Cree are more recent . The illiterate Sequoyah (the sequoia trees have their scientific name Sequoiadendron giganteum in his honor ) developed a syllabary for the Cherokee tribe that quickly caught on. The script of the Cree Indians was designed by the missionary James Evans and is also a syllabary, which however does not use Latin letters, but in which the representation of different syllables is possible by rotating the individual elements. This script is also used today by the Canadian Inuit for their language Inuktitut .

See also

literature

  • Johannes Bergerhausen, Siri Poarangan: Decodeunicode - the characters of the world. Unicode 6.0. Schmidt, Mainz 2011. ISBN 3-87439-813-7 (All 109,242 human characters according to the Unicode standard)
  • Michaela Böttner, Ludger Lieb , Christian Vater, Christian Witschel (eds.): 5300 years of writing , Wunderhorn, Heidelberg 2017. ISBN 978-3-88423-565-2 ( full text open access + digital additions )
  • Ernst Doblhofer : The deciphering of ancient scripts and languages. Paul Neff, Vienna 1957. Philipp Reclam jun., Stuttgart 1993, Leipzig 2000. ISBN 3-379-01702-7
  • Johannes Friedrich: Deciphering lost writings and languages. Springer, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York 1954, 1966.
  • Harald Haarmann : Lexicon of the lost languages. CH Beck, Munich 2002. ISBN 3-406-47596-5
  • Harald Haarmann: Universal history of writing. Campus Verlag, 2nd edition 1991, ISBN 3-593-34346-0
  • Harald Haarmann: The history of writing. 2nd edition CH Beck, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-406-47998-7
  • Edward Johnston : Cursive, Ornamental, Applied. 4th edition. 1936
  • Hans J. Nissen, Peter Damerow, Robert K. Englund: Early writing and techniques of economic administration in the ancient Middle East. Franzbecker, Berlin 1990, 1991, 2004. ISBN 3-88120-110-6
  • Andrew Robinson: The History of Scripture. Albatros, Düsseldorf 2004. ISBN 3-491-96129-7
  • Jan Tschichold : History of writing in pictures. Holbein-Verlag, Basel 1941, 1946, Hauswedell, Hamburg 1951, 1961.
    • Jan Tschichold : An Illustrated History of Lettering and Writing. London 1947 (English).

Web links

Wikisource: Font  - Sources and Full Texts

Individual evidence

  1. Harald Haarmann: The history of writing. 2nd edition Munich 2004, p. 20.
  2. ^ Geoffrey Barraclough, Norman Stone: The Times Atlas of World History. Hammond Incorporated, Maplewood, New Jersey 1989, ISBN 978-0-7230-0304-5 , p. 53. ( [1] on archive.org)
  3. Harald Haarmann: The history of writing. 2nd edition Munich 2004, p. 87.
  4. Matthias Heine: How a semi-illiterate European invented writing welt.de, January 29, 2014.