U 107 (Navy)

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U 107 (Kriegsmarine)
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Bundesarchiv Bild 101II-MW-4287-16A, U-Boot U-107 in See, Rettungsboot.jpg
U 107 at sea with lifeboat
Type : IX B
Field Post Number : M 39 808
Shipyard: AG Weser , Bremen
Construction contract: May 24, 1938
Build number: 970
Keel laying: December 6, 1939
Launch: 2nd July 1940
Commissioning: October 8, 1940
Commanders:
Calls: 13 activities
Sinkings:

39 ships (217,786 GRT)

Whereabouts: Sunk in the Bay of Biscay on August 18, 1944 (58 dead, no survivors)

U 107 was a German submarine from the Type IX B , which in World War II by the German navy was used.

history

The order for the boat was awarded to AG Weser in Bremen on May 24, 1938 . The keel was laid on December 6, 1939, the launch on July 2, 1940, the commissioning under Lieutenant Günter Hessler finally took place on October 8, 1940. Like most German submarines of its time, the U 107 also had a boat-specific mark that was worn on the tower and by the crew on caps and boats . There were four aces . The crew chose this symbol because Commander Hessler was an enthusiastic solitaire player.

After its commissioning on October 8, 1940 to December 31, 1940, the boat belonged to the 2nd U-Flotilla in Wilhelmshaven as a training boat . After training, U 107 belonged to the 2nd U-Flotilla in Wilhelmshaven and Lorient as a front boat from January 1, 1941 until it was sunk on August 18, 1944 .

Commitment and history

U 107 completed 13 operations during its service, on which 39 ships with a total tonnage of 217,786 GRT were sunk and one ship with 10,068 GRT was damaged.

First venture

The bow space of U 107

The boat left Wilhelmshaven on January 24, 1941 at 8:50 a.m. and entered Lorient on March 1, 1941 at 10 a.m. On this 46-day and approx. 5,420 nm above and 108 nm underwater expedition in the North Atlantic and west of the Northern Channel and Ireland , four ships with 18,482 GRT were sunk.

  • February 3, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Empire Citizen ( Lage ) with 4,683 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes . He had general cargo and twelve passengers on board and was on the way from Liverpool to Rangoon . The ship was a straggler of convoy OB-279 with 39 ships. 66 crew members and twelve passengers were killed, five crew members were rescued.
  • February 3, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Crispin ( Lage ) with 5,051 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. The Crispin was a command and rescue ship. It belonged to the disbanded convoy OB-280 with 27 ships. There were no casualties, 121 survivors.
  • February 6, 1941: sinking of the Canadian steamer Maplecourt ( Lage ) with 3,388 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had loaded 3,604 t of general cargo including 1,540 t of steel and was on the way from Montreal via Sydney to Preston . The ship was a straggler of convoy SC-20 with 42 ships. It was a total loss with 37 dead.
  • February 24, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Manistee ( Lage ) with 5,360 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. The Manistee was a command and rescue ship. She belonged to convoy OB-288 with 46 ships.

Second venture

U 107 in Lorient (1941)

The boat left Lorient on March 29, 1941 at 7.30 p.m., and returned there on July 2, 1941 at 10:53 a.m. 14 ships with 86,699 GRT were sunk on this 106-day-long and 15,744 nm above and 173 nm underwater undertaking. U 107 was supplied with fuel and provisions from the Nordmark utility on May 3, 1941 , and torpedoes and fuel from May 9-10, 1941 from the Egerland utility . This patrol by U 107 was the most successful individual enterprise of the war.

  • April 8, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Eskdene ( Lage ) with 3,829 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo and artillery. He had loaded 5,167 tons of coal and general cargo. The ship belonged to convoy OG-57 with 37 ships. There were no casualties, 39 survivors.
  • April 8, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Helena Margareta ( Lage ) with 3,316 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a G7e torpedo. He drove in ballast and was on the way from the Tyne to Takoradi . The ship belonged to the disbanded convoy OG-57 with 37 ships. There were 27 dead and nine survivors.
  • April 9, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Harpathian ( Lage ) with 4,671 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a G7e torpedo. He had loaded goods for the British Air Force ( RAF ) and was on his way from Middlesbrough and the Clyde to Freetown . The ship belonged to convoy OG-57 with 57 ships. There were four dead and 39 survivors.
  • April 10, 1941: Sinking of the British tanker Duffield ( Lage ) with 8,516 GRT. The tanker was sunk by three G7e torpedoes. He had loaded 11,700 tons of heating oil and was on the way from Curaçao to Gibraltar . The ship belonged to convoy OG-57 with 35 ships. There were 25 dead and 28 survivors.
  • April 21, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Calchas ( Lage ) with 10,305 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. He had 9,000 t of general cargo including wheat , butter , flour , steel and nine passengers on board and was on the way from Sydney (Nova Scotia) via Freetown (Sierra Leone) to Liverpool. 23 crew members and one passenger were killed, 88 survived.
  • April 30, 1941: sinking of the British motor ship Lassell ( Lage ) with 7,417 GRT. The ship was sunk by a torpedo. It had loaded 7,000 t of general cargo and was on its way from Liverpool to Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires . The ship belonged to convoy OB-309 with 49 ships. There were 17 dead and 36 survivors. Of the 36 survivors, 15 perished in the sinking of the steamer Benvrackie , which was sunk by U 105 .
  • May 17, 1941: sinking of the Dutch tanker Marisa ( Lage ) with 8,029 GRT. The tanker was sunk by two torpedoes and artillery . He drove in ballast and was on the way from Freetown (Sierra Leone) to Curacao. There were three dead and 46 survivors.
  • May 18, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Piako ( Lage ) with 8,286 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. He had loaded 7,100 tons of frozen meat , 1,500 tons of zinc , 24 sacks of mail, 1,500 tons of butter and 1,500 tons of meat and was on the way from Albany via Freetown (Sierra Leone) to Liverpool. There were ten dead and 65 survivors.
  • May 27, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Colonial ( Lage ) with 5,108 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two G7a torpedoes. He had loaded 3,500 tons of general cargo and was on the way from Liverpool via Freetown (Sierra Leone) to Beira . The ship belonged to the disbanded convoy OB-316 with 38 ships. There were no casualties, 100 survivors.
  • May 28, 1941: sinking of the Greek steamer Papalemos ( Lage ) with 3,748 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a G7a torpedo and artillery. He had loaded 5,460 tons of grain and was on the way from Freetown (Sierra Leone) to Great Britain. There were two dead and 27 survivors.
  • May 31, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Sire ( Lage ) with 5,664 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a G7a torpedo. He drove in ballast and was on the way from Las Palmas to Pepel (Sierra Leone). The ship belonged to the disbanded convoy OB-320 with 18 ships. There were three dead and 46 survivors.
Shipwrecked in a boat coming alongside U 107 in June 1941
  • June 1, 1941: sinking of the British motor ship Alfred Jones ( Lage ) with 5,013 GRT. The ship was sunk by three torpedoes. It had loaded 2,000 tons of military equipment including airplanes , trucks and 180 tons of steel. The ship belonged to the disbanded convoy OB-320 with 16 ships. There were 14 dead and 50 survivors. The Alfred Jones was not a Q-ship , it was the ship of the convoy commodore and his staff.
  • June 8, 1941: sinking of the British motor ship Adda ( Lage ) with 7,816 GRT. The ship was sunk by a G7a torpedo. It had 613 t general cargo and 266 passengers on board. The ship belonged to the disbanded convoy OB-323 with 34 ships. Seven crew members, the convoy commander and two passengers were killed, 146 crew members, five marine personnel and 264 passengers were rescued.
  • June 13, 1941: sinking of the Greek steamer Pandias ( Lage ) with 4,981 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a G7a torpedo. He had loaded 4,894 tons of coal and 1,050 tons of military equipment including eleven Spitfire aircraft and was on the way from Newport via Table Bay to Alexandria . There were eleven dead and 23 survivors.

Third company

The boat left Lorient on September 6, 1941 at 7:00 p.m., and returned there on November 11, 1941 at 10:30 a.m. On this 66-day and approximately 10,140 nm above and 46 nm underwater expedition in the Central Atlantic, the Canary Islands , the Cape Verde Islands and off Freetown, three ships with 13,641 GRT were sunk. U 107 belonged to a submarine group with the code name "Störtebecker". On September 21, Commander Heßler discovered the convoy Sierra Leone 87 (SL-87), which consisted of eleven steamers accompanied by a moderately coordinated security group. Following the stipulations of the pack tactics , Hessler initially failed to attack, but tried to bring further boats by means of reporting signals. When Karl-Friedrich Merten reached the area with U 68 , Heßler also decided to attack. Since four of his torpedoes initially failed and then the diesel engine failed, Heßler broke off his efforts, withdrew with the U 107 and only intervened two days later in the battle for SL-87.

  • September 24, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Dixcove ( Lage ) with 3,790 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. It had 3,046 t of West African products and six passengers on board and was on the way from Port Harcourt via Freetown (Sierra Leone) to Liverpool. The ship belonged to convoy SL-87 with eleven ships. There were two dead and 56 survivors.
  • September 24, 1941: sinking of the British steamer John Holt ( location ) 4,975 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. It had 4,560 t of West African products and nine passengers on board and was on its way from Douala to Liverpool. The ship belonged to convoy SL-87 with eleven ships. There was one dead and 68 survivors.
  • September 24, 1941: sinking of the British steamer Lafian ( Lage ) with 4,876 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had 5,724 t of palm kernels , 1,128 t of wood , 810 t of palm oil , precious metal bars and four passengers on board. The ship belonged to convoy SL-87 with eleven ships. There were no casualties, 46 survivors.

Commander Heßler reported having sunk three ships with a total of 26,000 GRT, but significantly overestimated the tonnage actually sunk. In addition, he radioed the command post that there was only one ship left of SL-87, which was also being efficiently guarded. This was not true. In fact, five ships were still preserved - Commander Merten had also significantly overestimated his successes - and the security group struggled with a lack of fuel. After receiving this misleading report, Hessler's father-in-law Karl Dönitz decided to break off the attack on SL-87.

Fourth venture

The boat left Lorient on December 10, 1941 at 11 a.m., and returned there on December 26, 1941 at 3 p.m. No ships were sunk or damaged during this 16-day and approx. 3,700 nm above and 114 nm underwater expedition in the North Atlantic, west of Spain and Gibraltar.

Fifth venture

The boat left Lorient on January 7, 1942 at 6:00 p.m. and returned there on March 7, 1942 at 9:56 a.m. On this 59 day long and about 7,400 nm above and 252 nm underwater expedition in the west Atlantic and the US east coast , two ships with 10,850 GRT were sunk and one ship with 10,068 GRT was damaged. U 107 was supplied with 10 m³ of fuel by U 564 on February 23, 1942 .

  • January 31, 1942: sinking of the British tanker San Arcadio ( Lage ) with 7,419 GRT. The tanker was sunk by three torpedoes and 24 rounds of artillery. He had loaded 6,600 tons of heating oil and 3,300 tons of lubricating oil and was on the way from Houston via Halifax (Nova Scotia) to the River Mersey . There were 41 dead and nine survivors.
  • February 6, 1942: Sinking of the US steamer Major Wheeler with 3,431 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had loaded 4,611 tons of sugar and was on the way from Farjardo ( Puerto Rico ) to Philadelphia . There were no casualties, 36 survivors.
  • February 21, 1942: Damage to the Norwegian tanker Egda with 10,068 GRT. The tanker was damaged by a torpedo. He was ballasted and on his way from Stanlow to Aruba. It ran into New York and was repaired there.

Sixth venture

The boat left Lorient on April 21, 1942 at 7.45 p.m., and returned there on July 11, 1942 at 7.35 a.m. On this 81 day long and about 11,400 nm above and about 770 nm underwater excursion in the West Atlantic, the USA east coast, Cape Hatteras , New York , Delaware Bay , Diamond Reef , Cape Henry , Yucatán Strait , Florida Strait , Santaren Canal , Bahama Canal , Windward Passage , Cuba, Jamaica , seven ships of 27,018 GRT were sunk. U 107 was supplied with 43 m³ of fuel by U 459 from June 27 to 28, 1942 .

  • May 29, 1942: sinking of the British steamer Western Head ( Lage ) with 2,599 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. He had loaded 3,710 tons of sugar and was on the way from Port Antonio and Kingston to Sydney (Nova Scotia). There were 24 dead and six survivors.
  • June 1, 1942: sinking of the Panamanian steamer Bushranger ( Lage ) with 4,536 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had bauxite loaded and was on his way to New York. There were 17 dead and 26 survivors.
  • June 7, 1942: sinking of the Honduran steamer Castilla ( Lage ) with 3,910 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had loaded flour and was on his way to Kingston, Jamaica. There were 24 dead and 35 survivors.
  • June 8, 1942: sinking of the American steamship Suwied ( Lage ) with 3,249 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a G7a torpedo. He had loaded 4,970 tons of bauxite and was on the way from Kingston (Jamaica) to Mobile . There were six dead and 24 survivors.
  • June 10, 1942: sinking of the American steamer Merrimack ( Lage ) with 2,606 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a G7a torpedo. Unknown cargo and losses.
  • June 19, 1942: Sinking of the American sailing ship Cheerio ( Lage ) with 35 GRT. The sailor was sunk by artillery. He had loaded mahogany wood. There were no casualties, nine survivors.
  • June 26, 1942: sinking of the Dutch steamer Jagersfontein ( Lage ) with 10,082 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. He had 9,000 tons of general cargo including lead, copper , resins, carbon and 98 passengers on board. There were no casualties, 154 survivors.

Seventh venture

The boat left Lorient on August 15, 1942 at 7.30 p.m., and returned there on November 18, 1942 at 10.30 a.m. On this 95-day and approx. 14,500 nm above and 731 nm underwater undertaking in the Central Atlantic, off Lisbon , Sierra Leone, off Freetown, the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, three ships with 23,508 GRT were sunk. U 107 was supplied with 63 m³ of fuel and provisions by U 460 on September 25, 1942 , and by U 462 with 42 m³ of fuel on November 3, 1942 . It belonged to the submarine group with the code name "Blücher".

  • September 3, 1942: sinking of the British steamer Hollinside ( Lage ) with 4,172 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. He drove in ballast and was on the way from Lisbon to Almería . The ship was part of an unescorted convoy of five ships. There were three dead and 47 survivors. (including six men from the Avila Star , which was sunk by U 201 on July 6, 1942 ).
  • September 3, 1942: sinking of the Belgian steamer Penrose ( Lage ) with 4,393 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. He drove in ballast and was on the way from Lisbon to southern Spain. There were two dead and 43 survivors.
  • October 7, 1942: sinking of the British steamer Andalucia Star ( Lage ) with 14,943 GRT. The steamer was sunk by four torpedoes. He had 5,374 tons of frozen meat, 32 tons of eggs and 85 passengers on board and was on the way from Buenos Aires (Argentina) via Freetown (Sierra Leone) to Liverpool. Three crew members and one passenger were killed, 166 crew members and 84 passengers were rescued.

Eighth venture

The boat left Lorient on January 30, 1943 at 4:00 p.m., and returned there on March 25, 1943 at 10:45 a.m. On this 55 day long and about 6,780 nm above and 750 nm underwater expedition in the Atlantic Ocean, off Portugal , the Azorean Islands, and off Morocco, five ships with 25,177 GRT were sunk. U 107 belonged to the submarine groups with the cover names "Hartherz", "Delphin" and "Robbe".

  • February 22, 1943: sinking of the British motor ship Roxburgh Castle ( Lage ) with 7,801 GRT. The ship was sunk by two torpedoes. It had loaded 1,030 t of chemical products and mail and was on its way from Glasgow to Buenos Aires (Argentina). There were no casualties, 64 survivors. Commandant Gelhaus appeared and steered  107 between the lifeboats of Roxburgh Castle . He inquired about the condition of the survivors and asked if they would need anything. When they said no, he apologized for the jamming of the ship, stated the distance and location of the nearest port and wished the British crew good luck.
  • March 13, 1943: sinking of the British steamer Oporto ( Lage ) with 2,352 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had loaded 1,500 tons of copper sulphate, 413 tons of seeds , potatoes and 7 tons of mail and was on the way from Liverpool to Seville . The ship belonged to convoy OS-44 with 48 ships. There were 43 dead and four survivors.
  • March 13, 1943: sinking of the Dutch steamer Sembilangan ( Lage ) with 4,990 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had loaded 6,457 t of general cargo and was on the way from Liverpool to Alexandria (Egypt). The ship belonged to convoy OS-44 with 48 ships. There were 86 dead and one survivor.
  • March 13, 1943: Sinking of the British steamer Clan Alpine ( Lage ) with 5,442 GRT. The steamer was sunk by a torpedo. He had loaded 7,374 tons of general cargo and 4,000 tons of military equipment and was on the way from Liverpool to Walvis Bay and Port Sudan . The ship belonged to convoy OS-44 with 48 ships. There were no casualties, 69 survivors.
  • March 13, 1943: sinking of the British steamer Marcella ( Lage ) with 4,592 GRT. The steamer was sunk by two torpedoes. He had loaded 500 tons of general cargo and 6,800 tons of ammunition and was on the way from Manchester and the Clyde to Freetown (Sierra Leone) and Cape Town (South Africa). The ship belonged to convoy OS-44 with 46 ships. It was a total loss with 44 dead.

Ninth venture

The boat left Lorient on April 24, 1943 at 6:00 p.m., and returned there on May 26, 1943 at 6:50 p.m. A ship with 12,411 GRT was sunk on this 43 day long and approx. 4,100 nm over and approx. 450 nm underwater expedition in the North Atlantic, Newfoundland and the central North Atlantic. U 107 was supplied with 21 m³ of fuel by U 231 on May 17, 1943 . It belonged to the submarine groups with the cover names "Amsel" and "Elbe".

  • May 1, 1943: sinking of the British motor ship Port Victor ( Lage ) with 12,411 GRT. The ship was sunk by five torpedoes. It had 7,600 tons of frozen meat, 2,000 tons of general cargo and 65 passengers on board and was on its way from Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Montevideo to Liverpool. 14 crew members and five passengers were killed, 85 crew members and 60 passengers were rescued.

Tenth venture

The boat left Lorient on July 28, 1943 at 10 a.m., and returned there on October 3, 1943 at 4.15 p.m. A ship with a total weight of 7,176 GRT was damaged on this 68-day, approximately 7,500 nm above and 1,300 nm underwater expedition in the west Atlantic and the east coast of the USA, during which twelve mines were laid off Charleston (South Carolina) .

  • August 28, 1943: Damage to the US steamer Albert Gallatin with 7,176 GRT. The steamer was damaged by two torpedoes. It was sunk on January 2, 1944 by the Japanese submarine I-26 .

Eleventh venture

The boat left Lorient on November 10, 1943 at 5:00 p.m., and arrived at St. Nazaire on November 12, 1943 at 1:00 p.m. for repairs and torpedo takeover. It left from there on November 16 at 5:55 p.m. and returned to Lorient on January 8, 1944 at 11:50 a.m. No ships were sunk or damaged during this 53-day and approximately 5,550 nm above and 1,379 nm underwater expedition in the Atlantic Ocean, Cape Finisterre , Cape St. Vincent and the western Biscay. U 107 belonged to the groups with the code names "Weddigen", "Coronel", "Coronel 3" and "Borkum". After this venture, U 107 was equipped with a snorkel system.

Twelfth venture

The boat left Lorient on April 30, 1944 at 9:20 p.m., and returned there on May 2, 1944 at 6:35 a.m. after difficulties with the snorkeling system. It left Lorient on May 10, 1944 at 9:00 p.m., and returned there on July 23, 1944 at 5:20 a.m. On this 78 day long and approx. 4,210 nm above and approx. 2,680 nm underwater expedition in the west Atlantic, Nova Scotia , Newfoundland and off New York, a ship with 148 GRT was damaged.

  • June 13, 1944: Damage to the US sailing ship Lark with 148 GRT. The sailor was damaged by artillery.

Commandant von Simmermacher first attacked the schooner with two torpedoes, but both of them failed. Then he let the ship appear and shot the fishing boat with the deck artillery. The crew of the Lark disembarked and initially took off in lifeboats. After the German submarine disappeared, the fishermen came back, made the sailor afloat again and brought the Lark to Boston . An alerted anti-submarine group around the escort aircraft carrier Wake Island took up the chase, but Commander von Simmermacher was able to escape with the U 107 .

Thirteenth venture

The boat left Lorient on August 16, 1944, and was sunk on August 18, 1944. It was supposed to bring snorkeling equipment from La Pallice and transport them to Norway. No ships were sunk or damaged during this three-day expedition in the Bay of Biscay.

Whereabouts

The boat was sunk on August 18, 1944 in the Bay of Biscay west of La Rochelle by a Sunderland W flying boat of the British Squadron 201 at position 46 ° 46 ′  N , 3 ° 49 ′  W in marine grid reference BF 6472. All 58 crew members were killed.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Georg Högel: Emblems, coats of arms, Malings German submarines 1939–1945. 5th edition. Koehlers Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Hamburg 2009, ISBN 978-3-7822-1002-7 , page 152.
  2. ↑ Clay Blair : The Submarine War. Volume 2: The Hunted, 1942–1945. Wilhelm Heyne Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 . Page 660

literature

  • Clay Blair : The Submarine War. Volume 1: The Hunters. 1939-1942. Heyne, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-453-12345-X .
  • Clay Blair: The Submarine War. Volume 2: The Hunted, 1942–1945. Heyne, Munich 1998, ISBN 3-453-16059-2 .
  • Rainer Busch, Hans-Joachim Röll: The submarine war 1939-1945. Volume 1: The German submarine commanders. ES Mittler und Sohn, Hamburg et al. 1996, ISBN 3-8132-0490-1 .
  • Rainer Busch, Hans-Joachim Röll: The submarine war 1939-1945. Volume 2: U-boat construction in German shipyards. ES Mittler und Sohn, Hamburg et al. 1997, ISBN 3-8132-0512-6 .
  • Rainer Busch, Hans-Joachim Röll: The submarine war 1939-1945. Volume 3: German submarine successes from September 1939 to May 1945. ES Mittler und Sohn, Hamburg et al. 2001, ISBN 3-8132-0513-4 .
  • Rainer Busch, Hans-Joachim Röll: The submarine war 1939-1945. Volume 4: German submarine losses from September 1939 to May 1945. ES Mittler und Sohn, Hamburg et al. 1999, ISBN 3-8132-0514-2 .
  • Rainer Busch, Hans-Joachim Röll: The submarine war 1939-1945. Volume 5: The knight's cross bearers of the submarine weapon from September 1939 to May 1945. ES Mittler and Son, Hamburg et al. 2003, ISBN 3-8132-0515-0 .
  • Erich Gröner : Die Handelsflotten der Welt 1942 and supplement 1944. JF Lehmanns Verlag, Munich 1976, ISBN 3-469-00552-4 (reprint of the 1942–1943 edition).
  • Erich Gröner: Search list for ship names (= The merchant fleets of the world. Supplementary volume). JF Lehmanns Verlag Munich 1976, ISBN 3-469-00553-2 (reprint of the 1943 edition).
  • Paul Kemp: The German and Austrian submarine losses in both world wars. Urbes Verlag, Graefelfing before Munich 1998, ISBN 3-924896-43-7 .

See also