Economy of the People's Republic of China

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People's Republic of China
World economic rank	2. (nominal) (2017)
currency	Renminbi (CNY)
Conversion rate	1 EUR = 7.78 CNY (as of July 6, 2018)
Trade organizations	WTO , APEC
Key figures
Gross domestic product (GDP)	$ 12.054 billion (nominal) (2017) $ 23.159 billion ( PPP ) (2017)
GDP per capita	$ 8,643 (nominal) (2017) $ 16,660 (PPP) (2017)
GDP by economic sector	Agriculture : 8.2% Industry : 39.5% Services : 52.2% (2017)
growth	▲ 6.9% (2017)
inflation rate	1.8% (2017)
Gini index	46.5 (2016)
Employed	806.2 million (2017)
Employed persons by economic sector	Agriculture : 28.3% (2016) Industry : 29.3% (2016) Services : 42.4% (2016)
Activity rate	68.9% (2017)
Unemployment rate	4.0% (2017)
Foreign trade
export	$ 2.157 billion (2017)
Export partner	USA : 18.2% Hong Kong : 13.8% Japan : 6.1% South Korea : 4.5% (2017)
import	$ 1,731 billion (2017)
Import partner	South Korea : 10.0% Japan : 9.2% Taiwan : 8.8% USA : 8.5% Germany : 5.4% (2016)
Foreign trade balance	$ 426 billion (2017)
public finances
Public debt	48.4% of GDP (2017)
Government revenue	$ 2,672 billion (2017)
Government spending	$ 3,146 billion (2017)
Budget balance	−4.0% of GDP (2017)

The economy of the People's Republic of China has been the second largest economy in the world after the USA since 2010, or the largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity since 2016 . Economically, the People's Republic of China is very dynamic and has developed into an economic and technological superpower as a result of a reform and opening policy that began in 1978 .

The country has many mineral resources , especially coal , oil , natural gas and metallic ores . The People's Republic of China is the world's largest coal producer and fourth largest oil producer. The coal reserves are the third largest in the world, the oil reserves are estimated at around 24 billion barrels . China owns 70 percent of the global reserves of rare earths and produces more than 95 percent of the world's production of these raw materials. These metals are indispensable for many high-tech products manufactured in industrialized countries, such as cell phones, hard disk drives , lasers , weapon systems and batteries for electric cars .

The economy of the People's Republic of China has become the economic reforms from a planned economy to a primarily organized according to market functioning mechanisms economic system changed. This economy , directed according to capitalist principles , is referred to by the Chinese government as " socialism with Chinese characteristics ". The dominant role of state capital has declined sharply since the late 1990s. In the past, China's strength as a production location stemmed primarily from its comparatively low wages. An advantage that has diminished due to the sharp rise in wages in recent years.

China is no longer a low-wage country . In addition to natural resources , human resources are increasingly the most important capital of the People's Republic of China. Of around 800 million workers, 28.3 percent are employed in agriculture, 29.3 percent in industry and 42.4 percent in the service sector (as of 2016) . Every year between six to seven million university graduates with highly qualified degrees in technical and natural sciences enter the labor market. No other state is currently investing more money in research and development than China.

The strengths of the Chinese economy lie in advanced production know-how and supply chain management , which is why the country is increasingly developing into an economic innovation leader and a major player in global capitalism .

development

See also : Economic history of the People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China is the second largest economy in the world with a gross domestic product (GDP) of around 14.4 billion US dollars (as of 2019). In terms of gross domestic product per capita , China is in the global midfield with around USD 10,276. In 2019, the Chinese economy grew by 6.1%.

In 2016, China was ranked 27th out of 137 countries in the Global Competitiveness Index 2017–18 of the World Economic Forum , which is mainly due to its strong export economy. China was the world's largest goods exporter with an export volume of US $ 2,098 billion in 2016. Since the economic opening of China, the country's exports have increased more than a thousandfold from 2 billion to over 2,000 billion dollars.

The service sector generated 51.6 percent of GDP in 2016, the industrial sector 39.8% and the agricultural sector 8.6%. This made China the world's largest industrial power, had the largest agricultural production and was the second largest consumer market. Of China's 900 million workforce in 2015, 28.3% were employed in agriculture, 29.3% in industry and 42.4% in the service sector.

The major stock exchanges in China are the Shanghai Stock Exchange , Hong Kong Stock Exchange and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange . Cities like Beijing, Shanghai and Shenzhen are financial centers of increasing international importance.

capital

According to a study by Bank Credit Suisse from 2017, the People's Republic of China ranked second in the world in terms of total national assets . Total real estate, stocks, and cash holdings totaled $ 29 trillion, making Chinese households nearly a tenth of the world's wealth of around $ 280 trillion. The wealth per adult person is $ 26,872 on average and $ 6,689 in median (in Germany: 203,946 and 47,091 dollars, respectively). Chinese households are thus in the middle of the field in terms of wealth per capita. Altogether, 45.4% of the Chinese people's total wealth was financial wealth and 54.6% was non-financial wealth. The Gini coefficient for wealth distribution was 78.9 in 2017, which indicates a very high level of wealth inequality. The top 10% of the Chinese population owned 71.9% of the property and the top 1% owned 47.0%. The proportion of Chinese with wealth less than $ 10,000 is estimated at 63.1% of the population and the proportion with wealth over $ 1 million is estimated at 0.2%. A total of 1.9 million Chinese were millionaires, making the country about 5% of the world's millionaires in US $. The PR China was also the country with the world's second highest number of billionaires with a total of 373. The richest man in the country was Ma Huateng with a fortune of 45.3 billion US dollars (as of 2018).

Energy industry

Shanghai , the financial center of China; 2016

Inner Mongolia coal mine ; 2005

Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant , Zhejiang Province ; 2009

Chinese cutting-edge technology : CPV concentrator cells on dual- axis solar trackers in Golmud , Haixi Autonomous District , Qinghai Province ; 2014

Due to the rapid industrialization and the increase in the standard of living (quality of life), the energy demand rose sharply. In 1985 about thirteen times as much energy was used as in 1957. The per capita consumption of energy is comparatively low at about half the international average and about a tenth of the per capita consumption of the United States. Therefore, a further sharp increase in energy demand can be predicted.

The year 1990 marked the first turning point in energy supply: China became a net importer of energy. In late 1993, China also became a net importer of crude oil. In July 2010, China became the world's largest energy consumer. An important factor in the increase in energy consumption, and therefore carbon dioxide emissions, is due to China's role as "the world's workbench"; H. on the production of export goods for consumption in other countries. Between 2002 and 2008, export goods production accounted for about 48% of China's total carbon dioxide production.

In September 2016 China ratified the on the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference adopted climate protection agreement . This provides for global warming to be limited to 1.5 ° C if possible, but in any case below 2 ° C compared to pre-industrial values.

Coal is China's most important energy source. In 2015, the share of total Chinese energy consumption was 64.4%, although the relative share has been declining for years because coal consumption is growing less rapidly than other energy sources. In the electricity sector, the share of coal was still 83% in 2007; by 2015, with the growing share of renewable energies and nuclear energy, the share had fallen to 72%. In 2013, coal consumption in China peaked (another statistic mentions 2014), then consumption fell again, in 2014 by 2.9%, in 2015 by 3.6%. Since this decline in coal consumption was achieved despite economic growth of 7.3 or 6.9%, which decoupled growth from coal consumption, some researchers consider this decline to be a permanent turnaround in Chinese energy policy and an important step in the global climate protection efforts. With the falling fuel consumption due to the 63 TWh lower coal power production, the CO ₂ emissions also decreased, in the first 4 months of 2015 by 5%. That's equivalent to the UK's total carbon dioxide production . Around 1000 coal mines were closed at the same time.

In 2016, the installed capacity was in second place with 1646  GW and in terms of annual generation in first place in the world with 6.142 trillion  kWh . In the mid-1990s, installed capacity was still 215 GW and annual generation was 994 billion kWh.

In the hydropower sector , the country has a technically exploitable capacity of 574 GW; 70% of it comes from rivers in the provinces of Sichuan , Yunnan and Tibet . Around 197 GW had been developed by the end of 2009. At the end of April 2010, 67 GW of new power plants were under construction, the largest of which is a project on Brahmaputra in Tibet. The world's largest hydroelectric power station is the Three Gorges Dam . In 2016, hydropower plants with an installed capacity of 331.11 GW were in operation in the People's Republic ; of which 26.72 GW were pumped storage power plants . The annual production of the hydropower plants was 1.18 trillion kWh in the same year  . The installed capacity of hydropower plants in China represented more than a quarter of the global hydropower plant capacity in 2016. The share of hydropower plants in the installed capacity of all power plants in the People's Republic was 20.2% in 2016. In total there are several hundred hydropower plants in China .

China has been relying heavily on renewable energies since around 2006 . In 2013, renewable energies ( hydropower plants , wind turbines , photovoltaic systems , etc.) covered around 20.4% of China's electricity demand. In the same year, China invested more in renewable energies than in coal-fired power plants for the first time and added more than 12 GW of photovoltaic capacity - more than any country has ever invested in this sector. China has thus doubled its photovoltaic capacities and plans to add another 14 GW per year. A total of around 57 GW of regenerative generation capacity was installed in China in 2013 (for comparison: coal: 39.7 GW).

In 2014, electricity production from renewable energies rose sharply. Compared to the previous year, around 242 TWh more green electricity was produced, primarily from hydropower . Overall, the Chinese electricity consumption is around 6000 TWh, which is about 10 times the German electricity generation. The Chinese government is strongly promoting the expansion of photovoltaics. The Chinese National Energy Agency recently increased its expansion targets by 30% and in 2015 overtook Germany as the largest installer of photovoltaics both in total (21.3 GW) and per capita of the population of newly installed capacity (16.3 W). By 2030, renewable energies should cover around 20% of the total primary energy demand.

In the wind power China is leading the world. At the end of 2017, wind turbines with a total of 188.2 GW were installed, putting China clearly ahead of the USA with 89.1 GW and Germany with 56.1 GW. Measured in terms of output, around one in three wind turbines worldwide is in China. By 2030, the proportion of wind power is to be tripled to fivefold. As of 2016, wind energy is the third most important supplier of electricity after coal-fired electricity and hydropower.

China is also the world market leader in the solar thermal sector . In 2012, 63,900,000 m² of solar thermal collector surface were newly installed in China alone , the lion's share of the 72,913,000 m² that were put into operation worldwide this year. For comparison: in Europe around 14 million m² were installed in 2004, in China around 64 million m². A total installed collector area of ​​270 million m² is forecast in China by 2020.

There are several nuclear power plants in the People's Republic of China . The first Chinese nuclear power plant is located in Qinshan ( Zhejiang Province ) and has been on the grid since 1991. As of March 2014, 21 reactor units with a nominal output of 16.9 GW were in operation. 28 further power plant blocks with an output of 27.7 GW were under construction, and further power plants are planned. In 2013 nuclear power plants supplied 110.7 TWh of electrical energy. Nuclear power plants thus contributed 2.11% to China's total electricity generation.

Characteristics

Development of China's gross domestic product in renminbi and US dollars

year	1952	1956	1960	1964	1968	1972	1976	1980	1984	1988	1992	1996	2000	2004	2008	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016
GDP in billion Rmb	119	103	146	145	172	252	294	452	717	1,493	2,664	6,789	8,947	15,988	31,404	40,070	48,603	54,098	59,696	64,718	69,910	74,539
GDP in Rmb per inhabitant	119	165	218	208	222	292	316	460	692	1,355	2,287	5,576	7,858	12,336	24.091	30,629	36,073	39,953	43,871	47,314	50,858	53,908
GDP in billion US $			59	59	70	113	153	305	316	411	495	867	1,214	1,966	4,604	6,066	7,522	8,570	9,635	10,534	11,226	11,218
GDP in dollars per inhabitant			89	85	91	131	165	309	303	371	423	708	958	1,512	3,467	4,524	5,582	6.329	7,080	7,701	8,166	8,133
Source: Official statistics of the PR China China, 2016 (note on the table see below) and IMF World Economic Outlook

Note:
This table was drawn up using the official figures. It should be noted that, according to the Chinese method of calculation, only commercially provided services by industry and craft are included in the GDP indicator. Services, rural barter transactions and self-consumption are not included in GDP. Therefore, in this table, GDP in 1960, the worst famine year of the big jump, is a third higher than in 1956, a year with a good harvest and some prosperity.

The following two tables show the development of steel and cement production, the two basic materials of construction. In 2013, 48% of world steel production and over 55% of world cement production was produced in China.

China's steel production in millions of tons

year	1950	1955	1970	1980	1990	1995	1999	2002	2005	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2015
in million tons	0.6	4.0	18.8	37.1	66.3	95.4	124	182	349	489	501	568	627	683	717	822	804
Source: Official Statistics of the PRC

See also : Steel Industry / Tables and Graphics

China's cement production in millions of tons

year	1950	1952	1957	1970	1980	1990	2000	2005	2007	2009	2011	2013	2014
in million tons	1.4	2.9	6.9	10.0	79.9	209.7	583.4	1069	1361	1644	2099	2400	2500
Source: USGS, 2013

See also : List of the largest cement manufacturers

The following tables show the development of the gross domestic product, the investment rate, inflation and automobile production.

Annual growth of China's gross domestic product in%

year	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017
Growth in%	9.3	7.8	7.6	8.4	8.3	9.1	10.0	10.1	10.4	11.6	13.0	9.6	9.2	10.5	9.2	7.8	8.4	7.7	7.4	6.7	6.9
Source: Official Statistics of the PRC

Inflation in percent compared to previous year

year	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013
Inflation rate in%	−1.3	0.4	−0.8	1.2	3.9	1.8	4.1	4.8	5.9	−0.7
Source: Official statistics of the PRC Source: bfai, exxun and BIS

Automobile production in millions of cars + trucks

year	1999	2002	2005	2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2013	2015	2017
Automobile production	1.8	3.3	5.7	8.9	9.3	13.8	18.3	18.4	21st	24.5	28.9
Source: Official Statistics of the PRC

Investment rate (*) as a percentage of GDP

year	1997	1998	1999	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008	2009
Investment rate in%	32	33	33	34	34	35	37	38	43	41	40	41	45
Source: Official Statistics of the PRC									Note on the table see below

(*) Note on the investment rate: In China currently (2006) over 40% of economic output is directly reinvested in new systems and less than 60%, be it by the state or through private consumption, is used for consumption, but are included in these statistics only commercially provided services from industry and craft. Services, rural barter transactions and personal consumption are not included in GDP and are therefore not included in the investment rate.

Ranking world market

A comparison of the available data shows that China has now not only occupied top positions in many production sectors, but has often already assumed an undisputed leadership position. China is the largest grain producer in the world. In addition to wheat, maize (21% of the arable land) and above all rice (32% of the arable land) are grown. The rare earth China has a funding share of over 90%. The following table is intended to illustrate China's top positions using many examples from the fields of agriculture , mining , industry and the energy sector (clicking on the products takes you to the detailed tables in many cases):

China's rank in world production

product	class	Rank CN	Rank USA	Rank DE	production	year
Grain	LW	1	2	13	583.7 million t	2016
wheat	LW	1	3	9	131.7 million t	2016
rice	LW	1	11	-	209.5 million t	2016
Corn	LW	2	1	29	231.7 million t	2016
Bananas	LW	2	-	-	10.7 million t	2011
Apples	LW	1	2	14th	44.4 million t	2016
Oranges	LW	3	2	-	6.5 million t	2012
Lemons	LW	3	6th	-	13.1 million t	2011
grapes	LW	1	3	16	13.4 million t	2018
Potatoes	LW	1	5	6th	99.0 million t	2016
sugar	LW	3	5	-	14.0 million t	2012
(Cow) milk	LW	3	1	5	36.8 million t	2016
cheese	LW	-	1	2	-	2011
butter	LW	-	3	5	-
Cattle	LW	3	4th	-	41.0 million	2010
beef	LW	4th	1	-	5.6 million t	2010
Pigs (herd)	LW	1	3	5	489 million	2005
pork meat	LW	1	2	3	50.2 million t	2011
Soybeans	LW	5	1	-	12.0 million t	2016
Sheep (stock)	LW	1	-	-	136.4 million	2008
Sheep meat	LW	1	7th	-	2.1 million t	2012
Chicken	LW	2	1	-	15.0 million t	2007
flesh	LW	1	2	4th	72.64 million t	2004
Fish (catches)	LW	1	5	-	81.50 million t	2016
Wool (unwashed)	LW	2	-	-	0.52 million t	2004
cotton	LW	1	3	-	6.8 million t	2012
rubber	LW	5	-	-	0.55 million t	2005
Wood	LW	3	1	13	286.1 million m³	2003
Gold mining	BB	1	4th	-	453 t	2017
Silver mining	BB	3	8th	-	2380 t	2017
Platinum mining	BB	-	5	-	-	2016
Artificial diamond production	BB	1	-	-	14.6 billion carats	2019
Copper extraction	BB	3	4th	-	1.86 million t	2017
zinc	BB	1	4th	-	5.1 million t	2017
tin	BB	1	-	-	100 million tons	2017
lead	BB	1	3	-	2.40 million t	2016
bauxite	BB	2	-	-	55 million t	2014
Iron ore mining	BB	1	8th	-	1200 million tons	2016
iron	I.	1	8th	7th	701 million tons	2016
steel	I.	1	4th	7th	832 million tons	2017
aluminum	I.	1	5	13	31.0 million t	2016
cement	I.	1	3	17th	1,354 million tons	2007
Man-made fibers	I.	1	3	9	7.9 million t	2001
Paper and cardboard	I.	1	2	4th	99.3 million t	2011
fertilizer	I.	1	3	14th	23.6 million t	2002
Uranium extraction	E.	8th	9	-	1616 t	2016
Hard coal mining	E.	1	3	21st	3103 million tons	2016
Lignite mining	E.	2	4th	1	140 million tons	2016
Oil production	E.	7th	3	56	200 million tons	2016
Power generation	E.	1	2	26th	92.0 square Btu	2014
Power generation	E.	1	2	7th	6143 billion kWh	2016

Remarks:

1. ↑ LW = agriculture , BB = mining , I = industry , E = energy
2. ↑ Year for which comparative figures were available
3. ↑ on cellulose and synthetic basis

Foreign trade

The tables below show China's main trading partners and major commodities. There are now around 7,000 German companies represented in China.

Development of foreign trade

Development of foreign trade (GTAI) in billion US dollars and its year-on-year change in percent
	2014		2015		2016
	Billion USD	% yoy	Billion USD	% yoy	Billion USD	% year-on-year
import	1,958.0	+0.4	1,681.7	−14.1	1,588.7	−5.5
export	2,342.3	+6.0	2,281.9	−2.6	2,119.0	−7.1
balance	+384.3		+600.2		+530.3

Export (2016)

Trading partner	Proportion of %
United States	18.3
Hong Kong	13.8
Japan	6.1
South Korea	4.5
Germany	3.1
Vietnam	2.9
India	2.8
other countries	48.5

Import (2016)

Trading partner	Proportion of %
South Korea	10.0
Japan	9.2
Taiwan	8.8
United States	8.5
Germany	5.4
Australia	4.4
Malaysia	3.1
other countries	50.6

Export goods (2016)

Export goods	Proportion of %
electronics	25.6
textiles	12.5
Electrical engineering	8.4
machinery	8.3
Metal goods	3.8
Others	41.4

Import goods (2016)

Import goods	Proportion of %
electronics	23.3
raw materials	12.7
oil	7.3
machinery	6.8
Electrical engineering	5.3
Others	44.6

The main oil suppliers to the People's Republic of China in 2014

rank	country	Barrel per day	Percentage
1.	Saudi Arabia	997,000	16.1%
2.	Angola	816,000	13.2%
3.	Russia	665,000	10.7%
4th	Oman	597,000	9.6%
5.	Iraq	573,000	9.3%
6th	Iran	551,000	8.9%
7th	Venezuela	277,000	4.5%
8th.	United Arab Emirates	234,000	3.8%
9.	Kuwait	213,000	3.4%
10.	Colombia	199,000	3.2%
	Others	1,069,000	17.3%
	total	6,191,000	100%

See also

• Waste management in China
• List of the administrative units of the People's Republic of China according to economic output
• School system in the People's Republic of China
• Sino-German relations
• Real estate market (China)

literature

• Tobias ten Brink: China's Capitalism. Origin, course, paradoxes. Campus-Verlag, 2013, ISBN 978-3-593-39880-8 .
• Barbara Darimont (ed.): Economic Policy of the People's Republic of China. Springer Gabler, 2020, ISBN 978-3-658-28304-9 .
• Wolfgang Hirn: Shenzhen. The global economy of tomorrow. Campus-Verlag, 2020, ISBN 978-3-593-51192-4 .
• Richard Hoffmann: Practical Guide "Business in China". First-hand insider knowledge. Springer-Verlag, 2013, ISBN 978-3-658-02493-2 .
• Elena Kronester, Anabel Ternes: Human Resources Management and Leadership in China. Status quo and challenges. Academic Publishing Association Munich, 2017, ISBN 978-3-96091-519-5 .
• Sven Woogt: The change from a labor-intensive to a capital-intensive economy in China. Igel Verlag, 2009, ISBN 978-3-86815-172-5 .

Individual evidence

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2. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n} CIA: The World Factbook , accessed January 29, 2018
3. ↑ Employment rate in a country comparison. Federal Statistical Office , October 10, 2016, accessed on December 4, 2016 . 
4. ↑ ^{a b c} Germany Trade and Invest GmbH: GTAI - economic data compact. Retrieved July 26, 2017 . 
5. ↑ statista.com based on data from the IMF
6. ↑ destatis.de: Financial balance of the state of Germany, gross domestic product 2013 for Germany - accompanying material for the press conference on January 15, 2014, table 3, page 21
7. ↑ China sits on trillion dollars , n-tv.de, November 7, 2006 , accessed on January 24, 2018
8. ↑ ^{a b} China. Economy and development. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, accessed on January 24, 2018.
9. ↑ Raw materials China In: FAZ. October 25, 2010, accessed January 24, 2018
10. ^ Jana Brokate, Susanne Günther: China. Data and analyzes on the university and science location 2017. German Academic Exchange Service Bonn, 2017, p. 24.
11. ↑ Simon Johnson: China is becoming the kite of innovation. Project Syndicate, January 19, 2018, accessed January 24, 2018.
12. ↑ China's New Capitalism: Endless Growth? Federal Agency for Civic Education, 2010, accessed on January 24, 2017.
13. ^ Federal Foreign Office - China , last seen on April 8, 2016.
14. ^ Federal Foreign Office - China - Economy , last seen on April 8, 2016.
15. ↑ Exports of goods and services (current US $). Data. Retrieved August 11, 2017 (American English). 
16. ↑ Global Wealth Databook 2017. Credit Suisse, accessed July 14, 2018 . 
17. ↑ The World's Billionaires 2018. Retrieved July 14, 2018 . 
18. ↑ Jérôme Dangerman, Hans Joachim Schellnhuber , Energy system transformation . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 110, Issue 7 (2013), 549-558, 553, doi: 10.1073 / pnas.1219791110 .
19. ↑ Ming Xu et al .: CO2 emissions embodied in China's exports from 2002 to 2008: A structural decomposition analysis . In: Energy Policy . tape 39 , 2011, p. 7381–7388 , doi : 10.1016 / j.enpol.2011.08.068 .
20. ↑ USA and China join the UN climate protection agreement . In: Die Zeit , September 3, 2016. Retrieved September 17, 2016.
21. ↑ ^{a b} Ye Qi et al .: China's post-coal growth . Nature Geoscience 2016, doi: 10.1038 / ngeo2777 .
22. ↑ ^{a b} The Chinese energy sensation . In: Manager-Magazin , May 21, 2015. Accessed May 21, 2015.
23. ↑ China's reduction in CO2 emissions in just four months totals the entire greenhouse gases emitted by the UK over the same period . In: The Independent , May 17, 2015. Retrieved May 22, 2015.
24. ^ Project Completion Report on the Fujian Mianhuatan. Hydropower Project (Loan 1417-PRC) in the People's Republic of China. (PDF, pp. 6–7, 9–11) Asian Development Bank , accessed November 8, 2017 (English). 
25. ↑ Slow approval of hydro projects seen holding back clean-energy bid. In: South China Morning Post April 30, 2010, p. B3.
26. ↑ China. International Hydropower Association , accessed August 25, 2015 . 
27. ↑ World Development Indicators: Electricity production, sources, and access . World Bank website . Retrieved September 17, 2016.
28. ↑ Bloomberg New Energy Finance: China's 12GW solar market outstripped all expectations in 2013. (PDF).
29. ↑ China raises solar installation target for 2015 Reuters, October 8, 2015
30. ↑ ^{a b} China to generate a quarter of electricity from wind power by 2030 . In: The Guardian , June 20, 2016. Retrieved June 26, 2016.
31. ↑ Global Wind Statistics 2017 (PDF) Global Wind Energy Council. Retrieved February 24, 2018.
32. ↑ China is investing 95 billion euros in wind energy projects ( memento of the original from August 13, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. . In: China Observer , December 1, 2016. Retrieved December 1, 2016. 
33. ↑ Volker Quaschning : Regenerative Energy Systems. 9th edition. Hanser Verlag, Munich 2015, p. 38.
34. ↑ The development in the field of renewable energies in China (PDF)
35. ^ Under Construction Reactors . PRIS, International Atomic Energy Agency . Retrieved March 19, 2014.
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37. ↑ GDP growth in China 1952–2011. (No longer available online.) National Bureau of Statistics, archived from the original July 16, 2013 ; accessed on May 24, 2013 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
38. ^ Report for Selected Countries and Subjects. Retrieved July 29, 2017 (American English). 
39. ↑ ^{a b c d e} National Bureau of Statistics, chinability.com ( Memento of the original from July 16, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. China, 2004 
40. ↑ Steel in Figures, 2015
41. ↑ usgs 2013, minerals.usgs.gov Minerals Yearbook, PDF, Table 22
42. ↑ Khaled M. Kayali: Political integration of the chinese communist party elite 1952–1966 December, 1970  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
43. ↑ bub.vdma.org ( Memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
44. ↑ statista 2015
45. ↑ Torsten Gellert: Will China find its way back to old strength? - Indication for Australian Dollars. In: de.investing.com. January 17, 2013, accessed February 18, 2015 . 
46. ↑ Development of GDP, investments and inflation in China: gtai, economic data compact ( memento of the original from April 2, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
47. ↑ Inflation figures of the PR China exxun, 2007  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  
48. ↑ bis.org (PDF; 602 kB) p. 60.
49. ↑ chineseembassy
50. ↑ Peking Rundschau January 13, 2016
51. ↑ Handelsblatt : The world in numbers , 1st edition 11/2005, ISBN 3-502-15049-4
52. ↑ MINERAL COMMODITY SUMMARIES 2020, p. 55
53. ^ The Atlas of Economic Complexity |. Retrieved June 16, 2017 . 
54. ↑ Johnny Erling: China sends its best man to Germany. welt.de from August 15, 2012 , accessed on August 16, 2012