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:''This article is about the chemical element Curium; for the ancient city also called Curium (located in Cyprus), see [[Kourion]]''
{{redirect|Degas}}
{{infobox curium}}
{{Infobox Artist
'''Curium''' ({{pronEng|ˈkjuːriəm}}) is a [[synthetic element|synthetic chemical element]] with the symbol '''Cm''' and [[atomic number]] 96. A [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] [[metal]]lic [[transuranic element]] of the [[actinide]] series, curium is produced by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[alpha particle]]s ([[helium]] [[ion]]s) and was named for [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie Curie]] and her husband [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]]. little pumpkin pie hair cutted freak
| name = Edgar Degas
| image = Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 061.jpg
| imagesize = 285px
| caption = Self-portrait (''Degas au porte-fusain''), 1855
| birthname = Hilaire-Germain-Edgar Degas
| birthdate = {{birth date|1834|7|19|df=y}}
| location = [[Paris]], [[France]]
| deathdate = {{death date and age|df=yes|1917|9|27|1834|7|19}}
| deathplace = [[Paris]], [[France]]
| nationality = [[French people|French]]
| field = [[Painting]], [[Sculpture]], [[Drawing]]
| training =
| movement = [[Impressionism]]
| works = ''The Belleli Family'' (1858-1867)<br>''Woman with Chrysanthemums'' (1865)<br>''Chanteuse de Café'' (c.1878)<br>''At the Milliner's'' (1882)
| patrons =
| awards =
| influenced = [[Walter Sickert]]
}}


== Characteristics ==
'''Edgar Degas''' (19 July 1834 – 27 September 1917), born '''Hilaire-Germain-Edgar Degas''' ({{pronounced|ilɛʀ ʒɛʁmɛ̃ ɛdɡɑʀ dœˈɡɑ}}), was a French artist famous for his work in [[painting]], [[sculpture]], [[printmaking]] and [[drawing]]. He is regarded as one of the founders of [[Impressionism]] although he rejected the term, and preferred to be called a realist.<ref name="Gordon31">Gordon and Forge, 1988, p. 31</ref> A superb [[# drawing|draughtsman]], he is especially identified with the subject of the dance, and over half his works depict dancers. These display his mastery in the depiction of movement, as do his racecourse subjects and female [[nude]]s. His [[portrait]]s are considered to be among the finest in the history of art.
The [[isotope]] curium-248 has been synthesized only in milligram quantities, but curium-242 and curium-244 are made in multigram amounts, which allows for the determination of some of the element's properties. Curium-244 can be made in quantity by subjecting [[plutonium]] to [[neutron]] bombardment. Curium does not occuSCROTUMr in nature. There are few commercial applications for curium but it may one day be useful in radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Curium [[bio-accumulate]]s in [[bone]] tissue where its radiation destroys [[bone marrow]] and thus stops [[red blood cell]] creation.


A [[Rare earth element|rare earth]] homolog, curium is somewhat chemically similar to [[gadolinium]] but with a more complex [[crystal structure]]. Chemically reactive, its [[metal]] is silvery-white in color and the element is more [[electropositive]] than [[aluminium]] (most trivalent curium [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s are slightly yellow).
Early in his career, his ambition was to be a [[History painting|history painter]], a calling for which he was well prepared by his rigorous academic training and close study of classic art. In his early thirties he changed course, and by bringing the traditional methods of a history painter to bear on contemporary subject matter, he became a classical painter of modern life.<ref>Turner, p. 139</ref>


Curium has been studied greatly as a potential fuel for [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s (RTG). Curium-242 can generate up to 120 [[watt]]s of thermal [[energy]] per gram (W/g); however, its very short half-life makes it undesirable as a power source for long-term use. Curium-242 can decay by [[alpha decay|alpha emission]] to [[plutonium-238]] which is the most common fuel for RTGs. Curium-244 has also been studied as an energy source for RTGs having a maximum energy density ~3 W/g, but produces a large amount of neutron radiation from [[spontaneous fission]]. Curium-243 with a ~30 year half-life and good energy density of ~1.6 W/g would seem to make an ideal fuel, but it produces significant amounts of [[Gamma ray|gamma]] and [[Beta ray|beta]] radiation from radioactive decay products.
== Biography ==
===Early life===
Degas was born in [[Paris]], [[France]], the eldest of five children of Célestine Musson De Gas and Augustin De Gas, a [[banker]]. The family was moderately wealthy. At age eleven, Degas (as a young man he abandoned the more pretentious spelling of the family name)<ref>The family's ancestral name was Degas. Jean Sutherland Boggs explains that De Gas was the spelling, "with some pretentions, used by the artist's father when he moved to Paris to establish a French branch of his father's Neopolitan bank." While Edgar Degas's brother René adopted the still more aristocratic de Gas, the artist had reverted to the original spelling, Degas, by age thirty. Baumann, et al., 1994, p. 98.</ref> began his schooling with enrollment in the [[Lycée Louis-le-Grand]], graduating in 1853 with a ''baccalauréat'' in literature.


==Compounds ==
Degas began to paint seriously early in his life. By eighteen he had turned a room in his home into an artist's studio, and had begun making copies in the [[Louvre]], but his father expected him to go to [[law school]]. Degas duly registered at the Faculty of Law of the [[University of Paris]] in November 1853, but made little effort at his studies there. In 1855, Degas met [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]], whom he revered, and was advised by him to "draw lines, young man, many lines." In April of that same year, Degas received admission to the [[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]], where he studied drawing with [[Louis Lamothe]], under whose guidance he flourished, following the style of Ingres.<ref>Canaday, 1969, p. 930-931</ref> In July 1856, Degas traveled to [[Italy]], where he would remain for the next three years. There he drew and painted copies after [[Michelangelo]], [[Raphael]], [[Titian]], and other artists of the [[Renaissance]], often selecting from an altarpiece an individual head which he treated as a portrait.<ref>Baumann, et al., 1994, p. 154</ref> It was during this period that Degas studied and became accomplished in the techniques of high, academic, and classical art.<ref>Roskill, 1983, p. 33</ref>
Some compounds are:
*curium dioxide (Cm[[oxygen|O]]<sub>2</sub>)
*curium trioxide (Cm<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>)
*curium bromide (Cm[[bromine|Br]]<sub>3</sub>)
*curium chloride (Cm[[chlorine|Cl]]<sub>3</sub>)
*curium tetrafluoride (Cm[[Fluorine|F]]<sub>4</sub>)
*curium iodide (Cm[[iodine|I]]<sub>3</sub>)


===Artistic career===
== History ==
Curium was [[discoveries of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] by [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], Ralph A. James, and [[Albert Ghiorso]] in [[1944]]. The team named the new element after [[Marie Curie]] and her husband [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] who are famous for discovering [[radium]] and for their work in [[radioactivity]]. It was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now [[Argonne National Laboratory]]) at the [[University of Chicago]]. It was actually the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the fourth in the series. Curium-242 ([[half-life]] 163 days) and one [[free neutron]] were made by bombarding [[alpha particle]]s onto a [[plutonium]]-239 target in the 60-inch [[cyclotron]] at Berkeley. Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman created a visible sample of curium-242 [[hydroxide]] at the [[University of California]] in [[1947]] by bombarding [[americium]]-241 with neutrons. Curium was made in its elemental form in [[1951]] for the first time.


== Isotopes ==
After returning from Italy in 1859, Degas continued his education by copying paintings at the [[Louvre]]; he was to remain an enthusiastic copyist well into middle age.<ref>Baumann, et al., 1994, p. 151</ref> In the early 1860s, while visiting his childhood friend Paul Valpinçon in [[Normandy]], he made his first studies of horses. He exhibited at the [[Paris Salon|Salon]] for the first time in 1865, when the jury accepted his painting ''Scene of War in the Middle Ages'', which attracted little attention.<ref>Thomson, 1988, p. 48</ref> Although he exhibited annually in the Salon during the next five years, he submitted no more history paintings, and his ''Steeplechase—The Fallen Jockey'' (Salon of 1866) signaled his growing commitment to contemporary subject matter. The change in his art was influenced primarily by the example of [[Édouard Manet]], whom Degas had met in 1864 while copying in the Louvre.<ref>Gordon and Forge, 1988, p. 23</ref>
19 [[radioisotope]]s of curium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cm-247 with a [[half-life]] of 1.56 &times; 10<sup>7</sup> [[year]]s, Cm-248 with a half-life of 3.40 &times; 10<sup>5</sup> years, Cm-250 with a half-life of 9000 years, and Cm-245 with a half-life of 8500 years. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 30 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 33 days. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Cm-244m (t<sub>½</sub> 34 ms). The isotopes of curium range in [[atomic weight]] from 233.051 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (Cm-233) to 252.085 u (Cm-252).


== Nuclear fuel cycle ==
At the outbreak of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1870, Degas enlisted in the National Guard, where his defense of Paris left him little time for painting. During rifle training his eyesight was found to be defective, and for the rest of his life his eye problems were a constant worry to him.<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p.29</ref>
[[Image:Sasahara.svg|thumb|375px|Transmutation flow between <sup>238</sup>Pu and <sup>244</sup>Cm in LWR.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jnst/41/4/448/_pdf|title=Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and MOX Spent Fuels|journal=Journal of NUCLEAR SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY|volume=41|issue=4|pages=448–456|date=April 2004|doi=10.3327/jnst.41.448|author=Sasahara, Akihiro}}</ref><br>Fission percentage is 100 minus shown percentages.<br>Total rate of transmutation varies greatly by nuclide.<br><sup>245</sup>Cm&ndash;<sup>248</sup>Cm are long-lived with negligible decay.]]
[[Image:Cottonexchange1873-Degas.jpg|thumb|280px|The [[New Orleans Cotton Exchange]], 1873]]
{| class=wikitable
After the war, in 1872, Degas began an extended stay in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], where his brother René and a number of other relatives lived. Staying in a house on [[Esplanade Avenue, New Orleans|Esplanade Avenue]], Degas produced a number of works, many depicting family members. One of Degas' New Orleans works, depicting a scene at [[New Orleans Cotton Exchange|The Cotton Exchange at New Orleans]], garnered favorable attention back in France, and was his only work purchased by a museum (that of [[Pau, France|Pau]]) during his lifetime.
!colspan="7"| [[Thermal neutron]] [[cross section]]s
|-
| ||<sup>242</sup>Cm||<sup>243</sup>Cm||<sup>244</sup>Cm||<sup>245</sup>Cm||<sup>246</sup>Cm||<sup>247</sup>Cm
|-
|Fission||5||617||1.04||2145||0.14||81.90
|-
|Capture||16||130||15.20||369||1.22||57
|-
|C/F ratio||3.20||0.21||14.62||0.17||8.71||0.70
|-
!colspan="7"| [[LEU]] [[spent fuel]] 20 years after 53 MWd/kg [[burnup]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/pdf/13_3%20Kang%20vonhippel.pdf|title=Limited Proliferation-Resistance Benefits from Recycling Unseparated Transuranics and Lanthanides from Light-Water Reactor Spent Fuel|page=4}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="2" |3 common isotopes ||51||3700||390|| ||
|-
|-
!colspan="7"| [[Fast reactor]] [[MOX fuel]] (avg 5 samples, [[burnup]] 66-120GWd/t)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/aesj/publication/JNST2001/No.10/38_912-914.pdf|title=Analysis of Curium Isotopes in Mixed Oxide Fuel Irradiated in Fast Reactor}}</ref>
|-
|colspan="2" |Total curium 3.09{{e|-3}}% ||27.64%||70.16%||2.166%||0.0376%||0.000928%
|}


The odd-mass number isotopes are [[fissile]], the even-mass number isotopes are not and can only [[neutron capture]], but very slowly. Therefore in a [[thermal reactor]] the even-mass isotopes accumulate as [[burnup]] increases.
Degas returned to Paris in 1873. The following year his father died, and in the subsequent settling of the estate it was discovered that Degas' brother René had amassed enormous business debts. To preserve the family name, Degas was forced to sell his house and a collection of art he had inherited. He now found himself suddenly dependent on sales of his artwork for income.<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p.33</ref> By now thoroughly disenchanted with the Salon, Degas joined forces with a group of young artists who were intent upon organizing an independent exhibiting society. The first of their exhibitions, which were quickly dubbed Impressionist Exhibitions, was in 1874. The Impressionists subsequently held seven additional shows, the last in 1886. Degas took a leading role in organizing the exhibitions, and showed his work in all but one of them, despite his persistent conflicts with others in the group. He had little in common with [[Claude Monet|Monet]] and the other landscape painters, whom he mocked for painting outdoors. Conservative in his social attitudes, he abhorred the scandal created by the exhibitions, as well as the publicity and advertising that his colleagues sought.<ref name="Gordon31"/> He bitterly rejected the label Impressionist that the press had created and popularized, and his insistence on including such comparatively traditional artists as [[Jean-Louis Forain]] and [[Jean-François Raffaëlli]] in their exhibitions created rancor within the group, contributing to their eventual disbanding in 1886.<ref>Armstrong, p. 25</ref>


The [[MOX]] which is to be used in power reactors should contain little or no curium as the neutron activation of <sup>248</sup>Cm will create [[californium]] which is a strong [[neutron]] emitter. The californium would [[pollute]] the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to workers. Hence if the [[minor actinides]] are to be used as fuel in a thermal neutron reactor, the curium should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actinide present.
As his financial situation improved through sales of his own work, he was able to indulge his passion for collecting works by artists he admired—old masters such as [[El Greco]] and such contemporaries as [[Edouard Manet|Manet]], [[Camille Pissarro|Pissarro]], [[Paul Cézanne|Cézanne]], [[Paul Gauguin|Gauguin]], and [[Van Gogh]]. Three artists he idolized, [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres|Ingres]], [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]], and [[Honoré Daumier|Daumier]], were especially well represented in his collection.<ref>"In the final inventory of his collection, there were twenty paintings and eighty-eight drawings by Ingres, thirteen paintings and almost two hundred drawings by Delacroix. There were hundreds of lithographs by Daumier. His contemporaries were well represented—with the exception of Monet, by whom he had nothing." Gordon and Forge, 1988, p. 37</ref>

In the late 1880s, Degas also developed a passion for [[photography]].<ref>Gordon and Forge, 1988, p. 26</ref> He photographed many of his friends, often by lamplight, as in his double portrait of [[Pierre Auguste Renoir|Renoir]] and [[Stéphane Mallarmé|Mallarmê]]. Other photographs, depicting dancers and nudes, were used for reference in some of Degas' drawings and paintings.<ref>Gordon and Forge, 1988, p. 34</ref>

As the years passed, Degas became isolated, due in part to his belief that a painter could have no personal life.<ref>Canaday, 1969, p. 929</ref> The [[Dreyfus Affair]] controversy brought his [[antisemitism|antisemitic]] leanings to the fore and he broke with all his Jewish friends.<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p. 56</ref> In later life, Degas regretted the loss of those friends.

While he is known to have been working in [[pastel]] as late as the end of 1907, and is believed to have continued making sculpture as late as 1910, he apparently ceased working in 1912, when the impending demolition of his longtime residence on the rue Victor Massé forced a wrenching move to quarters on the boulevard de Clichy.<ref>Thomson, 1988, p. 211</ref> He never married and spent the last years of his life, nearly blind, restlessly wandering the streets of Paris<ref>Mannering, 1994, p. 7</ref> before dying in 1917. Degas' last years were sad and lonely, especially as he outlived many of his closest friends. <ref>Roskill, 1983, p. 33</ref>

==Artistic style==
[[Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 021.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Dance Class]]'' (La Classe de Danse),1873–1876, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas]]
Degas is often identified as an [[Impressionist]], an understandable but insufficient description. Impressionism originated in the 1860s and 1870s and grew, in part, from the realism of such painters as [[Courbet]] and [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot|Corot]]. The Impressionists painted the realities of the world around them using bright, "dazzling" colors, concentrating primarily on the effects of light, and hoping to infuse their scenes with immediacy.

Technically, Degas differs from the Impressionists in that, as art historian Frederick Hartt says, he "never adopted the Impressionist color fleck",<ref>Hartt, 1976, p. 365</ref> and he continually belittled their practice of painting ''[[en plein air]]''.<ref>Gordon and Forge, 1988, p. 11</ref> "He was often as anti-impressionist as the critics who reviewed the shows", according to art historian Carol Armstrong; as Degas himself explained, "no art was ever less spontaneous than mine. What I do is the result of reflection and of the study of the great masters; of inspiration, spontaneity, temperament, I know nothing."<ref>Armstrong, p. 22</ref> Nonetheless, he is described more accurately as an Impressionist than as a member of any other movement. His scenes of Parisian life, his off-center compositions, his experiments with color and form, and his friendship with several key Impressionist artists, most notably [[Mary Cassatt]] and [[Edouard Manet]], all relate him intimately to the Impressionist movement.<ref>Roskill, 1983, p.33</ref>

Degas has his own distinct style, one reflecting his deep respect for the old masters and his great admiration for [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]] and [[Eugène Delacroix]]. He was also a collector of [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese prints]], whose compositional principles influenced his work, as did the vigorous realism of popular illustrators such as [[Honoré Daumier|Daumier]] and [[Paul Gavarni|Gavarni]]. Although famous for [[horse]]s and [[dancer]]s, Degas began with conventional historical paintings such as ''The Young Spartans'', although his treatment of such subjects became progressively less idealized. During his early career, Degas also painted portraits of individuals and groups; an example of the latter is ''The Bellelli Family'' of (c.1858–60), a brilliantly composed and psychologically poignant portrayal of his aunt, her husband, and their children. In this painting, as in ''The Young Spartans'' and many later works, Degas was drawn to the tensions present between men and women. In his early paintings, Degas already evidenced the mature style that he would later develop more fully by cropping subjects awkwardly and by choosing unusual viewpoints.

[[Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 012.jpg|thumb|left|''[[L'Absinthe]]'', 1876, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas]]
By the late 1860s, Degas had shifted from his initial forays into history painting to an original observation of contemporary life. Racecourse scenes provided an opportunity to depict [[horse]]s and their riders in a modern context. He began to paint women at work, [[milliner]]s and [[laundry|laundresses]]. ''Mlle. Fiocre in the Ballet La Source'', exhibited in the Salon of 1868, was his first major work to introduce a subject with which he would become especially identified, [[dancer]]s.<ref>Dumas, 1988, p. 9.</ref>

In many subsequent paintings dancers were shown backstage or in rehearsal, emphasizing their status as professionals doing a job. Degas began to paint [[L’Absinthe|café life]] as well. He urged other artists to paint "real life" instead of traditional mythological or historical paintings, and the few literary scenes he painted were modern and of highly ambiguous content. For example, ''Interior'' (which has also been called ''The Rape'') has presented a conundrum to art historians in search of a literary source; internal evidence suggests that it may be based on a scene from ''[[Thérèse Raquin]]''.<ref>Reff, 1976, pp. 200-204</ref>

As his subject matter changed, so, too, did Degas' technique. The dark palette that bore the influence of Dutch painting gave way to the use of vivid colors and bold brushstrokes. Paintings such as [[Place de la Concorde (painting)|Place de la Concorde]] read as "snapshots," freezing moments of time to portray them accurately, imparting a sense of movement. The changes to his palette, brushwork, and sense of composition all evidence the influence that both the Impressionist movement and modern photography, with its spontaneous images and off-kilter angles, had on his work. <ref>Roskill, 1983, p.33</ref>

[[Image:Edgar Degas Place de la Concorde.jpg|thumb|right|280px|''[[Place de la Concorde (painting)|Place de la Concorde]]'', 1875, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas, [[Hermitage Museum]], St. Petersburg]]

Blurring the distinction between portraiture and [[Genre works|genre]] pieces, he painted his bassoonist friend, Désiré Dihau, in ''The Orchestra of the Opera'' (1868-69) as one of fourteen musicians in an orchestra pit, viewed as though by a member of the audience. Above the musicians can be seen only the legs and tutus of the dancers onstage, their figures cropped by the edge of the painting. Art historian Charles Stuckey has pointed out that the viewpoint is that of a distracted spectator at a ballet, and that "it is Degas' fascination with the depiction of movement, including the movement of a spectator's eyes as during a random glance, that is properly speaking 'Impressionist'."<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p.28</ref>

[[Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 010.jpg|thumb|left|''Musicians in the Orchestra'', 1872, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas]]
Degas' mature style is distinguished by conspicuously unfinished passages, even in otherwise tightly rendered paintings. He frequently blamed his eye troubles for his inability to finish, an explanation that met with some skepticism from colleagues and collectors who reasoned, as Stuckey explains, that "his pictures could hardly have been executed by anyone with inadequate vision."<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p. 29</ref> The artist provided another clue when he described his predilection "to begin a hundred things and not finish one of them,"<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p.50</ref> and was in any case notoriously reluctant to consider a painting complete.

His interest in portraiture led him to study carefully the ways in which a person's social stature or form of employment may be revealed by their [[physiognomy]], posture, dress, and other attributes. In his 1879 ''[[Portraits, At the Stock Exchange]]'', he portrayed a group of Jewish businessmen with a hint of antisemitism; while in his paintings of dancers and laundresses, he reveals their occupations not only by their dress and activities but also by their body type. His ballerinas exhibit an athletic physicality, while his laundresses are heavy and solid.<ref>Muehlig, 1979, p. 6</ref>

[[Image:Edgar Degas - At the Races.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''At the Races'', 1877–1880, oil on canvas, by Edgar Degas, [[Musée d'Orsay]], Paris.]]
By the later 1870s Degas had mastered not only the traditional medium of [[oil paint|oil]] on [[canvas]], but pastel as well. The dry medium, which he applied in complex layers and textures, enabled him more easily to reconcile his facility for line with a growing interest in expressive color.

In the mid-1870s he also returned to the medium of [[etching]], which he had neglected for ten years, and began experimenting with less traditional printmaking media—[[lithograph]]s and experimental [[monotype]]s. He was especially fascinated by the effects produced by monotype, and frequently reworked the printed images with pastel.<ref>Thomson, 1988, p. 75</ref>

[[Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 029.jpg|thumb|left|''La Toilette'' (Woman Combing Her Hair), c. 1884–1886, pastel on paper, by Edgar Degas, [[Hermitage Museum]], St. Petersburg]]
These changes in media engendered the paintings that Degas would produce in later life. Degas began to draw and paint women drying themselves with towels, combing their hair, and bathing (see: ''After the Bath''). The strokes that model the form are scribbled more freely than before; backgrounds are simplified.

The meticulous naturalism of his youth gave way to an increasing abstraction of form. Except for his characteristically brilliant draftsmanship and obsession with the figure, the pictures created in this late period of his life bear little superficial resemblance to his early paintings. Ironically, it is these paintings, created late in his life, and after the heyday of the Impressionist movement, that most obviously use the coloristic techniques of Impressionism. <ref>Mannering, 1994, pp. 70-77</ref>

For all the stylistic evolution, certain features of Degas's work remained the same throughout his life. He always painted indoors, preferring to work in his [[studio]], either from memory or using models. <ref>Benedek "Style."</ref> The figure remained his primary subject; his few landscapes were produced from memory or imagination. It was not unusual for him to repeat a subject many times, varying the composition or treatment. He was a deliberative artist whose works, as Andrew Forge has written, "were prepared, calculated, practiced, developed in stages. They were made up of parts. The adjustment of each part to the whole, their linear arrangement, was the occasion for infinite reflection and experiment."<ref>Gordon and Forge, 1988, p. 9</ref>

==Reputation==
[[Image:Little Dancer of Fourteen Years.jpg‎|thumb|''[[La Petite Danseuse de Quatorze Ans|Little Dancer of Fourteen Years]]'', sculpture by Edgar Degas]]
During his life, public reception of Degas' work ranged from admiration to contempt. As a promising artist in the conventional mode, and in the several years following 1860, Degas had a number of paintings accepted in the Salon. These works received praise from [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]] and the critic, Castagnary.<ref>Bowness, 1965, pp. 41-42</ref>

Degas soon joined forces with the Impressionists, however, and rejected the rigid rules, judgements, and elitism of the Salon—just as the Salon and general public initially rejected the experimentalism of the Impressionists.

Degas's work was controversial, but was generally admired for its draftsmanship. The suite of nudes Degas exhibited in the eighth Impressionist Exhibition in 1886 produced "the most concentrated body of critical writing on the artist during his lifetime. ... The overall reaction was positive and laudatory."<ref>Thomson, 1988, p. 135</ref> His [[La Petite Danseuse de Quatorze Ans]], or ''Little Dancer of Fourteen Years'', was probably his most controversial piece, with some critics decrying what they thought its "appalling ugliness" while others saw in it a "blossoming." <ref>Muehlig, 1979, p.7</ref>

Recognized as an important artist by the end of his life, Degas is now considered "one of the founders of impressionism".<ref>Mannering, 1994, p. 6-7</ref> Though his work crossed many stylistic boundaries, his involvement with the other major figures of Impressionism and their exhibitions, his dynamic paintings and sketches of everyday life and activities, and his bold color experiments, served to finally tie him to the Impressionist movement as one of its greatest early artists.

His [[painting]]s, [[pastel]]s, [[drawing]]s, and [[sculpture]]—most of the latter were not intended for exhibition, and were discovered only after his death—are on prominent display in many museums.

Although Degas had no formal pupils, he greatly influenced several important painters, most notably [[Jean-Louis Forain]], [[Mary Cassatt]], and [[Walter Sickert]];<ref>J. Paul Getty Trust</ref> his greatest admirer may have been [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]].<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p. 48</ref>

==Anti-Semitism==
Although Degas painted a number of Jewish subjects from 1865 to 1870, his [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] became apparent by the mid 1870s. His 1879 painting "At The Bourse" is widely regarded as strongly anti-Semitic, with the facial features of the banker taken directly from the anti-semitic cartoons rampant in Paris at the time.<ref>http://blogs.princeton.edu/wri152-3/f05/eharwood/insider_trading_degas_most_antisemitic_painting.html</ref>

The [[Dreyfus Affair]], which divided Paris from the 1890s to the early 1900s, further intensified his anti-Semitism. By the mid 1890s, he had broken off relations with all of his Jewish friends<ref>Guillaud and Guillaud, 1985, p. 56</ref>, publicly disavowed his previous friendships with Jewish artists, and even refused to use models who he believed might be Jewish. He remained an outspoken anti-Semite and member of the anti-Semitic [[Dreyfus affair|"Anti-Dreyfusards"]] until his death.<ref> [[http://books.google.com/books?id=HCwD6Kgp_d0C&pg=PA141&lpg=PA141&dq=pissarro+and+degas+%22anti-semitism%22&source=web&ots=IMCSL5_v5E&sig=YoVXvVdDgh_EZNaCLcpx2gG11bg&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPP1,M1|The Politics of Vision: Essays on 19th Century Art And Society]]</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 049.jpg|''[[Portrait of the Bellelli Family]],'' 1858-1867, [[Musée d'Orsay]], [[Paris, France]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 013.jpg|''The Amateur,'' 1866, The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] [[New York City]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 059.jpg|''Horseracing in Longchamps,'' 1873-1875, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 051.jpg|''Portrait of [[Mary Cassatt|Miss Cassatt]], Seated, Holding Cards,'' 1876-1878
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 037.jpg|''At the'' Café-Concert'': The Song of the Dog,'' 1875-1877
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 019.jpg|''The Singer with the Glove,'' 1878, The [[Fogg]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 044.jpg|''Miss Lala at the Circus Fernando,'' 1879, The [[National Gallery, London]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 011.jpg|''The Millinery Shop'', 1885, The [[Art Institute of Chicago]], [[Chicago, Illinois]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 004.jpg|''Ballet Rehearsal,'' 1873, The [[Fogg]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 069.jpg|''Dancer with a Bouquet of Flowers (Star of the Ballet)'', 1878
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 009.jpg|''Stage Rehearsal,'' 1878-1879, The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] [[New York City]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 072.jpg|''Dancers at The Bar,'' 1888, The [[Phillips Collection]], [[Washington, DC]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 032.jpg|''Woman in the Bath,'' 1886, [[Hill-Stead Museum]], [[Farmington, Connecticut]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 031.jpg|''The Tub,'' 1886, [[Musée d'Orsay]], [[Paris, France]]
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 030.jpg|''After the Bath,'' 1896-1898
Image:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 045.jpg|''After the Bath, Woman Drying her Nape'' 1898, [[Musée d'Orsay]], [[Paris, France]]

</gallery>

==See also==
*[[History of painting]]
*[[Western painting]]


==References==
==References==
<references/>
===Notes===
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/96.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Curium]
{{reflist|2}}
* ''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1

* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele096.html It's Elemental - Curium]
===Sources===
* [http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/curium.pdf Human Health Fact Sheet on Curium]
*Armstrong, Carol (1991). ''Odd Man Out: Readings of the Work and Reputation of Edgar Degas''. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226026957
*Baumann, Felix; Karabelnik, Marianne, et al. (1994). ''Degas Portraits''. London: Merrell Holberton. ISBN 1-85894-014-1
*[http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Degas/html/indexl.html Benedek, Nelly S. "Chronology of the Artist's Life." Degas. 2004. 21 May 2004].
*[http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Degas/html/index1.html Benedek, Nelly S. "Degas's Artistic Style." Degas. 2004. 21 March 2004].
*Bowness, Alan. ed. (1965) "Edgar Degas." ''The Book of Art Volume 7''. New York: Grolier Incorporated :41.
*Brettell, Richard R.; McCullagh, Suzanne Folds (1984). ''Degas in The Art Institute of Chicago''. New York: The Art Institute of Chicago and Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-86559-058-3
*Canaday, John (1969). ''The Lives of the Painters Volume 3''. New York: W.W. Norton and Company Inc.
*Dorra, Henri. ''Art in Perspective'' New York: Harcourt Brace Jocanovich, Inc.:208
*Dumas, Ann (1988). ''Degas's ''Mlle. Fiocre'' in Context''. Brooklyn: The Brooklyn Museum. ISBN 0-87273-116-2
*"Edgar Degas, 1834-1917." ''The Book of Art Volume III'' (1976). New York: Grolier Incorporated:4.
*Gordon, Robert; Forge, Andrew (1988). ''Degas''. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-1142-6
*Guillaud, Jaqueline; Guillaud, Maurice (editors) (1985). ''Degas: Form and Space''. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 0-8478-5407-8
*Hartt, Frederick (1976). "Degas" ''Art Volume 2''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.: 365.
*"Impressionism." ''Praeger Encyclopedia of Art Volume 3'' (1967). New York: Praeger Publishers: 952.
*[http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/bio/a3670-1.html J. Paul Getty Trust "Walter Richard Sickert." 2003. 11 May 2004].
*Mannering, Douglas (1994). ''The Life and Works of Degas''. Great Britain: Parragon Book Service Limited.
*Muehlig, Linda D. (1979). ''Degas and the Dance, 5-27 April May 1979.'' Northampton, Mass.: Smith College Museum of Art.
*Peugeot, Catherine, Sellier, Marie (2001). ''A Trip to the Orsay Museum''. Paris: ADAGP: 39.
*Reff, Theodore (1976). ''Degas the artist's mind''. [New York]: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 0870991469
*Roskill, Mark W. (1983). "Edgar Degas." ''Collier's Encyclopedia.''
*Thomson, Richard (1988). ''Degas: The Nudes''. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
*Tinterow, Gary (1988). ''Degas''. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art and National Gallery of Canada.
*Turner, J. (2000). ''From Monet to Cézanne: late 19th-century French artists''. Grove Art. New York: St Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22971-2

<br style="clear:left;" />

==External links==
{{wikiquote}} {{Commons|Edgar Degas}}
* [http://www.galleryofart.us/Edgar_Degas/ Edgar Degas at Gallery of Art]
* [http://www.ricci-art.com/en/Edgar-Degas.htm Paintings by Edgar Degas]
* [http://www.buzzle.com/editorials/7-27-2006-103651.asp Edgar Degas - Life and Art]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/degas/ Degas at the WebMuseum]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/shows/degas/degas.html PBS on Degas]
* [http://www.tate.org.uk/britain/exhibitions/degas/ Degas, Sickert & Toulouse Lautrec at Tate]
* [http://www.hillstead.org/collection/paint_degas.html Edgar Degas at Hill-Stead Museum, Farmington, Connecticut]
* [http://www.cosmopolis.ch/english/art/65/edgar_degas.htm Edgar Degas biography, books & exhibition review by cosmopolis.ch]
* [http://www.museumsyndicate.com/artist.php?artist=117 Edgar Degas Gallery at MuseumSyndicate]
* [http://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/tools/plan-salle.html?S=&zsz=10&si_rech_col_repplan=Plan Degas at Musée d'Orsay, Paris, France]
* [http://www.mootnotes.com/art/degas Edgar Degas paintings & interactive timeline]


== External links ==
{{Impressionists}}
{{Commons|Curium}}
{{wiktionary|curium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cm/index.html WebElements.com - Curium]
*[http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@na+@rel+curium,+radioactive NLM Hazardous Substances Databank &ndash; Curium, Radioactive]
{{clear}}
{{compact periodic table}}
{{Nuclear Technology}}


[[Category:Chemical elements]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Degas, Edgar}}
[[Category:French painters]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:French sculptors]]
[[Category:Curium compounds]]
[[Category:French printmakers]]
[[Category:Synthetic elements]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters]]
[[Category:Impressionist sculptors]]
[[Category:Lycée Louis-le-Grand alumni]]
[[Category:1834 births]]
[[Category:1917 deaths]]
[[Category:French military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War]]


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Revision as of 18:33, 13 October 2008

This article is about the chemical element Curium; for the ancient city also called Curium (located in Cyprus), see Kourion
Curium, 96Cm
Curium
Pronunciation/ˈkjʊəriəm/ ​(KURE-ee-əm)
Appearancesilvery metallic, glows purple in the dark
Mass number[247]
Curium in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Gd
↑
Cm
↓
(Upn)
americium ← curium → berkelium
Atomic number (Z)96
Groupf-block groups (no number)
Periodperiod 7
Block  f-block
Electron configuration[Rn] 5f7 6d1 7s2
Electrons per shell2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 9, 2
Physical properties
Phase at STPsolid
Melting point1613 K ​(1340 °C, ​2444 °F)
Boiling point3383 K ​(3110 °C, ​5630 °F)
Density (near r.t.)13.51 g/cm3
Heat of fusion13.85 kJ/mol
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1788 1982
Atomic properties
Oxidation states+3, +4, +5,[1] +6[2] (an amphoteric oxide)
ElectronegativityPauling scale: 1.3
Ionization energies
  • 1st: 581 kJ/mol
Atomic radiusempirical: 174 pm
Covalent radius169±3 pm
Color lines in a spectral range
Spectral lines of curium
Other properties
Natural occurrencesynthetic
Crystal structure ​double hexagonal close-packed (dhcp)
Double hexagonal close packed crystal structure for curium
Electrical resistivity1.25 µΩ⋅m[3]
Magnetic orderingantiferromagnetic-paramagnetic transition at 52 K[3]
CAS Number7440-51-9
History
Namingnamed after Marie Skłodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie
DiscoveryGlenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, Albert Ghiorso (1944)
Isotopes of curium
Main isotopes[4] Decay
abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct
242Cm synth 162.8 d α 238Pu
SF –
CD 208Pb
243Cm synth 29.1 y α 239Pu
ε 243Am
SF –
244Cm synth 18.11 y α 240Pu
SF –
245Cm synth 8250 y α 241Pu
SF –
246Cm synth 4760 y α 242Pu
SF –
247Cm synth 1.56×107 y α 243Pu
248Cm synth 3.480×105 y α 244Pu
SF –
250Cm synth 8300 y SF –
α 246Pu
β− 250Bk
 Category: Curium
| references

Curium (Template:PronEng) is a synthetic chemical element with the symbol Cm and atomic number 96. A radioactive metallic transuranic element of the actinide series, curium is produced by bombarding plutonium with alpha particles (helium ions) and was named for Marie Curie and her husband Pierre. little pumpkin pie hair cutted freak

Characteristics

The isotope curium-248 has been synthesized only in milligram quantities, but curium-242 and curium-244 are made in multigram amounts, which allows for the determination of some of the element's properties. Curium-244 can be made in quantity by subjecting plutonium to neutron bombardment. Curium does not occuSCROTUMr in nature. There are few commercial applications for curium but it may one day be useful in radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Curium bio-accumulates in bone tissue where its radiation destroys bone marrow and thus stops red blood cell creation.

A rare earth homolog, curium is somewhat chemically similar to gadolinium but with a more complex crystal structure. Chemically reactive, its metal is silvery-white in color and the element is more electropositive than aluminium (most trivalent curium compounds are slightly yellow).

Curium has been studied greatly as a potential fuel for radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG). Curium-242 can generate up to 120 watts of thermal energy per gram (W/g); however, its very short half-life makes it undesirable as a power source for long-term use. Curium-242 can decay by alpha emission to plutonium-238 which is the most common fuel for RTGs. Curium-244 has also been studied as an energy source for RTGs having a maximum energy density ~3 W/g, but produces a large amount of neutron radiation from spontaneous fission. Curium-243 with a ~30 year half-life and good energy density of ~1.6 W/g would seem to make an ideal fuel, but it produces significant amounts of gamma and beta radiation from radioactive decay products.

Compounds

Some compounds are:

  • curium dioxide (CmO2)
  • curium trioxide (Cm2O3)
  • curium bromide (CmBr3)
  • curium chloride (CmCl3)
  • curium tetrafluoride (CmF4)
  • curium iodide (CmI3)

History

Curium was first synthesized at the University of California, Berkeley by Glenn T. Seaborg, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso in 1944. The team named the new element after Marie Curie and her husband Pierre who are famous for discovering radium and for their work in radioactivity. It was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now Argonne National Laboratory) at the University of Chicago. It was actually the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the fourth in the series. Curium-242 (half-life 163 days) and one free neutron were made by bombarding alpha particles onto a plutonium-239 target in the 60-inch cyclotron at Berkeley. Louis Werner and Isadore Perlman created a visible sample of curium-242 hydroxide at the University of California in 1947 by bombarding americium-241 with neutrons. Curium was made in its elemental form in 1951 for the first time.

Isotopes

19 radioisotopes of curium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cm-247 with a half-life of 1.56 × 107 years, Cm-248 with a half-life of 3.40 × 105 years, Cm-250 with a half-life of 9000 years, and Cm-245 with a half-life of 8500 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 30 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 33 days. This element also has 4 meta states, with the most stable being Cm-244m (t½ 34 ms). The isotopes of curium range in atomic weight from 233.051 u (Cm-233) to 252.085 u (Cm-252).

Nuclear fuel cycle

Transmutation flow between 238Pu and 244Cm in LWR.[5]
Fission percentage is 100 minus shown percentages.
Total rate of transmutation varies greatly by nuclide.
245Cm–248Cm are long-lived with negligible decay.
Thermal neutron cross sections
242Cm 243Cm 244Cm 245Cm 246Cm 247Cm
Fission 5 617 1.04 2145 0.14 81.90
Capture 16 130 15.20 369 1.22 57
C/F ratio 3.20 0.21 14.62 0.17 8.71 0.70
LEU spent fuel 20 years after 53 MWd/kg burnup[6]
3 common isotopes 51 3700 390
Fast reactor MOX fuel (avg 5 samples, burnup 66-120GWd/t)[7]
Total curium 3.09×10−3% 27.64% 70.16% 2.166% 0.0376% 0.000928%

The odd-mass number isotopes are fissile, the even-mass number isotopes are not and can only neutron capture, but very slowly. Therefore in a thermal reactor the even-mass isotopes accumulate as burnup increases.

The MOX which is to be used in power reactors should contain little or no curium as the neutron activation of 248Cm will create californium which is a strong neutron emitter. The californium would pollute the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to workers. Hence if the minor actinides are to be used as fuel in a thermal neutron reactor, the curium should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actinide present.

References

  1. ^ Kovács, Attila; Dau, Phuong D.; Marçalo, Joaquim; Gibson, John K. (2018). "Pentavalent Curium, Berkelium, and Californium in Nitrate Complexes: Extending Actinide Chemistry and Oxidation States". Inorg. Chem. 57 (15). American Chemical Society: 9453–9467. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b01450. OSTI 1631597. PMID 30040397. S2CID 51717837.
  2. ^ Domanov, V. P.; Lobanov, Yu. V. (October 2011). "Formation of volatile curium(VI) trioxide CmO3". Radiochemistry. 53 (5). SP MAIK Nauka/Interperiodica: 453–6. doi:10.1134/S1066362211050018. S2CID 98052484.
  3. ^ a b Schenkel, R. (1977). "The electrical resistivity of 244Cm metal". Solid State Communications. 23 (6): 389. Bibcode:1977SSCom..23..389S. doi:10.1016/0038-1098(77)90239-3.
  4. ^ Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
  5. ^ Sasahara, Akihiro (April 2004). "Neutron and Gamma Ray Source Evaluation of LWR High Burn-up UO2 and MOX Spent Fuels". Journal of NUCLEAR SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY. 41 (4): 448–456. doi:10.3327/jnst.41.448.
  6. ^ "Limited Proliferation-Resistance Benefits from Recycling Unseparated Transuranics and Lanthanides from Light-Water Reactor Spent Fuel" (PDF). p. 4.
  7. ^ "Analysis of Curium Isotopes in Mixed Oxide Fuel Irradiated in Fast Reactor" (PDF).

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Curium.
Look up curium in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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