Hemerochory
As a hemerochory (from Greek ἥμερος hḗmeros , German 'tame, ennobled, cultivated, cultivated, civilized' and χωρεῖν chōreín , German 'to move, wander' ) - especially on the European continent - the spread of plants through "culture" designated.
The term anthropochoric is often used synonymously, but does not mean exactly the same thing. Strictly speaking, anthropochoric means the spread through humans as a transport medium. According to this, the spread through domestic animals does not belong to the anthropochoric, but to the hemerochoric, because domestic animals belong to the human culture. It can be further subdivided analogously to the zoochory :
- Endoanthropochoria ; the so-called digestive spread by humans
- Epianthropochory ; the spread by attachment to people
- Synanthropochory ; Spread through ingestion and displacement by humans, without the seeds themselves being consumed
Hemerochore plants or their seeds were consciously (introduced) or unconsciously (introduced) by humans into an area that they could not (or much more slowly) colonize through their natural mechanisms of spread , or it was brought to them through the culture that caused changes in the location , which enables colonization of this area through expansion on its own. In their new habitat they are able to maintain themselves without specific human help. Hemerochore plants can both increase and decrease the biodiversity of a habitat.
Categorization of hemerochoric plants
Many of the Central European cultivated and ornamental plants are (as long as they are “wild” and can stay outside the culture) hemerochore species.
Hemerochore plants are u. a. classified according to the type of introduction, e.g. B .:
- Ethelochory : the conscious introduction via seeds or young plants,
- Speirochory : the unwanted introduction through contaminated seeds,
- Agochory : the introduction to unwanted transport.
From a chronological point of view, hemerochoric plants are divided into:
- Archaeophytes : Plants that were introduced before the advent of global traffic around the year 1500 - for flora statistical purposes the year 1492 ( discovery of America ) is generally taken.
- Neophytes : Plants that were introduced after the advent of global traffic around 1500 (see also Neozoa ). From a geological and biogeographical point of view, this point in time can be regarded as the most important since the end of the ancient world (Permian), because at that time the supercontinent Pangea began to divide into several, between which insurmountable barriers to expansion arose for most species. With the advent of global traffic, these barriers were lifted - suddenly from a geological point of view - ( Charles Elton ), and that for all species, since in principle no species is excluded from deliberate transport.
According to the common definition of Schroeder that was naturalized in the 20th century, archaeophytes and neophytes also include (in addition to predominantly hemerochores) species that have reached the area under consideration on their own after humans made them available in changed locations. Schroeder calls these species "intruders" (or "acolutophytes").
The term adventitious plants is sometimes used synonymously with the term hemerochore, but often also restricted to species that have been intentionally brought into the area and then feral, sometimes also for species that have not (yet) firmly established themselves in their new habitat. There are other ways of using it.
The concept of hemerochores is to be distinguished from the concept of culture followers or apophytes . These can also be native species that were either adapted from the outset to locations created by human cultural activities or have adapted to them afterwards; As a result, their range has often, but not always, increased.
Propagation routes
The spread of plants through human cultural activity very likely already happened in the Stone Age , but demonstrably at the latest in antiquity , namely along old trade routes. Fruits such as apples and pears gradually made their way along the Silk Road from the area around the Altai Mountains to Greece and from there to the gardens of the Romans , who in turn brought these cultivated plants to Central Europe, and some of these plants were ultimately able to survive outside the culture. Many crops such as tomatoes , potatoes , pumpkins and firebeans did not reach Central Europe until the 16th century, after the American continent was discovered, and are now grown worldwide. Since these are largely species that cannot exist permanently outside of culture, they are not hemerochores in the sense of the above definition.
In the last 400 to 500 years the spread has expanded through trade and military campaigns, explorers and missionaries. The latter brought countless plants with them from their travels both out of an interest in exotic plants, which were often included in the plant collections of princely courts, and for purely scientific purposes. In the context of botanical studies, the interest was often in the possible medicinal effects of these plants, but also in the expansion of botanical knowledge, or the plants were only used for collecting ( herbaria ).
Some ornamental plants also came to Europe because they promised a lucrative business. This applies, for example, to the camellias , one of which is also grown as a tea plant in Japan and China. While this species turned out not to be cultivable in Central Europe, people very quickly discovered the aesthetic appeal of the other camellia species as an ornamental plant. Botanical gardens played a major role in the acclimatization of such plants from distant habitats . The most important of them was Kew Gardens .
Archaeophytes, neophytes, adventitious plants
Plants introduced to Hemerochor, provided they are able to reproduce and spread naturally in their new habitat, are divided into archaeophytes and neophytes according to the time of their immigration .
Archaeophytes
Archaeophytes are the plants that were introduced or brought into the new area before the advent of global traffic around 1500 or that immigrated under their own steam into areas that have become suitable for them through culture (agriculture and cattle breeding since the Neolithic). They have to be able to reproduce independently, i.e. without specific human help. The archaeophytes include many common plants such as poppy , cornflower , chamomile and corn wheel . Central European archaeophytes almost all come from the Mediterranean region and the adjacent areas of Southeast Europe and West Asia. They are often considered part of the natural ecosystem, also because most of the native plants of Central Europe, i.e. those that came here without human help, immigrated from these areas after the Ice Ages.
Neophytes
Neophytes are plant species that were introduced or introduced after the beginning of global traffic around 1500 and that can sustain themselves independently over the long term. Some botanists consider plants to be established when they have passed through at least two to three spontaneous generations in their new habitat over a period of 25 years. Central European neophytes originate in their predominant number from East Asia and North America. The number of neophytes that were introduced or introduced from the Mediterranean and Central Asia is much lower. A few neophytes also come from other areas, e.g. B. South Africa ( Senecio inaequidens ) or Australia ( Chenopodium pumilio ).
About 420 plants are classified as neophytes in Germany, which corresponds to about 16 percent of the species growing in Germany. These include, for example, the Pyrenean cranesbill , a species from the extensive genus of the cranesbills . It was brought from southern European mountains as an ornamental plant to Central Europe and cultivated for a time as a garden ornamental plant, only to be replaced as a garden ornamental plant by larger-flowered species from the cranesbill genus. In the 21st century, the Pyrenean cranesbill grows less in gardens than on ruderal areas and in meadows, where it has found a niche among the so-called indigenous plants , i.e. species that are originally native here.
Problematic and unproblematic neophytes
The nature conservationists describe neophytes as problematic because they “falsify” the native flora through their presence, but often only when they impair or even displace native species - primarily through competition. However, neophytes (and hemerochore species as a whole) can also be problematic from an economic or health perspective.
The glandular balsam is counted by nature conservation to the problematic neophytes in Central Europe. The Pyrenean cranesbill or the snowdrop are neophytes that are considered to be unproblematic in Central Europe. They only slightly influence the original vegetation and they are seen as an enrichment of the biological diversity of the Central European region. Other hemerochore plants in Central Europe, on the other hand, have displaced other plants to a greater extent. The species structure can change to such an extent that some biotopes have to be kept free of these immigrants if the previously existing biocenosis is to be preserved in its condition. An extermination of native species by neophytes, as it was very often caused by neozoa on oceanic islands, does not exist in Central Europe.
For the neophyte, the invasion of plants are called, that is, those that spread in the new area, including in Central Europe, for example, Canada goldenrod , the Himalayan Balsam, the black locust , or from the Caucasus originating giant hogweed , the Japanese knotweed that all of them were introduced as ornamental and useful plants (including bee pasture) or introduced into the near-natural vegetation and meanwhile the vegetation dominates in some types of locations. In many places, the Canadian goldenrod is the most common plant on fallow land , and the glandular balsam is displacing the native vegetation in many damp, shady locations. The giant hogweed is often viewed as particularly worrying because it is very harmful to health. The giant Chinese reed , which is grown as an energy crop, is also likely to become an invasive plant.
Neophytes that spread “aggressively” and thereby permanently change biotopes represent a far greater problem for nature conservation in some parts of the world than in Central Europe, but in many places also an economic one. For example, Opuntia species (prickly pear) that were imported from America and then overgrown in Australia have made whole areas of land almost unusable for pasture farming; The same applies to the European gorse ( Ulex europaeus ) in New Zealand. Rhododendron species introduced as garden ornamental plants are displacing in the British Isles, e.g. For example, in the Northern Welsh National Park Snowdonia the native vegetation. The same can be observed on many drained raised bog locations in the Atlantic and sub-Atlantic climates. The black locust ( Robionia pseudoacacia ) was imported as a fast-growing forest tree from America to Central Europe and now threatens rare rough pastures and natural forest communities of dry habitats. In North America , tamarisks , native to southern Europe and the temperate zones of Asia, have proven to be problematic plants. In the nutrient-poor, but rich in herbaceous plants and shrubs , heathland ( fynbos ) of the Cape region of South Africa , eucalyptus species from Australia are widely spread. Since these are adapted to a high degree to nutrient-poor soil and they lack the food competitors and pests as population regulators in the Cape region of South Africa, they are able to change the biological structure there very strongly.
The tropical golden spotted fern ( Phlebodium aureum ) has also spread strongly in Hawaii since 1910 and is considered an invasive plant there.
In particular, unstable ecosystems that have already been heavily modified by interventions or characterized by certain properties can be massively impaired by neophytes, since the competitive climax vegetation is already weakened. In the Australian rainforests, for example, neophytes first colonize the areas along roads and paths and from there penetrate into the adjacent areas.
Adventitious plants
Ephemerophytes are adventitious plants that can temporarily establish themselves. However, they are unable to cope with all of the conditions encountered at the site. A severe winter or an unusual dry period could lead to the death of such plants; mostly they are not able to cope with the competitive pressure of the native flora under the extreme site conditions. The date palm , for example , which was discovered in Berlin-Kreuzberg and which survived at least some mild Berlin winters, would be classified as an adventurous plant . The figs that grow in climatically favorable locations in Central Europe would also be more likely to be assigned to this group.
Forms of hemerochory
Ethelochory
The propagation of plants as seeds is a form of hemerochory. It is known as Ethelochory . Numerous crops that are important for human nutrition have been willingly spread by humans. Wheat , barley , lentil , spelled , broad beans , flax and poppy seeds , for example, are not typical of the Central European region, although they all belong to the archaeotype. Humans gradually brought them from the eastern Mediterranean to Central Europe after the beginning of the Neolithic Age (around 6,500 years ago). It was then that the first arable farmers began to settle in Central European areas.
Many of the old cultivated plants have spread around the world, primarily through emigrants from Europe. Grown for at least 4,000 years, wheat was introduced to America in the 16th century and Australia in the 19th century. Orange (apple from China), lemons , apricots and peaches were originally native to China. They probably came via the Silk Road as early as the 3rd century BC. In Asia Minor and from there through the Romans to the Mediterranean. European settlers, on the other hand, used these species to grow fruit in suitable regions of America.
From the 16th century ornamental plants were grown more and more. Similar to the Pyrenean cranesbill, species native to Europe were first introduced as garden plants. These include, for example, gladioli , ornamental onion species such as golden onion , European bellflower species, the snowdrop native to southeast Europe and the common clematis . Ornamental plants from more distant regions were added later. From East Asia in particular, a number of plants were introduced to Europe as exotic or for economic reasons. Many parks now have Chinese ornamental cherries and other trees. The sometimes undesirable consequences of such an introduction of ornamental plants are explained in the section on neophytes and exemplified in the section on Australia .
Speirochorie
Some plants were unintentionally brought to Central Europe in this process; this unwanted hemerochory as a seed companion is called Speirochorie . Since every seed also contains the seeds of the herbs of the field from which it originates, their competitors, the "weeds", were also sold through the trade in the seeds of the useful plant.
Speirochore plants are sown on human-prepared soil and are competitors of the crops. Plants that are considered to be archaeophytes, such as the poppy native to the Mediterranean area , the real chamomile , the cornflower , corn wheel and field buttercup , spread through the seeds with the grain in Central Europe. The author Crosby estimated that in 1912 alone, imports of clover and grass seeds brought 2-6 billion weed seeds to Britain.
In the meantime, the seeds are cleaned more thoroughly using modern methods and the cultivation also shows hardly any contamination from pesticides and other control techniques . The spread via Speirochorie in the Central European cultural landscape therefore only plays a very subordinate role; the impoverishment of the fields is also due to this.
In spite of this, North American silk ( Cuscuta campestris ), which was classified as a problematic bioinvasive agent in Australia , was accidentally imported into Australia together with basil seeds in 1981, 1988 and 1990 .
Agochory
Agochore plants are those that are spread through accidental transport. Unlike speirochore plants, they are usually not sown on human-prepared soil. In Central Europe it is mainly since the 1980s-ranked as critical tiger nut whose tubers are massively spread adhesive on vehicles and machinery.
On land, agochore plants used to be common in harbors, at train stations or along railway lines. Investigations on cars with which tourists wanted to enter the Australian Kakadu National Park , however, show that these vehicles are significantly involved in the agochoric spread: 70 percent of the vehicles examined carried plant seeds, including seeds, in the tire grooves or in mud deposits on the chassis a number of such plants, which are classified as problematic invaders in Australia and which are to be kept out of the park, which is a World Heritage Site .
However, mainly aquatic plants are spread through agochory.
Ballast water as a medium for agochory
Ballast water plays a major role in the agochoric spread of aquatic plants . Ballast water has been used to stabilize ships that are not fully loaded since around 1880 . Around the world, around ten billion tons of seawater and the organisms it contains are shipped in this way.
Exporting countries in particular are affected by the spread of organisms through ballast water. The ships arrive at the ports with empty cargo hold, but fully pumped ballast tanks. These ports are then during loading with thousands of cubic meters seawater alien creatures in a new environment bailed . The amount of ballast water discharged in German ports is estimated at ten million tons per year, with around two million tons coming from coastal waters that do not belong to the European Community and which are therefore likely to contain mainly organisms from non-European coasts.
“Ballast water is a non-specific transport medium that records living things from all food-ecological groups and the most varied of life cycles. Shipped into the ship's interior by powerful pumps, it contains everything that cannot escape the suction flow: representatives of almost all animal phyla, [..] but also many unicellular organisms and plants. It's a kind of underwater ark. There is no equivalent on land for the phenomenon of ballast water. Here it is not individual hidden animals or adhering plant seeds that are carried from one continent to the other, but a complete community of organisms. It is as if a hectare of Europe with everything that creeps and flies on it is transported overseas and left there to its own devices. "
For example, the seaweed Undaria pinnatifida, which is native to the Japanese coast , reached the Tasmanian coast via ballast water and has been forming dense kelp forests along the coast since 1988 , displacing the native flora and fauna. Dinoflagellates such as Alexandrium catanella , Alexandrium minutum , Alexandrium tamarense and Gymnodinium catenatum have also been transported to the Australian, New Zealand and US coasts via ballast water. These dinoflagellates occasionally form toxic algal blooms that poison mussels, shrimp and fish via the food chain.
In addition to the great ecological damage caused by many organisms brought in by ballast water, there is also great economic damage. The dinoflagellates mentioned by way of example endanger fish, mussel and oyster farming in many places . On the North American coasts, some breeding facilities had to be closed completely, fishing was restricted, and tourists stay away on coasts where they multiply to algal blooms.
Measures against agochory through ballast water
Australia was the first country to introduce a ballast water policy back in 1990 and is now the most resolute in addressing this problem. Ships were asked not to take in ballast water in shallow and polluted bays and not to refuel with ballast water during the night, as many marine organisms that are otherwise on the seabed then rise to the surface of the water. Ships should also exchange their ballast water 200 kilometers away from the coastal waters, so that on the one hand the offshore species are not introduced into the more sensitive coastal waters, and on the other hand no inhabitants of the coastal zone are transported to other continents. The International Maritime Organization has taken up these recommendations and created a binding set of rules with the Ballast Water Convention . The convention has been in force since September 8, 2017.
The so-called “reballasting” , as the exchange of ballast water on the high seas is called, is not a completely safe method. During reballasting, residual water with organisms and, above all, deposits from the seabed remain in the tanks. Filtering water, heating the ballast water by utilizing the residual heat of the ship's engines, treating the ballast water with ultraviolet light, ozone , changing the salt content, oxygen deprivation or disposal in the ports in specific sewage systems offer greater protection against the introduction of foreign organisms through ballast water. However, the costs of these methods are so high that they significantly exceed the profit margins of shipping companies, especially for bulk goods such as ore and coal. They could only be enforced if all coastal states made them binding worldwide.
Countries that consider the introduction of foreign organisms to be so problematic that they try to implement binding regulations for the handling of ballast water at the international level include Australia, the USA , New Zealand , Canada , Israel and Chile .
Examples of agochoric plants
In addition to the seaweed and dinoflagellates mentioned above, the alga Caulerpa taxifolia is one of the agochoric aquatic plants. C. taxifolia is a plant native to the Caribbean and the Indian Ocean , which is harmless and inconspicuous there. A mutation of this plant, whose leaf shape is larger and which copes well with the seasonal temperature fluctuations, probably reached the Mediterranean with aquarium water off Monaco, where it first developed larger populations. Between its first detection off the coast of Monaco in 1984 and 1995 , it penetrated the coast of Croatia. The vigorous algae is able to grow up to two centimeters a day and thus overgrow and suffocate the indigenous underwater vegetation. It is considered one of the greatest threats to the Mediterranean ecosystem.
C. taxifolia is one of those plants that are often spread by ballast water. It is also spread by the fact that ships tear off parts of the algae with their anchors. The loose parts drift with the current and form new colonies from these offshoots. Since algae components adhering to the anchors can survive for up to 10 days in the anchor boxes of ships without light and water, the algae are penetrating completely new areas. In this way, distances are covered that exceed all other chories.
The Canadian waterweed is also one of the agochoric plants , which was probably brought in from North America to Ireland in 1836 with timber transports and also established itself in Central Europe as a neophyte that blocked waterways for a time with its mass development and hindered fishing until the The aggressive propagation of this plant in Central Europe declined without a scientific explanation being found to this day.
Experience in Australia and New Zealand
In contrast to Central Europe, whose flora and fauna, which is relatively poor in species, mainly consists of immigrants from the Asian continent due to the incisions of the Ice Ages, the flora and fauna of Australia and New Zealand have been able to develop almost completely geographically isolated over thousands of years . As a result, the ecosystems there, with their almost exclusively endemic species, are much more sensitive to invasive species. There was a wave of acclimatization in Australia and New Zealand in the 19th century. The European settlers tried hard to establish both animals and plants of their European homeland in their new place of residence.
Measures against speirochore and agochore spread
Australia and New Zealand have taken far-reaching measures to largely prevent the spread through esophagus or agochoria. Agricultural equipment imported into Australia requires thorough cleaning. Passengers arriving from other continents are requested to carefully clean the soles of their shoes. In some Australian national parks, streams of visitors are only allowed into the park at certain points and guided through these areas on wooden stairs in order to prevent the introduction of seeds from outside as far as possible.
Ethelochor spreading plants
Many plants originally introduced by ethelochor (and thus deliberately) have ultimately proven to be problematic in the sensitive ecosystems of Australia and New Zealand. The nutrient-rich compared to the Australian grass species African grass species such as the eyelash-spiked grass Cenchrus ciliaris or the type of grass Andropogon gayanus example, were introduced in Australia to a higher stocking rates with domestic cattle and ovine allow. It was overlooked that these plants differ from the indigenous plants of Australia in completely different, secondary properties.
Fires are a characteristic of the Australian ecosystem; the seeds of many Australian plants only germinate after exposure to heat from such a fire. The indigenous Australian plants such as the eucalyptus are adapted to the rapid, low-temperature wildfires of the Australian grass steppe. The forage grasses imported to Australia burn longer and at significantly higher temperatures in a field fire . This amplifies these fires, so that eucalyptus trees also catch fire and burn the seeds instead of germinating as they would after a normal Australian bush fire. The introduced grass species have also led to a decline in Australian finches and parrots because, while the grass species produce numerous seeds, these are not eaten by the native birds. In sum, the effects of several different introduced species can bring others to the verge of extinction and destroy ecosystems.
Ornamental garden plants - Australia's toughest bio-invaders
Species originally introduced as garden ornamental plants are now some of Australia's most problematic bio-invaders. Among the eighteen plant species that are among the bio-invaders with the greatest negative effects, there are not only six types of grass, but also seven so-called garden refugees. They even make up two thirds of the newly classified as problematic neophytes. This large proportion is due to the high number of ornamental plants imported. It is estimated that in the Australian state of Queensland alone more than 4,000 species are cultivated in gardens - their number is thus greater than all plant species classified as food, forest or grazing plants in Australia.
- According to the Australian biologist Tim Low , the climbing plant Cryptostegia grandiflora , which was introduced from southern Madagascar in 1870 , had overgrown 350,000 km² of tropical rainforest in Australia and suffocated under itself.
- A robust, evergreen species of Thunbergia native to India , invades the tropical rainforests around the Australian coastal city of Cairns and overgrows 40-meter-high trees.
- In Central Australia, the Eurasian tamarisk species T. aphylla grows along the river banks, increasingly displacing the native tree species and the associated fauna, lowering the water table and promoting the salinization of the soil. Tamarisks have long been considered unproblematic plants in Australia. That changed when floods spread the seeds of the tamarisk trees, which were mostly kept in the gardens around Alice Springs , for hundreds of kilometers along river banks. Similar to the USA , where tamarisks have also turned out to be extremely problematic bio-invaders, combating this tree species, which is now widespread, is almost hopeless in Australia.
- The fight against the water hyacinths , which spread unchecked in the rivers and lakes in northern and eastern Australia, impede shipping and greatly alter the aquatic fauna and flora, is similarly hopeless .
- The Jerusalem thorn forms impenetrable thorn bushes in the Northern Territory , the length and width of which can be several kilometers.
- Two other plants introduced as garden ornamental plants, Asparagus asparagoides and Chrysanthemoides monilifera , now dominate the herb layer in many eucalyptus forests and displace native perennials , grasses, orchids and lilies .
activities
In Australia, plants that are to be newly introduced are now being subjected to a “Weed Access Assessment” , an examination and, depending on this, access authorization, to what extent they could prove to be problematic within the Australian ecosystem. Neophytes that have already proven to be problematic are included in a list of the "Weeds of National Significance" (WONS).
However, the WONS list does not necessarily lead to the plants being banned. Even those species, which are among the most problematic bio-invaders, are occasionally still available in tree nurseries - sometimes under fancy names. Attempts to stop selling garden ornamental plants that have already proven to be problematic invaders have proven difficult to enforce with the public. Australian gardeners are also reluctant to do without ivy , holly and Japanese cherries as ornamental plants.
Tim Low, who has dealt extensively with biological invaders in Australia, is therefore very pessimistic about the stability of Australian ecosystems. From Low's point of view, a number of Australian authorities are not acting decisively enough on the challenges posed by these invaders and are bowing too early to the economic interests, especially of farmers. On the other hand, the opportunity to take effective measures has already passed for many species. New Zealand authorities have taken a different route: they have published lists of ornamental plants that are considered unproblematic, and they have received greater response.
literature
- Alfred Crosby: The White Man's Fruits . Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1991, ISBN 3-593-34418-1 .
- Ursula Hoffmann and Michael Schwerdtfeger: ... and the golden tree of life. Pleasure trips and educational trips in the realm of plants . Ulrich Burgdorf, Göttingen 1998, ISBN 3-89762-000-6 .
- Bernhard Kegel : The ant as a tramp. From biological invaders . Heyne, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-453-18439-4 .
- Tim Low: Feral Future. The Untold Story of Australia's Exotic Invaders . Penguin Books Australia, Ringwood 2001, ISBN 0-14-029825-8 .
- Ingo Kowarik: Biological Invasions. Neophytes and Neozoa in Central Europe . Ulmer, Stuttgart 2003, ISBN 3-8001-3924-3 .
- Heinz-Dieter Krausch : Kaiserkron and red peonies ... Discovery and introduction of our garden flowers . Dölling and Galitz, Hamburg 2003, ISBN 3-93-554923-7 .
- Angelika Lüttig and Juliane Kasten: Rosehip & Co. Flowers, fruits and spread of European plants . Fauna, Nottuln 2003, ISBN 3-93-598090-6 .
- Fred Pearce : The New Wild: How Alien Animals and Plants Can Help Save Nature . Oekom, Munich 2016, ISBN 978-3-86581-768-6
- Krystyna M. Urbanska: Population biology of plants . G. Fischer, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-437-20481-5 .
Individual evidence
- ↑ Schroeder, FG: On the classification of anthropochores . Vegetation 16 (1969): 225-238 ( doi: 10.1007 / BF00257018 )
- ↑ Bernhard Kegel: The ant as a tramp. From biological invaders . Heyne, Munich 2002, p. 110.
- ^ Tim Low: Feral Future. The Untold Story of Australia's Exotic Invaders , p. 73
Web links
- Dissertation by O. Tackenberg (PDF file; 1.86 MB)
