Denis Diderot's trip to Russia from 1773 to 1774

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The journey (as a largely idealized travel route) by Denis Diderot 1773–1774. He was en route for a total of 497 days. The distance is about 3500 km:
  • blue line
    • shows the outward journey (June 11th - October 8th 1773),
  • Red line
    • represents the return journey (March 5 - October 21, 1774).

    The trip to Russia by Denis Diderot found, between June 1773 and October 1774 instead. Tsarina Catherine II ( Russian Екатерина II Алексеевна Великая ) invited Denis Diderot to Russia as early as 1762 so that he could complete the encyclopedia there. Diderot had canceled, but had kept in touch with the general and school reformer Ivan Ivanovich Bezkoi in order to later publish a second, edited edition of the encyclopedia in Russia. In Saint Petersburg he spent only 30% of the time based on the total travel time of 497 days. Since he stayed there in the autumn and winter months, he could not experience the white nights in the months of June to July. In contrast, he stayed in The Hague for 52% of the time he was away from Paris (13% on the outward journey to Saint Petersburg and 39% on the return journey), which is the longest.

    Diderot led a largely stationary life in Paris. He traveled repeatedly to Langres to see his father Didier Diderot . During a stay at the thermal baths in Bourbonne-les-Bains in August 1770 , he met his friend Jeanne-Catherine Quinault and her daughter, M me de Pruneveaux. No further trips by Diderot are recorded.

    When Diderot set out for Russia in 1773, the encyclopedia was finished, his daughter Marie-Angélique Diderot (1753-1824) married and he owed his patron Katharina thanks. Diderot traveled during the 5th Russo-Turkish War , which ran from 1768 to 1774 and brought the southern Ukraine , the northern Caucasus and the Crimea under Russian rule. In terms of domestic politics, the decree of the Edict of Tolerance of June 17, 1773, in which the Tsarina promised to tolerate all religious beliefs, is worthy of mention. But at this time there was also massive social unrest, which found expression, for example, in the Pugachev uprising (1773–1775).

    Requirements for the trip

    The compulsory journeys of the members of the European nobility towards the middle of the 18th century had become more and more important, later the upper middle class also embarked on this form of educational journey . Their ways led through Central Europe, Italy, Spain and also to the Holy Land. These trips experienced a significant boom. In the course of the Enlightenment, the interest in foreign cultures and people, their living conditions and surroundings increased. In addition, the travel bug was aroused by reports of world travel and travel literature.

    Soon after the enthronement as tsarina on July 9, 1762 , Catherine II let Denis Diderot know that she could have the encyclopedia, which had been published for the first time since 1751 and in the course of many difficulties, also appear in Riga or Saint Petersburg. Diderot, however, refused their request - albeit benevolently and gratefully - since he was contractually bound to his publisher. On the other hand, some translations of the encyclopedia into Russian appeared from 1767 , two years after the French edition had been completed.

    Diderot and his family had lived on donations from publishers and booksellers for almost 20 years; he had no rights to royalties . So only regular income came from the paternal inheritance in Langres . Friedrich Melchior Grimm saved Diderot's financial situation through the sale of the Diderot library to Catherine II of Russia on March 16, 1765, to Catherine II of Russia, mediated with Dmitri Alexejewitsch Golitsyn ( Russian Князь Дмитрий Алексеевич Голицын ) - two years after his death in 1786 after Saint Catherine II Petersburg - for 16,000 livres . Since the library was estimated at 13,000 livres, the Tsarina paid him 1,000 livres more than requested. In addition, Diderot got a permanent job as the librarian of his own library so that he was paid 1,000 livres annually in advance for fifty years.

    After the Tsarina bought Diderot's library during his lifetime, they both came into lively postal contact. Diderot is now appointed Imperial Art Agent and in 1767 a member of the Russian Imperial Art Academy .

    But Diderot also made use of his contacts in Russia, for example he sponsored the historian Pierre-Charles Levesque , who was professor at the Naval Cadet School in Saint Petersburg ( Russian Морской кадетский корпус ) from 1773 to 1780 .

    On April 5, 1772 , the mother of his friend Sophie Volland died , which deepened his grief, as read in the letters. On September 9, 1772, a Wednesday, his only daughter Marie-Angélique married the industrialist Abel François Nicolas Caroillon de Vandeul , to whom, but also to their future family, he maintained close relationships, not least to alleviate his loneliness.

    The intentions to travel to the Tsarina remained with the representatives of the ruling administration in the France of Louis XVI. Not hidden, for example, the Foreign Minister of the Ancien Régime Manuel Armando de Vignerot du Plessis conveyed a negative image of Denis Diderot to François-Michel Durand de Distroff (1714–1778), who had just been appointed French ambassador in Saint Petersburg from 1772 to 1775 .

    The itinerary

    On Friday, June 11, 1773 Diderot left Paris via the existing postal routes with a stagecoach for his only long journey to Saint Petersburg ( Russian Санкт-Петербург ). Looking at the itinerary, places in the Austrian Netherlands , the Republic of the Seven United Provinces , the Kingdom of Prussia , the Duchy of Courland and Zemgale are visited twice on both the outward and return journeys, whereas the routes in the Holy Roman Empire were visited differently chosen.

    Princess Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst and later Tsarina Catherine II of Russia around 1780

    In the 18th century , the average distance between two relay stations was 16 kilometers.

    Average travel speeds of different means of transport in the course of historical development
    Means of transport approximate speeds distance
    March on foot 5-6 km / h 25–30 km per day
    horse 6-10 km / h 35–55 (up to 80) km per day
    Carriage (around 1700) approx. 2 km / h 20–30 km per day
    Carriage (around 1800) approx. 3–7 km / h 30–80 km per day
    Ship (sails) at sea approx. 18 km / h approx. 400 km per day

    The first stay in the Republic of the Seven United Provinces and the outward journey to Saint Petersburg

    The journey - with many encounters on the way - first went via The Hague to the Duchy of Kleve , where he met his future travel companion Alexei Wassiljewitsch Naryschkin , ( Russian Алексей Васильевич Нарышкин ).

    In The Hague he lived from Tuesday, June 15 to Friday, August 20, 1773 with the Russian ambassador Dmitri Alexejewitsch Prince von Gallitzin and his wife Amalie von Gallitzin in the Russian embassy 22 Kneuterdijk .

    Map of The Hague , La Haye with explanation of the numbers and letters on the map. By Iven Besoet (1720–1769) from 1747.

    Here he got to know the Dutch philosopher François Hemsterhuis personally and met with the publisher Marc-Michel Rey, associated with the Enlightenment . François Hemsterhuis wrote Lettre sur l'homme et ses rapports in French in 1772 . The author gave Diderot a handwritten copy of his work to read and correct his French text. Diderot not only read the work carefully, he added a total of 364 nested comments as marginalia , which then became the Observations sur la Lettre sur l'homme et ses rapports (1773). But also the writing of his enlightened fellow campaigner Claude-Adrien Helvétius De l'homme, de ses facultés intellectuelles et de son education (1772) challenged him to answer, so he began in The Hague with his La réfutation d'Helvétius (1774 ).

    Kneuterdijk 22 Raad van State. You on the above map of Iven Besoet near number "14"
    Engraving depicting Alexei Wassiljewitsch Naryschkin

    During his first stay in The Hague, Diderot visited the cities of Haarlem , Amsterdam , Zaandam and Utrecht . Two days after his arrival he went with his hosts in the South Holland university town of Leyden , where he some professors of the local University met. He met several times with the versatile personality, the philosopher, scholar, economist, politician and businessman Isaac de Pinto .

    After a break due to illness, Diderot drove on via Mulhouse (Grefrath) to Düsseldorf , where he visited the électorale gallery . Near Düsseldorf he met Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi on his estate in Pempelfort , which Johann Wolfgang von Goethe mentioned in his campaign in France (1822), especially since he was also staying on the estate in 1774. It is assumed that u. a. Baruch de Spinoza , whose naturalistic position found a defender in Diderot, was rejected by Jacobi. Jacobi knew Diderot's Pensées philosophiques (1746), which he had read since 1766 and received with great interest.

    The route followed was Duisburg , Hamm , Paderborn , Kassel (on September 13, 1773) and finally Diderot reached the Electorate of Saxony .

    In Leipzig (Thursday, September 2, 1773), where Diderot met the Swiss-German theologian and hymn poet Georg Joachim Zollikofer , he gave a lecture to a hand-picked audience on atheism . Then it went on to Dresden (September 14, 1773). There he met the German art theorist Christian Ludwig von Hagedorn and he visited the Zwinger .

    Diderot avoided the proximity to the Prussian residences in Potsdam and Berlin despite several invitations from the Prussian King Frederick the Great , who saw himself as a supporter of the Enlightenment and had brought Voltaire to Sanssouci in 1750 . The tour company drove on to Koenigsberg . Diderot described his other impressions on the journey from Königsberg to Memel through the Curonian Spit in the poem La Poste de Kœnigsberg à Memel.

    When Diderot happened to Königsberg, Immanuel Kant had found his first permanent job (from 1766 to 1772) as a sub-librarian in the royal palace library in Königsberg Palace . From 1770 onwards he received the desired position of professor for logic and metaphysics in his hometown . But Immanuel Kant never referred to the works of Diderot in writing and so there was no verifiable meeting between the two philosophers, the forty-nine year old Kant at the beginning of his fame and the sixty year old Diderot at the zenith of his literary career. In the academy edition of Immanuel Kant's collected works, edited by Gottfried Martin, there is only one mention of Diderot. The remark came from a letter from Johann Georg Hamann to Immanuel Kant in 1759. Johann Gottfried Herder was a Kant student from 1762 to 1764. In May 1769 he traveled to Paris where he met Denis Diderot. But at the end of April 1771, through the mediation of Chamber Council Westfeld , Herder took up his new position in the royal seat of the county of Schaumburg-Lippe , in Bückeburg , so that he could not meet with Diderot in Königsberg.

    They then stopped in the cities of Memel (Wednesday, September 20, 1773), Mitau and Riga (Tuesday, September 26, 1773). In Riga he had an amorous adventure with a maid, at least if one can believe his remarks in the short story La servante de l'auberge du "Pied Fourchu" (German "The maid in the hostel for the goat's foot "). Finally, via Narva , on Friday, October 8, 1773, to reach the Tsar's seats in the Winter Palace on Neva Bay , or in the Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo, south of Saint Petersburg . There they were busy with the wedding preparations of Wilhelmina Luisa von Hessen-Darmstadt and Paul I.

    Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, painting by Johann Friedrich Eich , 1780, Gleimhaus Halberstadt
    Georg Joachim Zollikofer in 1773 Denis Diderot met him in Leipzig in early September 1773
    Christian Ludwig von Hagedorn in 1772, Denis Diderot met him in Dresden.
    Louis-Philippe de Ségur

    His stay in Saint Petersburg

    When Diderot reached the Neva Bay, he had suffered from colicky , dysenteric complaints on his last leg to Saint Petersburg , so he arrived at the Tsar's seat weak . His travel companion Alexei Wassiljewitsch Naryschkin suffered from severe toothache . The arrival in Saint Petersburg began with a disappointment because he did not find accommodation as planned with his former protégé , the Swiss-French sculptor Etienne-Maurice Falconet . According to this, his accommodation had been occupied by his son Pierre-Étienne Falconet (1741-1791), the husband of Marie-Anne Collot , who had traveled from London three weeks earlier. He was also received in a cool and distant manner by his protégé, so that Diderot, disappointed, asked for a place to stay in a letter to Naryshkin.

    When Diderot arrived in Saint Petersburg, it was autumn and winter was approaching. The temperatures in Saint Petersburg drop significantly from October and the first frosts can appear towards the end of the month. In winter the weather is very changeable and moderately cold. Cold phases alternate with an average of −12 ° C, and occasionally lower temperatures of −25 ° C to −30 ° C. In spring, however, temperatures often no longer drop below 0 ° C.

    So Diderot came first with Naryshkin and his older brother Semjon (1731-1807). There he was still in bed at first. As a representative of enlightened absolutism , Tsarina von Diderot promised herself suggestions for her reform policy. She had already corresponded with Voltaire and had just recommended herself to the French enlightenment thinkers as close ones since she published her extensive instruction on legal principles to the Russian legislative commission, the Nakaz ( Russian Наказ , 'instruction', 'mandate') in 1767 she had particularly borrowed from the writings of Montesquieu . The task of the newly formed commission was to create a system of uniform jurisdiction for the entire Russian Empire.

    From Friday, October 15, 1773, Diderot was received by the tsarina - sometimes three times a week or more - for regular audiences . Probably after October 15, 1773, he saw the tsarina every day for a certain time. Diderot lacked the experience of the social dynamics typical of courtly communities , and he obviously lacked a pretentious way of dealing with court representatives, and so his dealings with the tsarina also found critics. Friedrich Melchior Grimm , who was staying in Saint Petersburg at the same time and was involved in the wedding preparations of Tsarevich Paul , also his friend from earlier days, expressed disparagingly about his uncomplicated manner in dealing with the rulers. Before that, Grimm had traveled to Berlin to visit Ludwig I of Hessen-Darmstadt in 1773 , where the sister of the future Grand Duke Friederike Luise had married. Grimm met Heinrich von Prussia in Rheinsberg. Then they drove with Wilhelmina Luisa from Hessen-Darmstadt to Saint Petersburg for the wedding of the Tsarevich. Karoline von Hessen-Darmstadt gave Grimm a baronate , with whose income he rose to become a baron ( imperial nobility 1772, imperial baron 1777). Grimm also had direct contact with the Tsarina, so he liked to play chess and cards with Katharina. The central idea from the reform work of Catherine II was not to put the individual, Russian subjects at the center of the reforms, but about the concept of the Russian fatherland ( Russian отечество ), which represents the highest level of welfare ( Russian благополучие ) and Happiness ( Russian блаженство ) should represent to achieve a content life for all collectively. She adopted the concept of the "bliss of the state" from the texts of Johann Heinrich Gottlob von Justi , a state idea of ​​a communal, orderly and happy society that was committed to welfare as a whole. Diderot, on the other hand, opposed this with an individualistic position, namely the citizens and bourgeoisie who “liberated” and developed through the Enlightenment .

    During his stay, Diderot hardly had the opportunity to get to know the conditions in the tsarist empire exactly and directly, so that his recommendations generally had to remain abstract. He recorded the content of his conversations with the Tsarina in the Entretiens avec Catherine II . For example, he supported efforts to achieve uniform justice, but emphatically criticized the autocratic, absolutist monarchy.

    Together with the Tsarina he visited the Smolny Monastery . He also met Marie-Claudine-Germaine Rozet († 1784), the first French bookseller in the Tsarist empire, personally. He probably had a lasting influence on the work of Denis Ivanovich Fonwisin , whom Diderot met in St. Petersburg.

    The conversations and experiences in Saint Petersburg made Diderot later, especially in his confrontation with the Nakaz the Tsarina, in the writing Observations sur l'instruction de l'impératrice de Russie, clearly move away from the “pure monarchy” cast in law, as it was Katharina II. Envisioned. He propagated happiness and freedom as goals of all societies and as a task that rulers would have to pave the way for. He called for the complete abolition of serfdom and an end to the church's political power. In the aftermath, Diderot, based on the model of popular sovereignty, expected the Empress to clearly restrict her absolute power.

    The tsarina only found out about this after Diderot's death. Before his departure, she commissioned him to develop a plan to reform the Russian educational system in order to spread the ideas of the French Enlightenment in the Tsarist Empire. In his subsequent treatise A plan of the entire school system for the Russian government or a public education in all sciences (Plan d'une université pour le gouvernement de Russie ou d'une éducation publique dans toutes les sciences) , he called for academic training should not be based solely on the immediate usability by the crown or the reasons of state . Friedrich Melchior Grimm brought the treatise to Russia.

    Compared with Louis-Philippe de Segur , the French ambassador in St. Petersburg from 1783 to 1789, the Empress expressed mutatis mutandis later: let "If she had any ideas and concepts Diderot in political action flow, the entire Russian Empire had been turned upside down. And she told Diderot at the end of his stay in Russia that it was with great pleasure that she heard his brilliant remarks, but that, unlike him, she did not work with paper, but with people. "

    When they met on October 25, 1773 in the Russian Academy of Sciences for a meeting, under the direction of President Vladimir Grigoryevich Orlov ( Russian Владимир Григорьевич Орлов ) (1743-1831) also the inclusion of Diderot and Grimm desired by the Empress discussed in the academy. A wish that the participants were reluctant to comply with; they saw Diderot as a materialistic and anti-religious philosopher. Contrary to the general trend, Orlov was extremely skeptical of current French philosophy in the 18th century.

    On November 1, 1773, Diderot and Friedrich Melchior Grimm were admitted to the Russian Academy of Sciences as a membre étranger , following an explicit order from the Tsarina . The academics present showed "a very subdued enthusiasm" about this. Diderot presented the academy with a catalog with 24 questions on the natural history of Siberia . These questions related to ore deposits, salt lakes, mountains or fermented, alcoholic mare's milk . Erik Gustavovich Laxmann was assigned to answer them.

    During his stay in Saint Petersburg, Diderot tried to learn the Russian language . He was often invited to the palaces of the Russian aristocrats. The Russian painter Dmitri Grigoryevich Levizki portrayed Diderot in 1773. The Swedish ambassador Johan Fredrik von Nolcken , who was accredited at the Tsar's court from 1773 to 1788 and often met Diderot, tried unsuccessfully to convince him to return via Stockholm . Before his trip to France between November 1774 and May 1775, Count Johann Eustach von Görtz , who was hastily ordered to Saint Petersburg , presented Friedrich II with an offer to return via Potsdam and Sanssouci .

    At one of their last meetings, Diderot was asked by Catherine II if she could do something for him. He asked for the reimbursement of his travel expenses of 1,500 rubles , which she paid him with 3,000 rubles, a few small mementos of his stay and to grant him asylum and protection in times of need in France.

    The return trip to Paris and his second stay in The Hague

    On Saturday, March 5th, 1774 around four o'clock in the afternoon, the return journey began with the mail coach . Athanasius Bala, a Greek in Russian Imperial service, accompanied him. Bala worked in the lower diplomatic service and was involved as secretary of the Russian delegation in the armistice negotiations ( Russian-Ottoman War from 1768 to 1774 (also 5th Russian Turkish War) ) in Foksiany, a small town in Moldova, in August 1772.

    Bala was asked by Peter Camper to bring the missing teeth and mandible of a Kalmuck skull with him to The Hague for his anatomical preparation , but the latter refused to transport them on Diderot's return journey to the Republic of the Seven United Provinces.

    Before arriving in Hamburg, they had several accidents with their carriages and a serious accident on their journey through the Baltic States and East Prussia . The old town of Riga is located on the lower reaches of the Dvina (Latvian: Daugava ), while crossing the river - the ice on the river was said to be already thawed - Diderot nearly drowned. He wounded his arm and shoulder. Diderot wrote the poem Le trajet de la Dwina sur la glace about the incident . The journey continued via Königsberg, Danzig , Stettin and Schwerin .

    In Hamburg , when he reached the city on March 29, Diderot most likely did not meet Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach , the tour group left the Hanseatic city on March 31. A stay that did not escape the local press, for example the Hamburg Address-Comtoirs-Nachrichten 32nd piece from Thursday, March 31st, 1774. However, two letters that Diderot wrote to Bach are clearly documented. Diderot and his companions stayed in the hotel "To the old city of London" which was in the 18th century in the Great Mountain Road .

    They left Hamburg in mild, changing weather in the direction of Osnabrück (April 2, 1774). From there he went on to The Hague, where he arrived on Tuesday April 5th and then stayed for some time. Diderot left The Hague on Saturday, October 15, 1774, and returned to Paris on Friday, October 21, 1774.

    He spent a total of six months and 17 days in The Hague, again as a guest of Dmitri Alexejewitsch Prince von Gallitzin. In September, Diderot began work on the Entretien d'un philosophe avec la maréchale de *** , these conversations between a philosopher and the marshal, they stand for Diderot and the tsarina, and let the discussants talk about the problem of a secular society and a, in a positive sense, godless morality. He met the Swedish linguist Jacob Jonas Björnståhl in The Hague . Here he also wrote letters to his friend Nicolas-Gabriel Clerc , a doctor who stayed in Russia from 1759 to 1777, to reflect on his impressions of the state of Catherine's Russia.

    In his treatise Essai sur la vie de Sénèque et sur les règnes de Claude et de Néron from 1778 Diderot defended the Tsarina against the accusation that she was similar to Iulia Agrippina , who murdered her husband, the Roman Emperor Claudius , a spouse murderess of Peter III. been from Russia .

    literature

    • Alina Chernova: Mémoires and Mon Histoire: Tsarina Katharina the Great and Princess Katharina R. Daschkowa in their autobiographies. Frank & Timme, Berlin 2007, ISBN 3-8659-6121-5 , p. 293
    • Roland Mortier : Diderot en Allemagne, 1750-1850. Presses Universitaires de France in Paris, Paris 1954
    • Inna Gorbatov: Catherine the Great and the French Philosophers of the Enlightenment: Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Grimm. Academica Press, LLC, 2006, ISBN 1-9331-4603-6
    • Nancy Caldwell Sorel: Catherine II of Russia and Denis Diderot. Atlantic Monthly (10,727,825); Jul. 1995, Vol. 276 Issue 1, p. 67
    • Maurice Tourneux; Denis Diderot: Mémoires pour Catherine II. Selections. Calmann Lévy, Paris 1899 ( digitized version )
    • RJ Gillings: The So-Called Euler-Diderot Incident. American Mathematical Monthly, Volume 61, Issue 2 (Feb., 1954) 77–80 ( digitized ; PDF 538 kB)
    • Module -3-: "If someone goes on a journey, he can tell something" - On the travel culture in the 18th and 19th centuries. In Dagmar Klose; Marco Ladewig (Ed.): The Formation of Modern Structures in Society and the State of the Early Modern Age. Perspectives on historical thinking and learning 5, Universitätsverlag Potsdam, Potsdam 2010, ISBN 978-3-86956-013-7 , pp. 304–334 ( digitized version ; PDF 16.3 MB)

    Web links

    Individual evidence

    1. ↑ Karin Hlavin-Schulze: "You don't travel to arrive": Travel as a cultural practice. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1998, ISBN 3-593-36116-7 , pp. 51-52.
    2. ↑ Heidi Denzel de Tirado: Biographical fictions: The paradigm Denis Diderot in an intercultural comparison (1765-2005). Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2009, ISBN 978-3-8260-3954-6 , pp. 295-301.
    3. ↑ Pierre C. Oustinoff: Notes on Diderot's Fortunes in Russia. Diderot Studies 1: 121-142 (1949).
    4. ↑ Martin Lubenow: French culture in Russia: Trends in history and literature. Vol. 38 Building blocks for Slavic philology and cultural history / A: Slavic research. Böhlau Verlag, Cologne / Weimar, ISBN 3-4121-3601-8 , p. 105
    5. ^ Jacques Attali: Diderot ou le bonheur de penser. Fayard, Paris 2012, ISBN 978-2-213-66845-1 , p. 279 other authors for the amount of 15,000 livre, this could have been the original price of the library, without the annual salary that may have been paid in advance from 1000 livre.
    6. ^ Marianna Butenschön: A magic temple for the muses: The Hermitage in St. Petersburg. Bühlau, Cologne / Weimar 2008, ISBN 3-4122-0102-2 , p. 58
    7. ↑ Katharina Schirmer: The collection of paintings of Catherine II of Russia. The purchase of the European bon goût. Diploma thesis, University of Vienna 2013, p. 57
    8. ↑ Vladimir Somov: Pierre-Charles Levesque, protégé de Diderot et historien de la Russie. Cahiers du monde russe 43 / 2–3 (2002) ( Memento of the original from October 16, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / monderusse.revues.org
    9. ^ André Mazon: Pierre-Charles Levesque, humaniste, historien et moraliste. Revue des études slaves Année 1963 Volume 42 Numéro 42-1-4 pp. 7-66
    10. ↑ Pierre Lepape: Denis Diderot. A biography. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-593-35150-1 , p. 383 f.
    11. ^ Correspondance administrative de Vivant Denon (1802-1815). Napoleon Foundation
    12. ↑ Arthur McCandless Wilson: Diderot. Oxford University Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-19-501506-1 , p. 634
    13. ^ Map of the Holy Roman Empire 1789
    14. ↑ The burden and pleasure of traveling. Or about the inconvenience of getting around by land 1750–1815 Part 1: The travelers and their equipages (2010) (PDF; 3.4 MB)
    15. ↑ The burden and pleasure of traveling. Or about the inconvenience of getting around on land 1750–1815 Part 2: About travel itself, movement and obstacles (2010) (PDF; 2.6 MB)
    16. ↑ Aleksei Narõškin: Activities of my leisure and memories of Russia. According to the French of the Russian Kaiserl. The secret councilor, senateurs, real chamberlain and knight Alexei Wassiljewitsch Narischkin. JF Hartknoch, Riga (1794). ( Memento of the original from April 13, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / search.books2ebooks.eu
    17. ^ Newspaper report of June 26, 1773 in the Middelburgsche Courant
    18. ↑ see also Münsterscher Kreis .
    19. ↑ Elly Verzaal: Diderot op de Kneuterdijk. October 25, 2013. Koninklijke Bibliotheek KB. Nationale Bibliothekek van Nederland ( Memento of the original of October 21, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / blog.kb.nl
    20. ↑ Lettre sur l'homme et ses rapports (1772)
    21. ↑ Philip Nicholas Furbank: Diderot. A critical biography. Secker & Warburg, London 1992, ISBN 0-436-16853-7 , p. 373
    22. ^ Geschiedenis van Den Haag. Kneuterdijk 22 (24), house van Oldenbarnevelt.
    23. ↑ Philip Nicholas Furbank: Diderot. A critical biography. Secker & Warburg, London 1992, ISBN 0-436-16853-7 , p. 372
    24. ↑ Arthur McCandless Wilson: Diderot. Oxford University Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-19-501506-1 , p. 619
    25. ↑ Leon Schwartz: Diderot and the Jews , p. 131. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-8386-2377-8 [1]
    26. ↑ Karl Rosenkranz: Diderot's life and works. 2. Vol. Brockhaus, Leipzig 1866, Reprint 9-781176-042520, p. 329
    27. ^ Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi: Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi's exquisite correspondence. Volume 1, Gerhard Fleischer, 1825, p. 145
    28. ^ Campaign in France. (1822) In: Project Gutenberg.
    29. ^ Nicole Schumacher: Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi and Blaise Pascal: Influence, Effect, Continuation. Volume 458 of Epistemata / Series of Literature Studies: Series of Literature Studies, Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2003, ISBN 3-8260-2531-8 , p. 32
    30. ↑ According to the Casselische Polizey- und Commerzien-Zeitung , on page 617 the presence of the “1. Russian Chamberlain Narischky "reports [2]
    31. ↑ Raymond Trousson: Diderot. Gallimard, Paris 2007, ISBN 978-2-07-034170-2 , p. 260.
    32. ^ France Marchal: Modernité de la pensée politique de Diderot. In: Actualité de Diderot: actes du forum 2000 à Langres. Forum Diderot, Langres 2002, pp. 89-103.
    33. ^ France Marchal: Modernité de la pensée politique de Diderot. In: Actualité de Diderot: actes du forum 2000 à Langres. Forum Diderot, Langres 2002, pp. 89-103.
    34. ↑ Philip Nicholas Furbank: Diderot. A critical biography. Secker & Warburg, London 1992, ISBN 0-436-16853-7 , p. 374
    35. ↑ Pierre Lepape: Denis Diderot. A biography. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-593-35150-1 , p. 388
    36. ↑ La Poste de Kœnigsberg à Memel. P. 20 Placez-vous bien dans cet endroit. / Là des Tritons c'est la demeure humide; / Ce sont ici des monts d'un sable aride; / Entre deux un sentier étroit / Laisse fort strictement passage à la voiture. / Nous le suivions pendant la nuit, / Importunés du long murmure / De la mer qui faisait grand bruit. // Mon camarade d'infortune, / Rendu bon chrétien par la peur, / Se reprochait et la blonde et la brune, / Confessait qu'il est un vengeur / Et des mères qu'on a dupées / Et des filles qu'on a trompées / Et de l'époux qu'on fit cocu; / Joignait les mains, s'épuisait en prière, / Se résignait, et convaincu / Que des cieux la juste colère / Avait dans ce funeste lieu / Arrêté son heure dernière, / Recommandait son âme à Dieu. // Quel est le passager sur la terrestre plage / Ou si stupide ou si distrait / Qu'il n'ait de son pèlerinage / Tenté, chemin faisant, de percer le secret?
    37. ↑ korpora.org Ingeborg Heidemann , Gottfried Martin (ed.): General Kant index to Kant's collected writings. De Gruyter, 1969. Online I. Kant, AA X: Briefwechsel Volume I 1747–1788, pp. 27f.
    38. ↑ Michael Zaremba: Johann Gottfried Herder: Preacher of Humanity. Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2002, ISBN 3-412-03402-9 , pp. 92–94.
    39. ↑ La servante de l'auberge du "Pied Fourchu" in Riga.

      "" Elle est jolie et très jolie, de tout Riga c'est la jolie la servante du Pied Fourchu. Pour une obole, un jour, je levai son fichu? Pour un double teston… - Pour ce double teston eh bien que fîtes-vous? - Je lui pris un téton. Pour un écu… - Pour votre écu après que fîtes-vous? - Après je vis son cu. Pour deux écus… - Que fîtes vous? Je lui pris le con, je la fous; Et pour mes trois écus, deux testons, une obole j'eus un téton, un cu, le con et la vérole, le tout en un instant, notez bien ce point-là; car son maître, fort galant homme y with dix fois la même somme et six mois de soupirs pour n'avoir que cela. »"

    40. ↑ Pierre Lepape: Denis Diderot. A biography. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-593-35150-1 , p. 398
    41. ^ Jacques Attali : Diderot ou le bonheur de penser. Fayard, Paris 2012, ISBN 978-2-213-66845-1 , p. 371
    42. ↑ Sergej Karp: Дидро, А.В. Нарышкин и цивилизация России. In: Denis Sdvižkov; Ingrid Schierle (ed.): Moscow lectures on the 18th and 19th centuries. DHI Moscow: Lectures on the 18th Century No. 1 (2009) Сергей Карп Дидро, А.В. Нарышкин и цивилизация России. Text in Russian (PDF; 635.59 kB)
    43. ↑ Je. I. Krasnova: Famous guests of Saint Petersburg: Denis Diderot. Story of a search. In: History of Petersburg. 3/2005. Pp. 68-71. (PD; 221.12F kB) The author is investigating the whereabouts of Denis Diderot in Saint Petersburg. She comes to the conclusion that Diderot lived with Alexei Wassiljewitsch Naryschkin and his brother, the public prosecutor and vice-president of the mining academy, Semyon Wassiljewitsch Naryschkin, in a house that belonged to their father Vasily Wassiljewitsch Naryschkin. The building was built from 1762, but no longer exists today, but was replaced and redesigned by the subsequent owner Korsakow from 1826 to 1828 with a new building with a large hall that was added in 1840. The Lensovet Theater (or formerly the "Theater of the Leningrad City Soviet") has been located there since 1945 , at 12 Vladimirsky Prospect.
    44. ^ Inna Gorbatov: Le voyage de Diderot en Russie. Études littéraires, vol. 38, n ° 2-3, (2007) pp. 215-229. (PDF; 411 kB)
    45. ^ Inna Gorbatov: Le voyage de Diderot en Russie. Études littéraires, Volume 38, No. 2-3, 2007, pp. 215-229. (PDF 411 kB).
    46. ↑ Сергей Карп: Дидро, А.В. Нарышкин и цивилизация России. ГИИМ: Доклады по истории XVIII века - DHI Moscow: Lectures on the 18th Century No. 1 (2009)
    47. ↑ Arthur McCandless Wilson: Diderot. Oxford University Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-19-501506-1 , p. 632
    48. ↑ Alexander Otto: The Russian court society in the time of Catherine II. Dissertation, Eberhard-Karls-Universität zu Tübingen, Tübingen 2005 (PDF; 262 MB)
    49. ^ Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights 1750–1790 by Jonathan Israel, p. 439. [3]
    50. ↑ Œuvres de Frédéric le Grand - Works of Frederick the Great. Digital edition of the Trier University Library
    51. ↑ Article “Grimm, Friedrich Melchior Baron von” by Arthur Richter, Theodor Süpfle in: Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, published by the Historical Commission at the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, Volume 9 (1879), pp. 676-678, digital full-text edition in Wikisource, URL: http://de.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=ADB:Grimm,_Melchior_Freiherr_von&oldid=1783761 (Version of March 30, 2014, 7:52 p.m. UTC)
    52. ↑ Volker Sellin: Violence and Legitimacy: The European Monarchy in the Age of Revolutions. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 2011, ISBN 3-4867-0705-1 , p. 146 f.
    53. ↑ Volker Sellin: Violence and Legitimacy: The European Monarchy in the Age of Revolutions. Oldenbourg, Munich 2011, ISBN 3-486-70705-1 , pp. 145 f.
    54. ↑ Raymond Trousson: Denis Diderot. Gallimard, Paris 2007, ISBN 978-2-07-034170-2 , pp. 252-273
    55. ↑ Jean-Pierre Poussou: L'influence française en Russie au XVIIIe siècle. Presses Paris Sorbonne, 2004, ISBN 2-7204-0392-X , p. 203.
    56. ^ David Patterson: Fonvizin's Nedorosl 'as a Russian Representative of the Genre sérieux. Comparative Literature Studies Vol. 14, No. 3 (Sep., 1977), pp. 196-204
    57. ↑ Edoardo Tortarolo: Catherine II and the European Enlightenment. Public opinion and arcana imperil. In: Sonja Asal; Johannes Rohbeck (ed.): Enlightenment and Enlightenment Criticism in France. Self-interpretations of the 18th century in the mirror of contemporaries. Berlin 2003, p. 126.
    58. ^ Emil Unger: Diderot's pedagogy based on his psychology and ethics. (PDF 6.5 MB) Gustav Fock, Leipzig 1903.
    59. ^ Helmut Reinalter , Harm Klueting : Enlightened absolutism in European comparison. Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2002, ISBN 3-205-99426-4 , p. 27.
    60. ^ Walter Rüegg : History of the University in Europe. Volume 2, From the Reformation to the French Revolution 1500–1800. CH Beck, Munich 1996, ISBN 3-406-36953-7 , p. 66.
    61. ↑ He held this office from October 5, 1766-5. December 1774.
    62. ↑ Johan C.-E. Stén: Comet of the Enlightenment: Anders Johan Lexell's Life and Discoveries. Springer, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York 2014, ISBN 3-3190-0618-5 , pp. 119–122.
    63. ↑ H. Denzel de Tirado: Biographical fictions: The paradigm Denis Diderot. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2008, ISBN 978-3-8260-3954-6 , pp. 307-308.
    64. ↑ Jacques Proust : La grammaire russe de diderot. Rev. d'hist. suffered. de la France 1954, pp. 329-331.
    65. ^ Inna Gorbatov: Catherine the Great and the French Philosophers of the Enlightenment: Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot and Grimm. Academic Press, Waltham MA 2005, ISBN 1-933146-03-6 , p. 179.
    66. ↑ Arthur McCandless Wilson: Diderot. Oxford University Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-19-501506-1 , p. 642
    67. ↑ Richard Friedenthal: Discoverer of the I. Montaigne, Pascal, Diderot. Piper, Munich 1969, p. 396.
    68. ↑ Arthur McCandless Wilson: Diderot. Oxford University Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-19-501506-1 , p. 644.
    69. ^ MS Anderson: Europe in the Eighteenth Century 1713-1789. Routledge, 2014, ISBN 1-3178-7964-3 .
    70. ↑ Arthur McCandless Wilson: Diderot. Oxford University Press, New York 1972, ISBN 0-19-501506-1 , p. 644
    71. ^ Henri L. Brugmans: Autour de Diderot en Hollande. In Otis Fellows; Gita May (Ed.): Diderot Studies III. Librairie Droz, Genève 1961, ISBN 2-6000-3925-2 , p. 64
    72. ↑ Nicolas Bancel; Thomas David; Dominic Thomas; Madeleine L. Letessier (Ed.): The Invention of “Race”: Scientific and Popular Representations of Race from Linnaeus to the Ethnic Shows: Scientific and Popular Representations. Routledge Studies in Cultural History. Routledge, 2014, ISBN 1-3178-0117-2 , p. 42
    73. ↑ Le trajet de la Dwina sur la glace. P. 28 O toi dont le cri poétique, / Perçant la profondeur des flots, / Dans les gouffresde la Baltique / Arracha Neptune au repos, / Muse, d'une gloire immortelle / Si ce grand jour te couronna, / Viens, un nouveau labeur t'appelle / Au trajet de la Duina. // Mais ce ton pompeux t'en impose. / Eh bien, Muse, plus simplement, / Daigneme dicter seulement. / Quelques vers qui peignent la chose, / Mais si bien, mais si fortement, / Que l'amitié frissonne pour ma vie, / Que de ses bras je me sente pressé, / Et qu'en m'écoutant elle oublie / Qu ' il s'agit d'un péril passé. // Déjà loin de son char Phébus avait laissé / Du Taureau le froid habitacle.
    74. ↑ Pierre Lepape: Denis Diderot. A biography. Campus, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-593-35150-1 , p. 399.
    75. ^ J. Lietz: Le passage de Diderot par l'Allemagne en 1774. Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie Année 1998 Volume 24 Numéro 24 pp. 154–163
    76. ↑ Jörg-Ulrich Fechner: Diderot's letters to Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach in the original wording. Functions of contemporary reception. In Présence de Diderot: International Colloquium on the 200th year of Denis Diderot's death at the University of GH-Duisburg from October 3rd to 5th, 1984. Lang, Frankfurt am Main 1990, ISBN 3-6314-1696-2 , pp. 33– 57.
    77. ↑ Philipp Blom: Evil Philosophers: A Salon in Paris and the Forgotten Legacy of the Enlightenment. Hanser, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-446-23648-6 , p. 306 ff.
    78. ↑ if you calculate the time spent on the outward journey plus a month and six days, he spent a total of seven months and 23 days in The Hague.
    79. ^ John Morley: Diderot and the Encyclopaedists. t. 1, Sklatkine Reprint, Genève 1971, p. 114
    80. ↑ Lettre autographe, adressée au Docteur Nicolas-Gabriel Clerc, dated 15 June 1774, La Haye.