Italian concentration camp

Italian concentration camps were established by fascist Italy in colonies and occupied territories in Africa and Europe, as well as on mainland Italy.

The concentration camps in North African Cyrenaica from 1930 to 1933 were run by fascist Italy during the Second Italo -Libyan War and were part of the fascist genocide of the Cyrenean population , in which a quarter to a third of the population perished as a result of death marches and concentration camp imprisonment . They were the first fascist concentration camps in history and are also classified by historians as death or extermination camps . The concentration camps in Italian East Africa from 1935 to 1941 were set up as prison camps for political prisoners as a result of the Italian war of aggression against the Abyssinia Empire . Of the total of 10,000 prisoners interned in the Danane and Nocra concentration camps, 3,300 did not survive the prison conditions.

Further concentration camps were established after fascist Italy entered World War II on the Italian mainland (1940–1943), the colony of Italian Libya (1942–1943) and the occupied territories of Yugoslavia, Albania and Greece (1940–1943). The third wave of concentration camps was founded in September 1943 in the northern Italian republic of Salò, which was occupied by Nazi Germany .

Camp in Africa

Concentration camp in Cyrenaica (1930–1933 / 34)

In the spring of 1930, the Italian Colonial Minister Emilio De Bono and the Governor General for Libya Pietro Badoglio came to the conclusion that the rebellious Bedouins, who were fighting for their traditional livelihood as semi-nomads, could only be pacified by further escalating the violence. The sealing of the border with Egypt by a fence ( fascist Limes ) was intended to deprive the fighters and civilians of the possibility of supply and retreat, poison gas bombardments and the deportation of the population to concentration camps were suggested.

Badoglio and General Rodolfo Graziani made the non-combatants the main victims of the war. On June 25, 1930, he ordered the forced relocation and internment of 100,000 people in concentration camps. Around 10,000 people died from the rigors of the marches under the scorching summer sun. Violence, hunger and epidemics turned the camps into actual death camps with, according to Mattioli, credible estimates of 40,000 dead. Del Boca names 40,000 victims from deportation and camp detention. Both assume that around a quarter of the population of Cyrenaica perished as a result of deportation and imprisonment. This mass extinction met the ultimate goal of the fascist colonization process of gaining new "living space" ( spazio vitale ).

The camp guards consisted of Esercito , Carabinieri , Eritrean Askari and indigenous Zaptie .

The leader of the rebels, al-Muchtar, was captured in 1931, sentenced to death and hanged in front of 20,000 Libyans in the Soluch concentration camp .

According to the Swiss historian Aram Mattioli (2004), the concentration camps of the Italian fascists in Cyrenaica from 1930 to 1933 cannot be compared with the National Socialist “extermination factories” during the Second World War, but they were “real death camps” from the genocide of the autochthonous The population served to make way for Italian settler families. "Italy was the first fascist regime to deport entire ethnic groups and perish in death camps," said Mattioli in an article for Die Zeit in 2003. The Italian historian Angelo Del Boca (2004) and the American-Libyan historian Ali Abdullatif Ahmida (2009) describe the fascist concentration camps in Cyrenaica as "extermination camps". The Libyan historian Abdulhakim Nagiah (1995) states that these were the "first fascist concentration camps in history" and also speaks of a genocide in which an estimated one third of the total population was killed in Cyrenaica between 1923 and 1931.

List of concentration camps in Cyrenaica 1930–1933

camp	place	from	to	estimated number of prisoners
Agedabia	Ajdabiya	March 1930	September 1933	9,000
Ain Gazala	Gazala	1930	1933	2.130
Apollonia	Marsa Susah	1930	1933	3,140
Barce	Al-Marj	1930	1933	2,190
Bescer	Bishr	1930	1933	?
Carcura	Carcura Baiadi	1930	1933	?
Coefia	Kuwayfiyah	1930	1933	365
The NA	Darnis	1930	1933	725
Driana	Daryanah	1930	1933	1,375
el Nufilia	To Nawfalīyah	1930	1933	1,125
el-Abiar	Al-Abyār	1931	October 1933	8,000
el-Agheila	al-Aqaylah	January 1930	October 1932	34,500
Guarscia	Benghazi	1930	1933	360
Marsa al Brega	Al Burayqah	March 1931	June 1933	20,072
Sidi Ahmed el-Magrun	Al Magrun	September 1930	October 1933	13,050
Sidi Chalifa	Sid Khalifah	1930	1933	650
Such	Sūluq	October 1930	May 1933	20.123
Suani el-Achuan	Sawānī al Ikhwān	January 1932	October 1933	2,300
Suani el-Terria	Sawani Tik	1930	1933	500

• Images of the concentration camps in Cyrenaica
• 

  Map of the 16 concentration camps in Cyrenaica

• 

  Aerial view of the El-Abiar concentration camp, with around 3,123 prisoners in 1931

• 

  A route inside the Soluch concentration camp, with around 20,123 prisoners in 1931

• 

  Execution of Omar Mukhtar in the Soluch concentration camp (1931)

• 

  Food rations in the Sidi Ahmed el-Magrun concentration camp, with around 13,050 prisoners in 1931

Concentration camp in East Africa (1935–1941)

As a result of the Italian invasion of the Abyssinian Empire in 1935, Fascist Italy incorporated it into the newly formed colony of Italian East Africa . The area should be pacified by a strategy of mass terror. Unlike in other theaters of violence, concentration camps were not the central institution of persecution. Members of the resistance were executed after capture, and only a few hundred members of the aristocracy were given a chance to survive in prisons. However, even in East Africa, the Italian apparatus of repression could not do without concentration camps. In Eritrea and Somalia a penal camp was set up for political prisoners.

The Danane concentration camp was founded in autumn 1935 as a tent camp in the middle of the desert, 40 kilometers from the Somali capital Mogadishu . The inmates were people who were assessed by the fascist viceroy of Italian East Africa, Rodolfo Graziani , as "elements of modest, but nevertheless harmful importance". These were Abyssinian nobles and middle-ranking state officials, officers of the imperial army of lower rank, monks and a few "patriots" who, contrary to custom, were not executed by the Italian occupying forces. There were women and children among the prisoners. Many prisoners in the Danane concentration camp were interned as part of the brutal political measures launched by the colonial authorities following the failed assassination attempt on Viceroy Graziani. In the Nocra concentration camp , living conditions were even more unbearable. It was located on an inhospitable island near the Eritrean Massaua - one of the most extreme climates in the world. The temperatures often reached up to 50 degrees Celsius with high humidity. Under these conditions, the prisoners were forced to work in quarries, and many died as a result of malaria and dysentery, poor nutrition and isolation. As in Danane concentration camp, women and children were among the prisoners in Nocra concentration camp. A total of around 10,000 prisoners were interned in both camps between 1935 and 1941, of which 3,300 did not survive the hardships caused by the climate and miserable prison conditions.

The Italian historian Angelo Del Boca (2004) classifies the camps in Italian East Africa as well as those that were operated from 1930 to 1933 in Cyrenaica as “ extermination camps ”. The Swiss historian Aram Mattioli speaks of a “ death camp ” in connection with the Danane concentration camp . The historian Mariana de Carlo (2013) also states in her study on the Danane concentration camp that, due to the extraordinarily high death rate, Danane can be viewed as “an instrument of death rather than an internment”.

Concentration camp in Italian Libya (1942–1943)

• Giado concentration camp

Warehouses in Europe

Campagna internment camp

Caserma Concezione

Interior Ministry concentration camp (1940–1943)

In 1939 Italy built the first and new concentration camp in Pisticci , which was designed as a model for others. For the first time, dangerous opposition members were no longer to be re-educated in political exile, but through work in the interior of the country . Due to the Second World War, no plans for further camps of this type were realized.

Between 1940 and 1943 more than 50 camps were administered by the Ministry of the Interior, in which mainly members of enemy states were interned, as was the international practice in the event of war. The basis for this was the Italian war law of July 1938. The foreign nationals of enemy states, for whom the concentration camps were primarily intended, were in reality in the minority of the prisoners, as possible acts of revenge against Italian civilians abroad were feared. The Jews who had been expatriated under the Italian racial laws since 1938 and Jews of Italian nationality who were considered dangerous were also interned in concentration camps. With a circular from the Ministry of the Interior dated June 15, 1940, Jews who had fled to Italy from allied states were also to be arrested, since if they were full of hatred they would be capable of any harmful act. Until the armistice of Cassibile in September 1943, the Jews lived better under the hardships of internment and racial laws in the Italian sphere of influence than Jews anywhere in the Nazi sphere of influence. The Italian Roma and Sinti were also among the persecuted and interned .

Most of the camps were small and makeshift and housed in unsuitable and dilapidated buildings, as Italy was only expecting a short war. The life of the internees was marked by hunger, filth and boredom and although the imprisonment of the Jews and anti-fascists meant an illegal and severe deprivation of liberty and degradation, these Italian camps cannot be compared with German concentration camps. The camp administrations followed the provisions of the Geneva Convention of 1929 and made visits to the Red Cross possible.

The largest and most famous camps were:

• Pisticci, originally a model camp for opposition members, in which Yugoslav civilians were later interned in the course of the repression in the Italian-occupied part of Yugoslavia.
• Ferramonti di Tarsia , where mainly foreign Jews were interned.
• Fraschette d'Alatri , a prisoner-of-war camp that was rededicated for the internment of foreigners and Yugoslav civilians from the end of 1942.

Military concentration camp for Yugoslavs (1941–1943)

While in the camps of the Italian Ministry of the Interior it is not in the least possible to equate the conditions with those in German concentration camps, the administration in camps of the military was quite different. Here the internees came from the areas of the former Yugoslavia, which was now occupied by the Italian army. The Slavic prisoners were used as hostages to suppress the partisan resistance. The living conditions in these sometimes very large concentration camps were consequently extremely harsh and the death rates very high. The largest camp was the Rab concentration camp , founded in 1942 as a tent city on an island , in which up to 11,000 Slovenian prisoners were staying. Imprisoned in an area surrounded by barbed wire fences and watchtowers, the inmates were watched over by 2,000 Italian soldiers. The death rate among the interned Slavs in the Rab concentration camp was at least 19 percent, which was already higher than that recorded in the National Socialist Buchenwald concentration camp .

After the partial occupation and annexation of Yugoslavia by Italy in 1941, the same strategy of scorched earth, ethnic cleansing, hostage-taking and Italian colonization was used to repression against the Yugoslav underground movement as in Africa. An estimated 100,000 to 150,000 Yugoslavs were interned in an unknown number of concentration camps ( campi per slavi ) and, because of the increasing overcrowding, deported to converted barracks, prisoner of war camps ( campi per ex-jugoslavi ) and concentration camps of the Interior Ministry on Italian territory.

The prisoners were divided into protective custody ( protettivi ) and preventive detention ( repressivi ). Protective custody was designed to protect civilians from being recruited or, in the case of collaboration, from punishment by the partisans. People classified as potentially dangerous were taken into preventive detention. These included former prisoners of war who had been released to circumvent the Geneva Convention and then re-imprisoned, former civil servants, teachers, students, intellectuals, the unemployed, relatives of partisans and hostages.

Italian concentration camps were also set up for repression in Albania, Greece and France.

• Pictures of the Rab concentration camp
• 

  Exterior view (1942)

• 

  Interior view in the tent camp

• 

  Emaciated Slovenian inmate (1943)

• 

  Slovenian child prisoners (1943)

• 

  Exhumed victims

Time after the armistice in 1943

After Mussolini's overthrow and the proclamation of the armistice in Cassibile , the Wehrmacht ( fall axis ) occupied Italy in autumn 1943 and the Italian Social Republic was established. The Italian guards and internees fled the camps, some of which were converted into camps for displaced persons by the Allies who landed in southern Italy and others were reused by the Germans as concentration camps.

Fossoli Concentration Camp, 1944

In the Charter of Verona, the Italian fascists declared all Jews to be hostile foreigners. On November 30, 1943, Interior Minister Guido Buffarini-Guidi ordered her arrest and delivery to Italian concentration camps. Until a central camp was set up, the arrested Jews were sent to so-called provincial concentration camps ( campi di concentramento provinciali ). The living conditions in these small camps were much tougher than before and there was barely bearable psychological pressure because the inmates now had to reckon with deportations under the control of the German police.

Friedrich Boßhammer organized the final solution to the Jewish question at the BdS Italy in Verona. German transit and transit camp for deportations to Italy were Polizeihaftlager Borgo San Dalmazzo , Fossoli di Carpi , Risiera di San Sabba and Bolzano Transit Camp . Over 9,000 Jews were deported between October 1943 and December 1944, most of them to Auschwitz.

Stock overview

Concentration camp in Europe

Concentration camp name	place	country	founded	dissolved	Estimated number of inmates	Estimated death toll
Agnone (Molise)	Agnons		June 1940	September 8, 1943
Alberobello	Alberobello		June 1940	September 8, 1943
Ariano Irpino	Ariano Irpino		June 1940	September 8, 1943
Bakar		Croatia	December 31, 1942	July 1, 1943	893
Bagno a Ripoli	Bagno a Ripoli		June 1940	1943
Baranello	Campobasso
Bojano	Bojano		June 1940	August 1941
Bolzano transit camp	Bolzano		July 1944	April 29 and May 3, 1945	11,000
Cairo Montenotte	Cairo Montenotte		1942	1943
Campagna (Campania)	Campagna near Salerno		June 15, 1940	September 19, 1943
Casacalenda	Casacalenda		June 1940	September 8, 1943	only women
Caserma Diaz	Rijeka ( Fiume )					33
Casoli	Casoli at Chieti		June 1940
Castel di Guido	Castel di Guido near Fiumicino		1941	Fall 1943
Chieti	Chieti		June 1940	November 10, 1940
Chiesanuova	Padua		Jun 1942	Sep 1943
Città Sant'Angelo	Città Sant'Angelo		June 1940	September 1943
Civitella del Tronto	Civitella del Tronto		June 1940	1943 (-1944)
Civitella in Val di Chiana	Civitella in Val di Chiana		June 1940	1943 (-1944)
Colfiorito near Foligno	Colfiorito		June 1940
Corropoli	Corropoli		February 1941	September 1943
Cremona
Fabriano	Fabriano near Ancona		June 1940	1943 (-1944)
Ferramonti di Tarsia	Cosenza		Summer 1940	September 4, 1943	3,800
Finale Emilia	Modena
Fraschette d'Alatri	Alatri		1942	1944
Gioia del Colle	Gioia del Colle		June 1940	June 1941
Gonars	Palmanova		March 1942	September 8, 1943	7,000	453; > 500
Isernia	Isernia		June 1940
Isola del Gran Sasso d'Italia	Isola del Gran Sasso d'Italia		June 1940	Autumn 1943 (?)
Istonio Marina	Vasto		June 1940	after September 1943
Kraljevica ( Porto Re )	Kraljevica		1942	September 1943
Lama dei Peligni	Lama dei Peligni		June 1940	September 1943
Lanciano	Lanciano		June 1940	October 1943	only women
Lipari	Lipari		1941	July 1943
Malo	Venice
Manfredonia	Manfredonia		June 1940	September 1943
Molat ( Melada )	Molate	Croatia	June 1942	September 1943	20,000	1,000
Monigo	Treviso		June 1942	September 1943		232
Montechiarugolo	Montechiarugolo near Parma		June 1940	September 1943
Monteforte Irpino	Monteforte Irpino near Avellino		June 1940	Late summer 1943
Nereto	Nereto		June 1940	1943 (-1944)
Notaresco	Notaresco		June 1940	1943 (-January 1944)
Petriolo	Petriolo		June 1940	September 8, 1943	only women
Pisticci	Pisticci		1939	September 13, 1943
Pollenza	Pollenza at Macerata		June 1940	1943 (- March 31, 1944)	only women
Ponza			1942	August 1943
Potenza
Rab ( Kampor or Arbe )	Rab	Croatia	July 1942	September 11, 1943	10,000; 15,000	2,000> 3,500; 4,000
Renicci di Anghiari	Arezzo		October 1942	September 1943
Risiera di San Sabba	Trieste		October 1943	April 1945	> 11,500	4,000-5,000
Salsomaggiore Terme	Salsomaggiore Terme		June 1940	1943?
San Giovanni	Rhodes	Greece	1940	1942	~ 500
Sassoferrato (brands)	Sassoferrato		1942	1943 (- 1944)
Sepino	Campobasso
Solofra	Solofra		June 1940	January 1944	only women
Tollo	Tollo		June 1940	May 1943
Tortoreto	Tortoreto		June 1940	May 1943
Tossicia	Tossicia		June 1940	Late September 1943
Treia (brands)	Treia		June 1940	December 1942	only women
Treviso
Urbisaglia	Urbisaglia		June 1940	1943 (- March 1944)
Ustica	Ustica		June 1940
Ventotene	Ventotene		1940	August 1943
Vestone
Vinchiaturo	Vinchiaturo near Campobasso		June 1940
Visco	Palmanova		Winter 1942	September 1943		23
Vo 'Vecchio	Vo (Veneto)		December 3, 1943	July 17, 1944	60-70	44
Zlarin	Zlarin	Croatia	March 1943	June 1943	2,500	26th
Fossoli di Carpi	Fossoli di Carpi near Modena		May 1942	March 1944

Nonprofit Organizations

Since Italy wanted to comply with the Geneva Convention and also to maintain good relations with the Vatican, it allowed numerous visits by the International Red Cross and church delegations to the concentration camps. Under close supervision, the Association of Italian Jewish Communities and DELASEM were also allowed to maintain contact with the interned Jews through correspondents until the German invasion in September 1943 and to support them materially and in their emigration efforts.

The International Red Cross tried to support the internees despite many obstacles. Church representatives also organized material support, wrote reports and campaigned for the free practice of religion by Jews. However, neither of the two organizations officially condemned the events in the concentration camps.

Work-up

research

In Italy, the word "concentration camp" evokes associations with the German occupation, because from September 8, 1943, Italians, Jews and military internees were victims of Nazi brutality. The fact that Italians also created a system of concentration camps was covered up by the myth of the good Italian ( Brava-Gente myth ) and it was not until the turn of the millennium that systematic works on the subject of researchers such as Klaus Voigt , Costantino Di Sante, Carlo Spartaco Capogreco and Davide Rodogno were published .

The comparison and the demarcation to the German concentration camps in Germany and Poland is obvious. Voigt therefore speaks of a "camp ghetto" from the perspective of the Jews who emigrated to Italy and mostly interned in the largest camp of the Interior Ministry Ferramonti di Tarsia, while in Italian documents, archives and secondary literature also for the camps of the Interior Ministry of Campo di Concentramento (translated: concentration camp ) is spoken. However, the authors emphasize the differences in organization, goal setting and number of victims. Guerrazzi and Di Sante emphasize that everyday life was comparatively quiet for members of enemy states, and initially also for Jews and anti-fascists , but that Italian fascism in the colonies, in Slovenia and later against the Jews with imprisonment, violence and persecution of thousands Brought death.

Prosecution

The Italian war crimes and crimes against humanity were investigated by the International Commission for the Investigation of War Crimes of the Axis Powers ( UNWCC ) such as the German and Japanese crimes, but no international tribunal was set up against the Italian perpetrators and the main perpetrators were not transferred from Italy to other states delivered.

The CROWCASS list of suspected war criminals, compiled by the Western Allies and consolidated in 1947, includes around 1200 names of Italian citizens whose extradition was requested by Yugoslavia , Great Britain , France , Greece and the United States . No Italian has ever been brought to justice for war crimes. A facsimile of the consolidated CROWCASS list from 1947 was published in 2005 by Naval & University Press.

See also

• Italian racial laws
• Circular C3 on the repression in occupied Yugoslavia

literature

• Carlo Spartaco Capogreco: I campi del duce. L'internamento civile nell'Italia fascista (1940-1943) . Einaudi, Turin 2004, ISBN 88-06-16781-2 .
• Simonetta Carolini (Ed.), Pericolosi nelle contingenze belliche. Gli internati dal 1940 al 1943 . Associazione Nazionale Perseguitati Politici Italiani Antifascisti, Rome 1987.
• Costantino Di Sante (ed.): I campi di concentramento in Italia: dall'internamento alla deportazione (1940-1945) . Angeli, Milan 2001, ISBN 88-464-2693-2 .
• Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi and Costantino Di Sante: The History of the Concentration Camps in Fascist Italy. In: Fascism in Italy and Germany - Studies on Transfer and Comparison . Ed .: Reichardt and Nolzen, Wallstein 2005, ISBN 3-89244-939-2 , pp. 176-200.
• Luigi Reale: Mussolini's Concentration Camps for Civilians: An Insight Into the Nature of Fascist Racism . Vallentine Mitchell 2011, ISBN 978-0-85303-884-9 .
• Davide Rodogno: Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-84515-1 .
• Klaus Voigt: Refuge on Revocation - Exile in Italy 1933-1945 . Klett-Cotta 1993, Volume 2, ISBN 3-608-91160-X .

Web links

• campifascisti.it
• The Fascist Concentration Camps , Primo Levi Center

Individual evidence

1. ^ Aram Mattioli: The forgotten colonial crimes of Fascist Italy in Libya 1923-1933 . P. 216 f.
2. ^ Aram Mattioli: The forgotten colonial crimes of Fascist Italy in Libya 1923-1933 . P. 218
3. ^ Aram Mattioli: The forgotten colonial crimes of Fascist Italy in Libya 1923-1933 . P. 219 and De Boca: Fascism and Colonialism - The Myth of the Decent Italians . P. 195
4. ^ Aram Mattioli: The forgotten colonial crimes of Fascist Italy in Libya 1923-1933 . P. 221
5. ^ Campo die Concentramento on I Campi Fascisti, accessed February 20, 2017
6. ↑ De Boca: Fascism and Colonialism - The Myth of the Decent Italians . P. 201
7. ↑ Cf. Aram Mattioli: The forgotten colonial crimes of Fascist Italy in Libya 1923–1933. In: Fritz Bauer Institute (ed.): Genocide and war crimes in the first half of the 20th century. Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 205 u. 219.
8. ↑ Aram Mattioli: Libya, Promised Land. In: The time. May 15, 2003, accessed March 30, 2015.
9. ↑ Angelo Del Boca: Fascism and Colonialism. The myth of the "decent Italians". In: Fritz Bauer Institute (ed.): Genocide and war crimes in the first half of the 20th century. Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 196.
10. ↑ Amida writes in English of “genocidial camps”, which Aram Mattioli translates into German as “extermination camps”, cf. Ali Abdullatif Ahmida: The Making of Modern Libya. State Formation, Colonization and Resistance, 1830-1932. New York 2009, p. 139 and Aram Mattioli: The forgotten colonial crimes of Fascist Italy in Libya 1923–1933. In: Fritz Bauer Institute (ed.): Genocide and war crimes in the first half of the 20th century. Frankfurt am Main 2004, pp. 203–226, here p. 226.
11. ↑ Abdulhakim Nagiah: Italy and Libya during the colonial period: Fascist rule and national resistance. In: Sabine Frank, Martina Kamp (ed.): Libya in the 20th century. Between foreign rule and national self-determination. Hamburg 1995, pp. 78 and 80.
12. ^ Campo die Concentramento on I Campi Fascisti, accessed February 20, 2017
13. ↑ Aram Mattioli: Experimental field of violence. The Abyssinian War and its international significance 1935–1941. Zurich 2005, p. 142; Ders .: A forgotten key event of the world war era . In: Asfa-Wossen Asserate, Aram Mattioli (ed.): The first fascist war of annihilation. The Italian aggression against Ethiopia 1935–1941. Cologne 2006, ISBN 3-89498-162-8 , p. 17 f.
14. ↑ Angelo Del Boca: Fascism and Colonialism. The myth of the "decent Italians". In: Fritz Bauer Institute (ed.): Genocide and war crimes in the first half of the 20th century. Frankfurt am Main 2004, pp. 193–202, here p. 196; Nicola Labanca: Italian Colonial Internment. In: Ruth Ben-Ghiat, Mia Fuller (eds.): Italian Colonialism. New York 2005, pp. 27-36, here p. 32; Aram Mattioli: Experimental field of violence. The Abyssinian War and its international significance 1935–1941. Zurich 2005, p. 142 f.
15. ↑ Angelo Del Boca: Fascism and Colonialism. The myth of the "decent Italians". In: Fritz Bauer Institute (ed.): Genocide and war crimes in the first half of the 20th century. Frankfurt am Main 2004, pp. 193–202, here p. 196; Mariana de Carlo: Colonial internment camps in Africa Orientale Italiana. The case of Dhanaane (Somalia). In: Lars Berge, Irma Taddia (ed.): Themes in African Modern History and Culture. Festschrift for Tekeste Negash. Libreriauniversitaria.it, Padua 2013, pp. 193-208, here pp. 203 f; Aram Mattioli: A Veritable Hell. In: Die Zeit , No. 51/2001, December 13, 2001.
16. ↑ Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Costantino di Sante: The history of the concentration camps in Fascist Italy. P. 184.
17. ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on Revocation - Exile in Italy 1933-1945 . Klett-Cotta 1993, Volume 2, p. 18
18. ↑ Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Costantino di Sante: The history of the concentration camps in Fascist Italy. P. 199.
19. ^ Carlo Moos: Exclusion, Internment, Deportation - Anti-Semitism and Violence in Late Italian Fascism (1938–1945). Chronos, 2004, ISBN 3-0340-0641-1 , p. 69.
20. ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on Revocation - Exile in Italy 1933-1945 . Klett-Cotta 1993, Volume 2, p. 20 f.
21. ^ Susan Zuccotti: The Italians And The Holocaust . Basic Books 1987, ISBN 1-870015-03-7 , p. 8.
22. ^ Paola Trevisan: Le ricerche sull'internamento dei Sinti e dei Rom in Italia durante il regime fascista. In: Hannes Obermair , Sabrina Michielli (ed.): Cultures of remembrance of the 20th century in comparison - Culture della memoria del Novecento a confronto (= Quaderni di storia cittadina. 7). City Archives Bozen , Bozen 2014, ISBN 978-88-907060-9-7 , pp. 189–205.
23. ↑ Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Costantino di Sante: The history of the concentration camps in Fascist Italy. P. 187 ff.
24. ↑ Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Costantino di Sante: The history of the concentration camps in Fascist Italy. P. 187.
25. ↑ Amadeo Osti Guerazzi, Costantina di Sante: The history of the concentration camps in Fascist Italy. In: Sven Reichard, Armin Nolzen (eds.): Fascism in Italy and Germany. Studies on transfer and comparison. Göttingen 2005, p. 176-200, here p. 188 f.
26. ↑ Davide Rodogno: Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War . Cambridge. Cambridge University Press 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-84515-1 , pp. 335 f.
27. ↑ Davide Rodogno: Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War . Cambridge. Cambridge University Press 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-84515-1 , pp. 349 f.
28. ↑ Carlo Spartaco Capogreco: I Campi del duce . Giulio Einaudi 2004, ISBN 88-06-16781-2 , p. 251 ff.
29. ↑ Davide Rodogno: Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War . Cambridge. Cambridge University Press 2006, p. 350
30. ↑ Davide Rodogno: Fascism's European Empire: Italian Occupation During the Second World War . Cambridge. Cambridge University Press 2006, ISBN 978-0-521-84515-1 , pp. 349 f.
31. ↑ Carlo Spartaco Capogreco: I Campi del duce . Giulio Einaudi 2004, ISBN 88-06-16781-2 , p. 257 ff.
32. ↑ Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Costantino di Sante: The history of the concentration camps in Fascist Italy. P. 199.
33. ^ Liliana Picciotto: I campi di concentramento provinciali per ebrei, 1943-1945 . Fondazione CDEC, accessed December 2, 2017
34. ^ Klaus Voigt: Refuge on Revocation - Exile in Italy 1933-1945 . Klett-Cotta 1993, Volume 2, p. 348 ff.
35. ↑ Liliana Picciotto Fargion: Italy . In: Dimension of Genocide . Ed .: Wolfgang Benz, Oldenbourg 1991, ISBN 3-486-54631-7 , p. 202 ff.
36. ^ Bakar concentration camp , Online Research project
37. ^ Luigi Reale: Mussolini's Concentration Camps for Civilians . Vallentine Mitchell 2011, ISBN 978-0-85303-884-9 , p. 160.
38. ↑ Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi, Costantino di Sante: The history of the concentration camps in Fascist Italy. P. 177 ff.
39. ↑ Juliane Wetzel: Italy In: Wolfgang Benz , Barbara Distel (ed.): The place of terror . History of the National Socialist Concentration Camps. Volume 9: Labor education camps, ghettos, youth protection camps, police detention camps, special camps, gypsy camps, forced labor camps. CH Beck, Munich 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-57238-8 , p. 295.
40. ↑ Amedeo Osti Guerrazzi and Costantino Di Sante: The History of the Concentration Camps in Fascist Italy , p. 200.
41. ^ Filippo Focardi: Italy's Amnesia over War Guilt: The "Evil Germans" Alibi . Mediterrarean Quarterly 2014, p. 18 ff.
42. ^ The Central Registry of War Criminals and Security Suspects - Consolidated Wanted Lists (1947) , Uckfield 2005