History of psychology

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

“ Psychology has a long past, but only a short history” ( Ebbinghaus ). The roots of this discipline go back far into the past, but psychology has only been a recognized science since the 19th century.

The beginnings of psychology

Even if psychology has only existed as an independent scientific research area since the end of the 19th century, the preoccupation with the soul, human experience and behavior has a long history. Numerous philosophers and theologians, physicians and physiologists dealt with topics that can be retrospectively assigned to psychology with its foundation and definition as an academic research area and which are preparing for its establishment as an independent science.

Plato developed the basis for the layered model of the soul , which would later become the basis for Sigmund Freud's structural model of the psyche , and Aristotle wrote about 350 BC. A textbook about the soul (Greek Περὶ Ψυχῆς, Peri Psychés ; Latin De Anima ). Avicenna was researching mental illnesses as early as 1000 AD and described the cognitive processes of the common sense, imagination, thinking, belief and memory. Also Averroes dealt with psychology. Thomas Aquinas dealt with the mind-body problem around 1250 and Descartes also dealt with the existence of the soul ( res cogitans ) around 1630 . An important representative of the early psychological concepts ( differential psychology ) formulated in the Renaissance was the Spanish doctor and philosopher Juan Huarte de San Juan , who anticipated some ideas of modern psychology in his work Examen de ingenios para las sciencias (1575). It became known in the German-speaking world through Lessing in a late translation, Examination of the Heads of the Sciences (1752).

The word creation psychologia is not documented before the 16th century. The first use of this term was mistakenly attributed to Philipp Melanchthon for a long time . Occasionally Marko Marulić from Split is named as the creator of this expression, but nothing of his manuscript Psichiologia [!] De ratione animae Humanae , which is said to have been written around 1520, has survived apart from the title, so that no line of tradition can be identified from here. Rather, the oldest place where it was found in a printed document are the Quaestiones εωθιναι και δειλιναι seu logicae et ethicae of the Freiburg professor Johann Thomas Liberius from 1574. A year later, in his Ciceronianus under the heading De psychologia et hominis fabrica, Liberius unfolds in detail the perceptual functions and the metabolic functions Cognitive functions of the soul, i.e. the three Aristotelian soul faculties , whose interplay he regards as proof of the divine origin of man. Liberius treats all of this as part of the doctrine of nature (also in his Quaestiones physicae , 1579, the 27th book of which deals with Psychologia .) Liberius was one of the followers of Petrus Ramus , as was Rudolf Goclenius the Elder , who first used the term in 1590 as a title used for an anthology.

In the age of the Enlightenment the preoccupation with psychological questions increased, even if often not under this name. In the early Enlightenment, the universal scholar Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz made important contributions to the development of psychology. The French materialist philosopher and encyclopedist Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709–1751) published the book Der Mensch als Maschine ( L'homme machine ) in 1746 , and the German polymath Christian Wolff (1679–1754) published the works “Psychologia empirica” and “ Psychologia rationalis ”- the terms“ consciousness ”and“ attention ”as well as the popularization of the term“ psychology ”itself go back to Wolff. As a priori (non-empirical) discipline, the psychologia rationalis is a branch of metaphysics (more precisely: the metaphysica specialis), the method of the psychologia empirica is introspection . (The term 'rational' was used as the opposite of 'empirical' until about the middle of the 19th century, not as an opposite of 'irrational'.) The concept of rational psychology emerged , which was then used (especially by Immanuel Kant (1724– 1804) in the " Critique of Pure Reason ") is sharply rejected as the "Science of Pure Reason". For Kant, psychology was always empirical; however, it was an "inner" empiricism, introspection by means of the "inner sense". In 1783 Ferdinand Ueberwasser (1752–1812) referred to himself for the first time as a professor of empirical psychology and logic at the Old University in Münster . A first “History of Psychology” by Friedrich August Carus (1770–1807) appeared posthumously in 1808.

In the 19th century, philosophers and writers such as Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860), Fyodor Michailowitsch Dostojewski (1821–1881) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) anticipated many important findings of modern psychology.

The development of psychology into an empirical science in the 19th century

Wilhelm von Humboldt is considered to be an important pioneer of ethnic psychology in the 18th and 19th centuries. The philosopher Moritz Lazarus can be seen as its founder , who received an honorary professorship in 1859 and a full professorship in psychology and ethnic psychology at the University of Bern in 1862. Together with the philosopher and linguist Heymann Steinthal , he published the "Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft" from 1860 to 1890, in which the central programmatic writings of the national psychology can be found. Wilhelm Wundt published a ten-volume monumental work on ethnic psychology from 1900 to 1920 in which he took up the central thoughts of Steinthal and Lazarus. The physician and sociologist Gustave Le Bon , who published the book Psychology of the Masses in 1895 , and Scipio Sighele , who published the work Psychology of the Crisis and Mass Crimes in 1891 , founded the mass psychology , from which, together with the psychology of the people, today's social psychology and sociology emerged.

Even Gabriel Tarde exerted significant influence on the development of these disciplines. The later work of Margaret Meads and Ruth Benedicts in this area became the foundation for ethnology and the later ethnopsychoanalysis .

In the 19th century, psychology, shaped by materialism , was introduced by the works of Johann Friedrich Herbart , who published a textbook on psychology in 1816 , and Charles Bell , who researched neurophysiology, was essentially promoted by doctors, physiologists and physicists the physiologists Johannes Peter Müller and Ernst Heinrich Weber dealt with the perception of the sensory organs . Also Hermann von Helmholtz and Fechner published works dealing with the sensory physiology deal. The physician Franz Joseph Gall developed the " phrenology ". Also to be mentioned are Emil Du Bois-Reymond , Ernst Brücke and Carl Ludwig . These works represent the first approaches of empirical research according to scientific criteria in this area. Friedrich August Rauch published a textbook on psychology in 1853 and Herbert Spencer also made important contributions. Paul Broca conducted successful research in neurophysiology. Charles Darwin founded comparative behavioral research in 1872 and emphasized the parallels between humans and animals.

In modern times, all traditional faculties dealt with psychological topics anyway, not only the philosophical (which of course dealt with philosophy, but also mathematics and logic and the natural sciences, and which also took over the propaedeutics for all faculties), but also the medical, theological, and law schools. The latter in particular addressed these issues in relation to an early “behavioral” dimension. Since the 17th century, the medical faculty has dealt with a complex of topics of psychological phenomena, which one could thematically delimit and perhaps call an early form of descriptive patho-psychology. But there was no explicit science of the psyche either.

Psychology becomes an independent university research area

The beginning of experimental psychology as an academic discipline can probably be dated to the establishment of the first laboratory for researching psychological phenomena in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt at the University of Leipzig . He had been teaching psychology from the perspective of the natural sciences in Heidelberg since the 1860s and published the basics of physiological psychology in 1873/74 . In his first attempts he was mainly concerned with researching the physiology of perception and founded the so-called Leipzig School . Wundt's approach is seen as the beginning of academic experimental psychology, because it was the first time that an explicitly empirical-methodological approach that was oriented towards the experimental natural sciences was methodologically worked out.

Parallel to Wundt, Carl Stumpf (1848–1936) and his successor Theodor Lipps (1851–1914) preferred a somewhat different type of experimental research, which - inspired by philosophers such as David Hume and Ernst Mach - was based on the observation of behavior 'and' inner experience 'ran out.

Psychology as an independent science established itself from Germany at other universities; all over the world psychological institutes arose at universities. In 1885 Théodule Ribot began his psychology lectures at the Paris Sorbonne and in 1889 received a chair at the Collège de France . In the same year a laboratory for experimental psychology was founded at the Sorbonne, which was headed by Alfred Binet with great success. At the same time, serious research began at a number of large Parisian hospitals which had previously only been concerned with the observation of the mentally ill. In 1894 the first psychological laboratory of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was set up at the University of Graz on the initiative and under the direction of Alexius Meinong .

In the USA, experimental psychology was taken up without reservation without any disputes over the boundaries and direction between philosophy and the natural sciences. Stanley Hall , who had also studied with Wundt and was a student of William James , founded the first American laboratory for psychology at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , of which 17 existed in 1892. In 1887 he founded the American Journal of Psychology and in 1892 the American Psychological Association , the first professional psychological society.

In October 1875, Wilhelm Wundt began teaching as a professor in Leipzig with the lecture "Logic and methodology with special regard to the methods of natural research". He was appointed to this professorship because Leipzig wanted to promote this new “idea”, namely the “to enforce the influence of natural science on philosophy”.

Based on a methodological discussion, the design of which had been shaped by the physiological approaches to use the methods of the natural sciences in general for philosophical subject areas, Wundt was particularly interested in psychological questions. From the beginning, Wundt had close contact with the physicist Gustav Theodor Fechner, who himself had lectured at the Philosophical Faculty in Leipzig until 1874. With him he also discussed his plan to found a psychological institute, which, as described, came about in 1879 - initially as a private institute, from 1883 as an official university institute.

Basically, psychology followed the self-image mentioned above. Wundt and his colleagues interpreted psychology as a new discipline in natural research. (Experimental) physics , experimental physiology - at that time mainly a sub-area of zoology - and (applied) mathematics were merged while maintaining the scientific approach. By applying these methodological principles, a new discipline for the study of psychological phenomena was born.

This approach was so new that scientists from all over the world came to Leipzig enthusiastically to study with Wundt. At the wedding, Wundt had almost 40 scientific assistant positions alone. In these early years the psychological disciplines of psychophysics and psychological diagnostics developed , which in turn was very fruitful for applied mathematics and statistics .

In the further course of history, psychological methodology was used for statistics (see e.g. factor analysis , conjoint analysis ), and later for the development of methods of empirical social research, in particular questioning (e.g. interview, questionnaire - and scale development) and observation , very influential and fruitful.

At the same time, the Würzburg School developed based on the work of Franz Brentano . Its basis was the thought psychology of Oswald Külpe and his students Narziss Ach , Karl Bühler and Karl Marbe . These studies are assigned to Gestalt psychology .

In 1883 the Englishman Francis Galton introduced statistics as a method in the field of psychology and thus founded empirical personality research. In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus developed important methods for researching memory performance, which are still valid today and which anticipated the cognitive turn in psychology. In 1890, Christian von Ehrenfels did important preparatory work for the development of Gestalt psychology with his publication On Gestaltqualitäten . Charles Spearman , Alfred Binet and William Stern developed concepts for the quantitative analysis of intelligence performance . Even James McKeen Cattell (Wundt student the first hour and first chair of psychology in the United States) made fundamental contributions.

The different directions of psychology from 1900

At the beginning of the 20th century, different basic currents in psychology emerged based on different philosophical paradigms and the images of man on which they are based:

The psychodynamic point of view

In 1895 Sigmund Freud published the first psychoanalytic case studies together with Josef Breuer , and together with his students Carl Gustav Jung and Alfred Adler , the psychodynamic perspective was developed in psychology. From this direction of psychoanalysis , the analytical psychology (CG Jung) and the individual psychology of Alfred Adler emerged. Via Jung, Karl Abraham became one of Freud's closest students, who had trained many psychoanalysts in Berlin since 1908. Another student who was close to Freud for a long time was Sándor Ferenczi , who further developed and established psychoanalysis in Hungary . Later developed Karen Horney , Erich Fromm , Harald Schultz-Hencke and Harry Stack Sullivan , to name only a few representatives to depth psychology in the Neo-Freudianism on. From a scientific point of view, psychoanalysis is not a sub-area of ​​psychology; from this perspective, it should rather be viewed as a complex theoretical structure between medicine / neurology, psychiatry, philosophy and metaphysics. Sigmund Freud always claimed that psychoanalysis was a science, but he had a completely different concept of science.

Anna Freud , Heinz Hartmann , Erik Erikson and Margaret Mahler are considered to be important representatives of ego psychology . Another important advancement within psychoanalysis was the object relationship theory, which was developed in different emphases by Melanie Klein , William RD Fairbairn , Michael Balint , Donald Winnicott and Wilfred Bion . The self psychology was developed by Heinz Kohut founded. Otto F. Kernberg and Peter Fonagy in particular can be named as modern representatives . At the moment there is often talk of a rapprochement between the neurosciences (Freud was originally a neurologist) and the psychoanalytic direction, and modern imaging methods (which Freud dreamed of in the last century) seem to partially confirm psychoanalytic hypotheses. The developmental psychological research of young children, for example by Daniel Stern, has also had a great influence on psychoanalysis, as shown by Martin Dornes . Psychoanalysis has also been able to influence developmental psychology . In clinical psychology, psychoanalysis is considered a paradigm . The attachment theory according to John Bowlby can also be seen as a mutual influence of psychoanalysis and psychology. Another significant direction within the psychoanalytic paradigm is interpersonal psychiatry and psychotherapy, which was founded by Harry Stack Sullivan .

The dream interpretation was mainly developed by CG Jung, later also by Calvin S. Hall , who “brought it out of the clinic” because dreaming people have different dreams in the clinic than at home.

The holistic Gestalt psychology

It was also during this time that Franz Brentano's work gave rise to the gestalt psychology direction of the Graz School , the Berlin School and the Leipzig School , whose leading representatives and founders are Felix Krueger , Max Wertheimer , Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler . Also to be mentioned are Wolfgang Metzger , Kurt Gottschaldt and Edwin Rausch . Kurt Goldstein also made important contributions . From the Gestalt theory developed Kurt Lewin 's field theory and transferred them into areas of social psychology and later the organizational psychology . Fritz Perls developed together with Laura Perls and Paul Goodman , the Gestalt therapy .

Behaviorism

In 1913, John B. Watson published his first work on this subject, thus establishing the direction of behaviorism based on research by Edward Lee Thorndike and Ivan Petrovich Pavlov . Here is Burrhus Frederic Skinner to name the most important members, he made major contributions to educational psychology and discovered in the 1930s, the concept of operant conditioning . Other important work in this direction came from Clark Leonhard Hull and Robert S. Woodworth .

The behaviorism ( "theory of behavior") is limited to observable behaviors while unobservable aspects such as motivation or emotion , are not considered relevant. The behavioristic view of man assumes that humans are almost completely controlled by stimuli from the environment and that every type of behavior can be both learned and unlearned.

Psychology in Germany under the Hitler dictatorship

In the 1930s, psychology, especially Gestalt psychology, the leading trend in psychology alongside behaviorism, experienced a veritable clearcut by the National Socialists. Kurt Lewin is a typical early example: as an employee at Wolfgang Köhler's institute, he did pioneering work. In 1933 he emigrated to the USA - as a Jew, in great danger - and gave vital impetus to organizational psychology there. Many important researchers were initially unable to flee or did not even think about it, but were increasingly banned from teaching (e.g. because of political statements, standing up for Jewish colleagues, or e.g. because they were married to Jewish women, etc.) Of course, this had a massive impact on the development of the assistants, doctoral students and advanced students, some of whom were directly affected. The German psychological institutes were quickly made small. The prestigious research in German psychology came to a complete standstill for many years quickly after 1933, especially during the war; The post-war period, full of privation, also made research in Germany almost impossible, which basically dragged on well into the 1950s. The majority did not manage to escape, there were imprisonment and very many perished, including many who were still nameless. The remaining psychologists were then increasingly used in military diagnostics. In 1920, Sigmund Freud coined the term “machine guns behind the front” for psychologists and psychiatrists who saw their task as getting soldiers ready for action again as quickly as possible, using inhuman methods that violated all medical ethics in order to meet the requirements of political events .

The remaining university education had to subordinate itself to this goal. Here and there, research on gestalt psychology was carried out, but this also had to be “politicized”; so were z. For example, the Gestalt laws are used as evidence of racial ideology (law of proximity, for example). The then decisive field of diagnostics was also changed, so the ideologies of the Nazis were also increasingly processed, forms of "expression" and "character 'psychology" were also used (this includes, for example, the use of the Kretschmer ' rule types of constitution , the typology of Erich Rudolf Jaenschh and approaches of CG Jung were used and of course the race theory ). This was also due to the fact that the scientific psychological diagnostics had to be subordinate to the "diagnostics" according to race theory, character types and above all ethos. Here, too, there is another break with psychology as a science, as it was intended by Wundt and his successors. As a result, were also more pseudo-psychological and pseudo-scientific ideas and ideologies defined and speculative, vague "theory" concepts as psychology taught as such "scientific", including "psychological" aspects of inheritance and racial theory, and the racial hygiene were . Even Hitler's Mein Kampf was standard textbook of psychology, defined in the "psychological axioms".

Finally, from the original idea, a primarily professional qualification called a diploma was introduced. The diploma course in psychology was established in Germany in 1941, while at the same time emphasizing a professional qualification as a military psychologist with a focus on diagnostics . Practical psychology was limited to diagnostics anyway. The only professional field for qualified psychologists outside the university was diagnostics at the employment offices and above all in the armed forces . The teaching of psychologists was only extended to the training of teachers, although there were still no school psychologists and above all to the instruction of engineers in psychotechnology, which was again largely limited to the determination of (work) performance. Together with the isolated research on gestalt psychology, the instruction in limited psychotechnology can perhaps be described as a pitiful remnant of the science of psychology in the Third Reich.

Psychotherapy by psychologists didn’t exist back then, and clinical psychology didn’t exist either; it was only established much later in the USA. At that time only neurologists (psychiatrists) were known who worked not only in the health sector, but also in counseling facilities and in youth welfare offices. There were also plans to use racial psychology approaches for population policy and settlement planning.

The widely asserted idea that psychology was used for the first time by the German National Socialists systematically and across the board, particularly for manipulation and propaganda, is controversial. Psychology also did not have any knowledge that could have been used accordingly. Especially because of the practical destruction of psychology as a science in Germany, no appropriate instruments could be available because the focus had shifted to other areas such as expression and character psychology and race theory. This led to the USA investing and researching more intensively, successfully and sustainably and thus became the leading psychology nation by the end of the 1940s. In the course of the Second World War , scientific methods were developed here, which today fall into the areas of opinion research and influencing, or empirical social research and economic, organizational, etc. psychology. This also included behavioral methods and methods of early social psychology, such as the measurement and change of attitudes, which then z. B. were used by the occupying powers after 1945 as part of 're-education'.

As in other subjects, there was practically no denazification within German psychology after the war .

Psychology in the second half of the 20th century

First of all, from the 1930s in the USA and later worldwide, the aforementioned further developments in behaviorism and the expansion of further psychological disciplines took place. In the 1960s and 1970s, Hans Eysenck and Albert Bandura , who developed the theory of model learning , advanced this direction in psychology. On this basis, besides other influences, esp. From research results of various branches of General Psychology, was within the clinical psychology , the behavioral therapy developed (i. P of the early form of behavioral therapy).

Humanistic psychology

The fourth direction of psychology is the humanistic psychology that emerged in the 1950s , the founders of which were James Bugental , Abraham Maslow and which was further developed by Carl Rogers . In Germany, Reinhard and Anne-Marie Tausch , who gained numerous followers in the 1970s, are considered to be important German-speaking representatives of "humanistic psychology".

According to the humanistic view of man , the individual strives to develop freely and to fully exploit his development possibilities. Humans are seen as actively shaping living beings who are aware of their behavior and can also control and influence it.

The work of Charlotte Bühler and Victor Frankl can also be assigned to this direction. From 1980, Hans-Werner Gessmann developed the humanistic psychodrama at the Bergerhausen Psychotherapeutic Institute .

The cognitive turn and psychology today

In the 1950s, George A. Kelly developed the theory of personal constructs as a counterpoint to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. In the 1970s, the information processing approach replaced behaviorism as the leading paradigm , and the cognitive turn in psychology began. However, this was not due to a theoretical unsuitability of behaviorism, but to a change in the interests of the scientific community . Topics such as attention , thinking or cognition and emotions came to the fore. In contrast to behaviorism , which methodologically disregarded the functioning of the brain and was therefore often referred to as black box psychology (or, because of the numerous animal experiments, “rat psychology” or “rats-and-stats” - “rats and statistics” psychology) , one went over to researching the type and function of self-perceptions, i.e. processes that have become conscious. The computer became a metaphor for the human mind, even though one quickly became aware of the limitations of the computer model, since, for example, the parallel processing capabilities of the brain as a complex system are difficult to explain. The mistake of equating a computer, i.e. a product of the human mind, with it is similar to comparing the functioning of the human brain with a hand ax that was also created by it. In addition to this point of view, connectionism emerged in the 1980s , the central construct of which is networks . Overall, models based on network theory , including the inclusion of more recent formal modeling options, such as B. newer Markov processes , for the cognitive approaches as very fruitful. In addition, z. B. Influences from constructivism , cybernetics and systems theory . Gestalt psychology was also used again, or it was tied back to it.

Jean Piaget , Ulrich Neisser and Noam Chomsky were considered to be important creators of new approaches. For psychology, this meant that individual areas could develop more strongly next to one another, in addition to cognitive psychology, also biopsychology with its sub-areas, both of which represent a large part of cognitive neuroscience . On the other hand, behavior-oriented approaches also play a very strong role, so that within the disciplines of psychology, different approaches coexist on an equal footing and can be used flexibly in relation to a question without violating any convention, which is currently also extremely in the field of psychology makes complex.

literature

General

  • George Mandler : A history of modern experimental psychology: From James and Wundt to cognitive science. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 2007.
  • Joel Michell, Quentin Skinner, Lorraine Daston (Eds.): Measurement in Psychology: A Critical History of a Methodological Concept. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  • Henri F. Ellenberger : The discovery of the unconscious. Diogenes, Zurich 2005.
  • Mark Galliker, Margot Klein, Sibylle Rykart: Milestones in Psychology. The history of psychology according to persons, work and effect (= Kröner's pocket edition . Volume 334). Kröner, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-520-33401-5 .
  • Stephen Jay Gould: The Wrongly Measured Man. 5th edition. Suhrkamp, ​​Frankfurt am Main 2007.
  • Detlev von Uslar: Body, World, Soul: Highlights in the History of Philosophical Psychology; from the beginning to the present. Königshausen & Neumann, Würzburg 2005.
  • Jörg Schreiter: Hermeneutics - Truth and Understanding. Presentation and texts. Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1988, ISBN 3-05-000664-1 .
  • Klemens Dieckhöfer: Psychology. In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 1195 f.

Germany

Austria

  • Gerhard Benetka: On the history of the institutionalization of psychology in Austria . Geyer Edition Vienna-Salzburg 1990.
  • Gerhard Benetka: History of the Faculty of Psychology , University of Vienna.

Great Britain

  • Nikolas Rose, The psychological complex: psychology, politics and society in England; 1869-1939 . London [et al.]: Routledge & Paul, 1985.

Criticism of psychology

  • Thomas Teo, The critique of psychology: from Kant to postcolonial theory . New York, NY: Springer, 2005.
  • Gerhard Vinnai: The expulsion of criticism from science: Psychology in university operations . Frankfurt am Main / New York, NY: Campus, 1993.

Magazines

See also

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Hermann Ebbinghaus: Outline of Psychology . Leipzig: Veit, 1908 p. 1. ( digitized version )
  2. ↑ On psychology cf. Samuel Landauer : Contribution to the psychology of Ibn Sinâ. Introduction, text and translation with commentary (Sections I – III). Dissertation Munich 1872; and the same: The Psychology of Ibn Sînâ. In: Journal of the German Oriental Society. Volume 29, 1876, pp. 335-418; Reprinted in: Fuat Sezgin (Ed.): Studies on Ibn Sīnā (d. 1037) and his medical works. 4 volumes. Frankfurt am Main 1996 (= Publications of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science. Ed. Von Fuat Sezgin, Volume 10-13: Islamic Medicine. ) Volume 1, pp. 65-148. - Edition and translation of Avicenna's writing.
  3. ^ S. Gómez Nogales: La psicología de Averroes. Comentario al libro sobre el alma de Aristóteles. Madrid 1987.
  4. ↑ Helmut E. Lück: History of psychology: currents, schools, developments. Vol. 1 von Grundriss der Psychologie, W. Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 3-17-020923-X , p. 138
  5. ↑ J. Moya Santoyo; L. Garcia Vega: Juan Huarte de San Juan: Padre de la psicologia. Revista de Historia de la Psicología 1990. Vol. 11, Núm. 1-2, pp. 123-144
  6. ^ FH Lapointe: Who originated the term psychology? In: J. Hist. behave. Sci. 8, 1972, pp. 328-335.
  7. ↑ Liberius, Quaestiones εωθιναι και δειλιναι seu logicae et ethicae , Basel 1574, opening credits ( online ).
  8. ↑ . See R. Luccio: Psychologia - the birth of a new scientific context. In: Review of Psychology. Volume 20, 2013, pp. 5-14; GW Ungerer, WG Bringmann, WG: Psichiologia, ψυχολογία, Psychology. In: Wolfgang G. Bringmann, Helmut E. Lück, Rudolf Miller, Charles E. Early (eds.): A Pictoral History of Psychology. Quintessence Press, Chicago / Berlin 1997, pp. 13-18; also in: WG Ungerer: Research on Wilhelm Wundt's biography and regional history. Collected Writings 1978–1997. Verlag Regionalkultur, Ubstadt-Weiher 1997, pp. 395–404.
  9. ^ Freiius, Ciceronianus, Basel 1575, pp. 202–215 ( online ).
  10. ↑ Freigius, Quaestiones physicae, Basel 1579, pp 761-771 ( online )
  11. ↑ . See R. Luccio: Psychologia - the birth of a new scientific context. In: Review of Psychology. Volume 20, 2013, pp. 5-14.
  12. ^ Gary Hatfield: Baumgarten, Wolff, Descartes, and the Origins of Psychology . In: Courtney D. Fugate, John Hymers (Eds.): Baumgarten and Kant on Metaphysics . Oxford University Press, 2018, ISBN 978-0-19-108645-8 , pp. 61 ( limited preview in Google Book Search [accessed April 17, 2020]).
  13. ↑ See the article Rationale Psychologie in Rudolf Eisler's Kant-Lexikon (1930), and the article Empirical Psychology in the Dictionary of Philosophical Terms (1904) by the same author.
  14. ^ Schwarz, KA, & Pfister, R .: Scientific psychology in the 18th century: a historical rediscovery. In: Perspectives on Psychological Science , No. 11, p. 399-407.
  15. ↑ Moritz Lazarus, Heymann Steinthal: The founders d. Ethnic psychology in their letters. 1. Editor: Ingrid Belke. Mohr, Tübingen 1971, ISBN 3-16-930381-3 , p. XXVII .
  16. ↑ Moritz Lazarus, Heymann Steinthal: Introductory Thoughts on Völkerpsychologe, as an invitation to a journal for Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft. In: Moritz Lazarus, Heymann Steinthal (Hrsg.): Journal for Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft 1 (1860) . Dümmler, Berlin, p. 1 ff .
  17. ^ Wilhelm Wundt: Völkerpsychologie. An investigation into the laws of development of language, myth and custom. 10 volumes. Engelmann, Leipzig (1900-1920).
  18. ↑ See Lipps: Grundtatsachen des Geistenleben , introduction. on-line
  19. ↑ see University of Graz: On the history of the Graz Institute for Psychology .
  20. ↑ Michel Bernard: The Psychology. In: François Châtelet: The Philosophy of the Social Sciences. (= History of Philosophy Vol. VII). Frankfurt u. a. 1975, p. 15 ff.
  21. ↑ Gessmann, H.-W .: The humanistic psychology and the humanistic psychodrama. In: Humanistic Psychodrama Volume IV, Verlag des Psychotherapeutisches Institut Bergerhausen, Duisburg, 1996, ISBN 978-3-928524-31-5