Neo-Nazism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Nonexistant User (talk | contribs) at 18:54, 12 January 2008 (Undid revision 183871600 by SebastianGS (talk) restoring cited info). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Neo-Nazism (also known as neo-National Socialism)[1] refers to several post-World War II political movements, seeking to revive the ideology of National Socialism,[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] or some variant that echos aspects of Nazi ideology such as racial or ethnic nationalism or Völkish integralism.[8][9][10][page needed]

Neo-Nazis rarely use the word neo-Nazi to describe themselves, often opting for labels such as National Socialist, Nationalist or related terms.[6] Some groups and individuals who support the ideology openly eschew Nazi-like terms to avoid social stigma or legal consequences. Some European countries have laws prohibiting the expression of pro-Nazi, racist or anti-Semitic views.

Neo-Nazis often use the Indo-Aryan symbols that were in use by Nazi Germany, such as the Swastika, Sig Runes and the red-white-black color scheme. Neo-Nazi activity appears to be a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries, as well as international networks. It has appeared even in Israel.[11][12] Individuals who have attempted to revive Nazism include Colin Jordan, George Lincoln Rockwell, Savitri Devi, Francis Parker Yockey, William Pierce, Eddy Morrison, and David Myatt.

Holocaust denial and minimization

Main article: Holocaust denial

Many neo-Nazis promote Holocaust denial or Holocaust minimization. They claim that the intentional mass murder (often in gas chambers) of more than 6,000,000 Jews is either a lie or grossly exaggerated. Leading historians' estimates of the number of Jews who died during the Holocaust range from 5.1 to 6.2 million.[13][14][15][16][17] Some accuse neo-Nazis of using Holocaust denial to make Nazism more palatable by removing the ideology's association with genocide.[citation needed] Some Holocaust deniers don't identify themselves as neo-Nazis, and a few, such as David Cole, are Jewish. Some neo-Nazis who don't deny that the Holocaust happened have pointed out alleged immoral equivalencies (e.g. the bombing of Dresden and the Expulsion of Germans after World War II); or they have have justified executions by the Nazis as retaliations for sabotage, terrorism and subversion.

Austria

Immediately after the Allies liberated Austria in 1945, the anti-Nazi parties - Socialists (SPÖ), Conservatives (ÖVP) and Communists (KPÖ) - passed legislation to overcome the effects of Nazi rule. A law passed on May 8, 1945, banned the NSDAP and Nazi activities. The denazification program designed to purge the state apparatus and society of Nazi followers was not successful, mainly because of the size of the problem and the bureaucratic shortcomings of the program. This failure was reflected primarily in the fact that ex-members and sympathizers of the NSDAP did not change their beliefs. Over 500,000 registered Nazis were allowed to vote in the 1949 general election.[citation needed] A considerable number of ex-Nazis were integrated into the SPÖ and the ÖVP, and several concessions were made to appease them, such as suppression of the history of the Nazizeit (literally 'Nazi Time'); a fall-off in the prosecutions of Nazi war criminals; and the reinstatement of Nazi civil servants, teachers, professors, lawyers and police officers.

In the 1949 Austrian elections, ex-Nazis in the Verband der Unabhängigen (VdU) put up candidates and won seats, and the Austrian right wing went through a process of growth. The withdrawal of Allied troops from Austria in 1955 encouraged the consolidation of right-wing groups, ranging from neo-Nazis to moderate Pan-Germans. The VdU split in 1955, but re-formed itself one year later as the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ). The first leaders of the FPÖ were former Nazis, such as Anton Reinthaller, who had been a government minister in the Nazi era, and Friedrich Peter, who had been a Schutzstaffel (SS) officer. The Austrian public saw itself confronted with the organized right for the first time in 1959, during the Schiller Celebrations, when Pan-German youth, sport and cultural organizations took to the streets. The FPÖ's students' organization RFS and its graduate equivalent Freiheitliche Akademikerverbände (FAV) attained considerable influence within student and university bodies.[citation needed]

1960s and later

Part of a series on
Antisemitism
Definitions
Geography
Manifestations
Antisemitic tropes
Antisemitic publications
Antisemitism on the Internet
Prominent figures
Persecution
Opposition
Category

In the 1960s, right-wing extremists, along with German Kameraden, gained notoriety by involvement in terrorist acts in the Italian province of Bolzano-Bozen.[citation needed] Prominent among these was Norbert Burger, the ex-RFS leader and subsequent chairman of the neo-Nazi Nationaldemokratische Partei (NDP). The influence that the extreme right had gained in the universities became dramatically apparent five years later, during the Borodajkewycz Affair. Hundreds of students demonstrated in favor of the anti-semitic university professor Borodajkewycz, and were involved in street battles — in the course of which Ernst Kirchweger, a former concentration camp inmate, was beaten to death.[citation needed]

During the 1960s and 1970s, Friedrich Peter, Chairman of the FPÖ, started establishing his party within the democratic party system — leading up to the entry of the FPÖ into a coalition government with the Socialists in 1983. This development led to the formation of a group around Norbert Burger (condemned in absentia by an Italian court for terrorist offenses in Bolzano-Bozen), which split from the FPÖ in 1966 and set up the NDP. In contrast to its German counterpart of the same name, the Austrian NDP found little resonance in an electorate moving to the left in the late 1960s. In 1972, Kurt Waldheim, an Austrian Nazi, had been elected United Nations Secretary General. Waldheim's election had caused anger among some people who had lost relatives in the Holocaust, as well as anti-UN groups who theorized the UN was supportive of totalitarian ideologies.

The volume "Rechtsextremismus in Österreich seit 1945" ("Right-wing Extremism in Austria since 1945"), issued by DÖW in 1979, listed nearly 50 active extreme right-wing organizations in Austria. Their influence waned gradually, partly due to liberalization programs in secondary schools and universities that emphasized Austrian identity and democratic traditions. Votes for the RFS in student elections fell from 30% in the 1960s to 2% in 1987. In the 1995 elections for the student representative body Österreichische Hochschülerschaft, the RFS got 4% of the vote. The FPÖ won 22% of the votes at the General Election in the same year.[18] In the 1980s, in the province of Carinthia, border issues with Slovenia — and disagreements over the rights of Carinthia's Slovenian minority — were used to orchestrate support for the far right organization Kärntner Heimatdienst.

Belgium

Main article: Bloed-Bodem-Eer en Trouw

A Belgian neo-Nazi organization, Bloed-Bodem-Eer-Trouw (Blood, Land, Honour and Faithfulness), was created in 2004 after splitting from the international network (Blood and Honour). The group rose to public prominence in September 2006, after 17 members (including 11 soldiers) were arrested under the December 2003 anti-terrorist laws and laws against racism, anti-semitism and negationism. According to Justice Minister Laurette Onkelinx and Interior Minister Patrick Dewael, the suspects (11 of whom were members of the military) were preparing terrorist attacks in order to "destabilize" Belgium.[19][20] According to journalist Manuel Abramowicz, of the Resistances network, the ultras of the radical right have always had as its aim to "infiltrate the state mechanisms," including the army in the 1970s and the 1980s, through Westland New Post and the Front de la Jeunesse.[21]

A police operation, which mobilized 150 agents, searched five military barracks (in Leopoldsburg near the Dutch border: Kleine-Brogel, Peer, Brussels (Royal military school) and Zedelgem — as well as 18 private addresses in Flanders. They found weapons, munitions, explosives, and a homemade bomb large enough to make "a car explode." The leading suspect, B.T., was organizing the trafficking of weapons, and was developing international links, in particular with the Dutch far right movement De Nationale Alliantie[22][23][24][25][26][27]

Croatia

See also: Neo-Nazism in Croatia

Neo-Nazis in Croatia base their ideology on the writings of Ante Starčević and Ante Pavelić.[28][29] [30][31] At the end of World War II, many of Pavelić's Ustaše members fled to the West, where they found sanctuary and continued their political and terrorist activities (which were tolerated because of Cold War hostilities).[32] The resurgence of the Ustaše movement in post-war Croatia is partly due to significant financial support of the Croatian Democratic Union by Ustaše emigrants.[33] To many of their modern supporters, the Ustaše are considered victims of the historically disputed Bleiburg massacre, and the late president Franjo Tuđman even proposed to rebury Ustaše members together with victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp, as a sign of national reconciliation.[34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] Croatian Serbs felt insulted by that proposal. Jonathan Levy, one of the lawyers representing plaintiffs in a 1999 lawsuit against the Vatican Bank (Institute for Religious Works), the Franciscan order, and the Croatian Liberation Movement (the Ustaše), the National Bank of Switzerland and others, said: "Many are still terrified of the Ustashe, the Serbs particularly. Unlike the Nazi Party, the Ustashe still exist and have a party headquarters in Zagreb." [40]

In 1999, Zagreb's Square of the Victims of Fascism was renamed The Square of The Great Men of Croatia, provoking widespread criticism of Croatia's attitude toward the Holocaust.[41] In 2000, city council renamed the square to Square of the Victims of Fascism again.[42] Many streets in Croatia were renamed after the prominent Ustaše figure Mile Budak, which provoked outrage amongst the Serbian minority. Since 2002, there has been a reversal of this development, and streets with the name of Mile Budak or other persons connected with the Ustaše movement are few or non-existent.[43] A plaque in Slunj with the inscription "Croatian Knight Jure Francetić" was erected to commemorate Francetić, the notorious Ustaše leader of the Black Legion.The plaque remained there for four years, until it was removed by the authorities.[44][45][46]

There have been instances of hate speech, such as the phrase Srbe na vrbe! (meaning "hang Serbs on the willow trees!"). An Orthodox church was spray-painted with pro-Ustaše graffiti in 2004.[47][48] Police have sped up responses to the appearance of extreme right wing graffiti and other hate-based vandalism.[49]

During some protests in Croatia, supporters of Ante Gotovina and other suspected war criminals have carried nationalist symbols and pictures of Ante Pavelić.[50] In 2003, an attempt was made to amend the Croatian penal code by adding articles prohibiting the public display of Nazi symbols, the propagation of Nazi ideology, historical revisionism and holocaust denial. However, this attempt was prevented by the Croatian constitutional court in the same year.[51] In 2005, the Croatian government made a move toward the Nazi-era law interpretation and practice, by granting to the Croatian parliament the exclusive right to interpret and authenticate the law.[52] An amendment was added in 2006 to prohibit any type of hate crime based on factors such as race, color, gender, sexual orientation, religion or national origin.[53] In 2007, Austrian authorities launched a criminal investigation into the widespread display of Ustaše symbols at the May 12 gathering of Croatian nationalists in Bleiburg, Austria.[54][55]

Thompson, a popular Croatian singer, has sung "Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara" in his concerts. That song glorifies the Ustaše and their genocide of the Serbs His May 17, 2007 concert in Zagreb was attended by 60000 people, many of them wearing Ustaše uniforms. Some gave Ustaše salutes, and shouted the Ustaše slogan "Za dom spremni" (For home[land] ready) en-masse. This event prompted the Jerusalem office of the Simon Wiesenthal Center to publicly address a protest to the Croatian president, Stjepan Mesić. [56] [57] [58] [59] [60]

France

Main article: History of far-right movements in France

Neo-Nazi organizations in France include the Bloc identitaire, created by former members of Christian Bouchet's Unité Radicale group. Close to national bolshevism and Third Position ideologies, Unité Radicale was dissolved in 2002 following Maxime Brunerie's assassination attempt on July 14, 2002 against then President Jacques Chirac. Christian Bouchet had previously been a member of Nouvelle Résistance (NR), an off-shoot of Troisième Voie (Third Way) which described itself as "nationalist revolutionary." Although the NR opposed at first the "national conservatives" of Jean-Marie Le Pen's National Front, it finally changed strategy, advocating as slogan "Less Leftism! More Fascism! [61]" The NR was also a successor to Jean-François Thiriart's Jeune Europe Neo-Nazi Europeanist movement of the 1960s, which had participated to the National Party of Europe, along with Oswald Mosley's Union Movement, Otto Strasser and others.

Germany

In Germany immediately after World War II, Allied forces and the new German government attempted to prevent the creation of new Nazi movements through a process known as denazification. The West German government had passed strict laws prohibiting Nazis from publicly expressing their beliefs as well as barring them from the political process. Displaying the swastika was an offense punishable by up to one year imprisonment. There was little overt neo-Nazi activity in Europe until the 1960s. However, some former Nazis retained their political beliefs, and passed them down to new generations.

A militant neo-Nazi holding a .30-06 rifle in Franconia.

After German reunification in the 1990s, neo-Nazi groups gained more followers, mostly among disaffected teenagers in the former East Germany. Many were new groups that arose amidst the economic collapse and high unemployment in the former East Germany. They have also had an aversion to people from Slavic countries (especially Poland) and people of other national backgrounds who moved from the former West Germany into the former German Democratic Republic after Germany was reunited. Their ideology was similar to that of Otto Strasser (Strasserism).

Activities

German neo-Nazis have attacked accommodations for refugees and migrant workers in Hoyerswerda (September 17-September 22, 1991); Rostock-Lichtenhagen (August 23-August 27, 1992); and Schwedt, Eberswalde, Eisenhüttenstadt, Elsterwerda (October 1991). A May 29, 1993 neo-Nazi arson attack on the house of a Turkish family in Solingen resulted in the deaths of two women and three girls, as well as in severe injuries for seven other people. These protests precipitated massive neo-Nazi counter-demonstrations and violent clashes between neo-Nazis and anti-fascists. Statistics show that in 1991, there were 849 hate crimes, and in 1992 there were 1,485 (with a significant concentration in the eastern Bundesländer). After 1992, the numbers went down, although they have risen sharply in subsequent years. In the former East Germany, an average of 17 people have been murdered every year by far right groups.[62]

Legal issues

German law forbids the production of pro-Nazi materials, so such items are smuggled into the country mostly from the United States, Scandinavia, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Italy.[citation needed] Neo-Nazi rock bands such as Landser have been outlawed in Germany, yet bootleg copies of their albums printed in the US and other countries are still sold in the country.

Some neo-Nazis make use the Reichskriegflagge, which is still legal in Germany. This is rather strange when considering the fact that the Reichskriegsflagge has nothing to do with the Third Reich, and that Hitler hated the Prussian aristocracy from which the flag originated.

An American neo-Nazi group called NSDAP/AO runs an illegal smuggling ring, for supplying pro-Nazi materials to neo-Nazis in Europe and other locations where such materials are banned by law. NSDAP/AO supplies items such as magazines, CDs, posters, portraits, clothing, patches, stickers, pamphlets.[citation needed]

German neo-Nazi websites mostly depend on Internet servers in the US and Canada, and use other terms for Nazi ideas and symbols. They also invent new symbols reminiscent of the swastika and adopt other symbols used by the Nazis, such as the sun disc, sun wheel, hooked cross, wolf's cross, wolf's hook, black sun, and dark star. A trial was held before the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany over the prohibition of the National Democratic Party (NPD), which had been accused of being a neo-Nazi party.[citation needed] In the course of the trial, it was discovered that some high-ranking party members worked as informants for the domestic intelligence service, the Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz. The trial was temporarily suspended, and then rejected by the court because of the unclear influence of informants within the NPD.

In 2004, NPD received 9.1% of the vote in the parliamentary elections for Saxony, thus earning the right to seat local parliament members.[63] The other parties refused to enter discussions with the NPD. In the 2006 parliamentary elections for Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, the NPD received 7.3% of the vote and six seats in the local parliament. Other neo-Nazi groups that have been active in Germany and have attracted government attention include the Volkssozialistische Bewegung Deutschlands/Partei der Arbeit (which was banned in 1982), the Action Front of National Socialists/National Activists (banned in 1983), the Nationalist Front (banned in 1992), the Free German Workers' Party of Michael Kühnen and Friedhelm Busse, the German Alternative and National Offensive.

Greece

The most notable Greek neo-Nazi political organization is Hrisi Avgi. Hrisi Avgi holds 10 offices across Greece, and publishes a monthly youth magazine and a weekly newspaper.[citation needed] Neo-Nazis in Greece are influenced by the Metaxas quasi-fascist dictatorship, the Security Battalions during the Second World War, and the collaborationist regimes which were placed in power by the Nazis during the German occupation of Greece (1940-1944) — such as those of Tsolakoglou, Ioannis Rallis and Logothetopoulos.

Neo-Nazis in Greece have been tied to hate-driven attacks on immigrants, homosexuals and leftists. One of the most deadly attacks was the murder of three immigrants in central Athens by Pandelis Kazakos.[citation needed] Twelve Greek neo-Nazis participated as volunteers in the Yugoslav wars in Bosnia, aiding the Serbian Army in capturing the town of Srebrenica.[64] Greek neo-Nazis have been active in football hooliganism. In September 2004, during a football match between Albania and Greece, Albanian hooligans set the Greek flag on fire, so members of Hrisi Avgi and The Blue Army (a nationalist group of football fans) launched a series of riots. They targeted Albanian immigrants in Greece, killing one and wounding seven.

Israel

In August of 2007, eight Israeli citizens (aged 16-21) from the former USSR were arrested on 15 charges of "carrying out attacks on foreigners, gay people and religious Jews."[65][66] In their homes police found "Nazi uniforms, portraits of Adolf Hitler, knives, guns and TNT."[65] The arrests were the result of a year-long investigation after a synagogue in Petah Tikva was vandalized with Swastika images and graffiti including the name Adolf Hitler.[65] The gang videotaped themselves "proclaiming their allegiance to Adolf Hitler with a Nazi salute."[67] They also taped themselves beating gays, religious Jews, and drug addicts. The suspects admitted to assaulting people in Tel Aviv, mostly foreign workers.[65] All of the suspects had migrated to Israel under the Law of Return, "which allows anyone with at least one Jewish grandparent to become a citizen."[65] Investigative officer Revital Almog said of the accused, "their connection to Judaism is distant, through grandparents or distant family connections".[65] Israeli experts on Russian-speaking émigrés "say a small minority have embraced Nazi beliefs…being influenced by a rise in fascism in their former homelands."[66] Zalman Gilichenski, of the Information Centre for Victims of Anti-Semitism, told reporters that "neo-Nazi behaviour among some immigrants is encouraged by links they maintain with racist groups in Russia. …There are other groups like these in almost every city in Israel."[66] The outrage caused by the story of neo-Nazis in Israel has led to a call to reform the Law of Return[67] and "for the law to be changed to permit the revocation of Israeli citizenship and deportation for neo-Nazis."[66] Others argue that changing immigration laws will be against the state’s interest in the face of "the demographic challenge to the Jewish state from a growing Israeli Arab and Palestinian population."[66]

Poland

In Poland, neo-Nazism is somewhat in background. However, in 2005, the new government included members of the ultra-conservative League of Polish Families party, which is linked to the All-Polish Youth (APY). Some consider this electoral victory a triumph of ultra-conservatism and neo-Nazism because some of its members have neo-Nazi backgrounds or sympathies.[68][69][70]

Russia

Further information: [[:Racism in modern Russia]]

The post-Soviet era has seen the rise of a variety of extreme nationalist movements in Russia, some of which are openly neo-fascist or neo-Nazi. Neo-Nazi groups of Russia are characterized by extreme xenophobia towards non-whites, racism, Islamophobia, and antisemitism.

Social roots

The collapse of the Soviet economic system in the early 1990s caused great economic and social problems, including widespread unemployment and poverty. Several far right paramilitary organizations were able to tap into popular discontent, particularly among the marginalized, lesser educated, and habitually unemployed youth. Of the three major age groups — youths, adults, and the elderly — youths may have been hit the hardest. The elderly suffered due to inadequate (or unpaid) pensions, but they found effective political representation in the Communists, and generally had their concerns addressed through better budget allocations. Adults, although often suffering financially and psychologically due to job losses, were generally able to find new sources of income. Moreover, Soviet-era indoctrination into the ideals of egalitarianism predisposed most adults against the message of right-wing extremists. Younger Russians were much less likely to have such inclinations.

Ideology

Russian neo-Nazi organizations have generally defined themselves as standing outside of the political process, disdaining the electoral system and advocating the overthrow of the government by force. Their ideology has centered on defending Russian national identity against what they perceive as a takeover by minority groups such as Jews, Muslims and Caucasian immigrants. Cleansing the nation by killing or expelling Muslims, Jews and dark-skinned people has been a generally accepted goal for Russian neo-Nazis. Their ideology became epitomized in the slogan "Russia for the Russians", a catchphrase also adopted by less extreme factions. Russian neo-Nazis have generally not outlined discernible economic programs. They have openly admired and imitated the German Nazis and Adolf Hitler, and Hitler's book Mein Kampf stood high on their reading list. The most prominent organization, Russian National Union, led by Aleksandr Barkashov, adopted a three-ray Swastika as its emblem (the German Nazi swastika can be thought of consisting of two rays; the Z shaped segments).

Activities

Russian neo-Nazis have made it an explicit goal to take over the country by force, and have put serious effort into preparing for this. Paramilitary organizations operating under the guise of sports clubs have trained their members in squad tactics and weapons handling. They have stockpiled and used weapons, often illegally. Reputedly, many were interested in martial arts and unarmed combat, and have organized realistic hand to hand combat classes. Russian neo-Nazis' most notable action so far was their participation in the armed defense of the Supreme Soviet building against government forces during the standoff between Boris Yeltsin and the Communist-dominated parliament in 1993.[verification needed]

On August 15, 2007, Russian authorities arrested a student for allegedly posting a video on the Internet which appears to show two Muslim, migrant workers being beheaded in front of a red and black Swastika flag.[71] Alexander Verkhovsky, the head of a Moscow-based center that monitors hate crime in Russia, said, "It looks like this is the real thing. The killing is genuine...There are similar videos from the Chechen war. But this is the first time the killing appears to have been done intentionally." [72] A Russian neo-Nazi group called the National Socialists of Russia claimed responsibility for the murders.

Serbia

See also: Neo-Nazism in Serbia

There are several neo-Nazi groups in Serbia. While Neo-Nazism in Germany mostly focuses on racial and political intolerance, neo-Nazism in Serbia is mostly based on national and religious factors.[73] Nacionalni stroj (National Alignment), a neo-Nazi organization from the Serbian region of Vojvodina, orchestrated several incidents in 2005. In late 2005, charges were laid against 18 of the leading members in Novi Sad, each of them facing up to eight years in prison.[74] The group was still active in 2007, as is shown by a display of religious hatred.[75]

The Blood and Honour organization has a branch in Serbia, where it is called Krv i čast. On its official website, the Serbian branch claimd it intends "to propagate revolutionary idea of National Socialism without compromise. Also, the intention of Serbian Blood and Honour Division is to motivate all NS followers to radical activities and not only to passive observing or listening to the music."[76] This organization, with chapters in several Serbian cities, organized several memorial concerts on the anniversary of Adolf Hitler's birth, starting in 2001.[77][78]

In 2006, two Israeli citizens were severely beaten in a Belgrade park by a group of white power skinheads wearing Nazi symbols.[79] The Serbian Jewish community says it was not the first such attack in Serbia.

United States

In the United States, neo-Nazi groups are a sub-type of a wider array of anti-Semitic and white supremacist groups. American neo-Nazi groups tend to pay homage to — but are often less focused on — the specific tenets of the NSDAP than some neo-Nazi groups in other countries.[citation needed] Neo-Nazi groups in the United States can be traced back to the 1920s, with the US branch of the Nazi Party. This organization merged with Free Society of Teutonia to form the German-American Bund. The Bund and other groups achieved a limited popularity in the 1930s (at one point staging a rally with over 20,000 people), but rapidly faded with the onset of the Second World War. The groups either disbanded or were dismantled by force during the war period. After the war, new organizations formed, with varying degrees of support for Nazi principles. It is difficult to determine the extent of neo-Nazi organizations in the United States, because these groups are aware that public opinion concerning them is negative, and there are organizations dedicated to monitoring their activities (such as the Anti-Defamation League and Southern Poverty Law Center).

While a small minority of American neo-Nazis draw public attention, most operate underground, so they may recruit, organize and raise funds without interference or harassment. The American correctional system houses many white supremacist and neo-Nazi prison gangs, but more often than not, white prisoners join said gangs for protection from the other prison gangs, and do not necessarily subscribe to the ideologies that political neo-Nazi groups tend to emphasize.[citation needed] The United States Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, which allows political organizations great latitude in expressing Nazi, racist, and anti-Semitic views. A First Amendment landmark was theSkokie Affair, in which neonazis threatened to march in a predominantly Jewish suburb of Chicago. The march never took place in Skokie, but the court ruling allowed the neonazis to stage a series of demonstrations in the Chicago area.

American neo-Nazi groups often operate websites, occasionally stage public demonstrations, and maintain ties to groups in Europe and elsewhere.[80]

Legal issues

Some American neo-Nazi groups incite violence, however it is sometimes difficult for authorities to implicate them in violence or illegality in any meaningful way. In this way, prominent neo-Nazis may inspire, incite or even order violent crimes without much fear that their involvement will be traced back to an official organization. One notable North American exception to this fact is The Order, which had members convicted of crimes such as racketeering, conspiracy, violating civil rights and sedition. Other exceptions are Matthew F. Hale of the World Church of the Creator, who was imprisoned for soliciting the murder of a federal judge; and Richard Butler of Aryan Nations, which lost a $6.2 million dollar lawsuit after Aryan Nations members opened fire on a passing vehicle. Aryan Nations has since lost its headquarters and paramilitary training grounds, and has split into three separate organizations.

Neo-Nazi organizations

The Americas

Scandinavia

United Kingdom

Other European countries

Other continents

Neo-Nazi bands

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b Lee McGowan (2002). The Radical Right in Germany: 1870 to the Present. Pearson Education. pp. pp. 9. ISBN 0582291933. OCLC 49785551. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  2. ^ Werner Bergmann (1997). Anti-Semitism in Germany: The Post-Nazi Epoch Since 1945. Transaction Publishers. pp. pp. 91. ISBN 1560002700. OCLC 35318351. In contrast to today, in which rigid authoritarianism and neo-Nazism are characteristic of marginal groups, open or latent leanings toward Nazi ideology in the 1940s and 1950s {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, and |accessmonthday= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Martin Polley (200). A-Z of Modern Europe Since 1789. Routledge. pp. pp. 103. ISBN 0415185971. OCLC 49569961. Neo-nazism, drawing heavily both on the ideology and aesthetics of the NSDAP, emerged in many parts of Europe and elsewhere in the economic crises of the 1970s, and has continued to influence a number of small political groups. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda. "Right-Wing Extremism in Austria: History, Organisations, Ideology". Right-wing extremism can be equated neither with National Socialism nor with neo-Fascism or neo-Nazism. Neo-Nazism, a legal term, is understood as the attempt to propagate, in direct defiance of the law (Verbotsgesetz), Nazi ideology or measures such as the denial, playing-down, approval or justification of Nazi mass murder, especially the Holocaust. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, and |accessmonthday= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ "Neo-Nazism". ApologeticsIndex. The term Neo-Nazism refers to any social, political and/or (quasi) religious movement seeking to revive Nazism or Fascism. Neo-Nazi groups are racist hate groups that pattern themselves after Hitler's philosophies. Examples include: Aryan Nations, National Alliance {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  6. ^ a b Martin Frost. "Neo Nazism". The term neo-Nazism is used to refer to any social or political movement seeking to revive National Socialism or a form of Fascism, and which postdates the Second World War. Often, especially internationally, those who are part of such movements do not use the term to describe themselves. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ Peter Vogelsang & Brian B. M. Larsen (2002). "Neo-Nazism". The Danish Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies. Retrieved 2007-12-08. Neo-Nazism is the name for a modern offshoot of Nazism. It is a radically right-wing ideology, whose main characteristics are extreme nationalism and violent xenophobia. Neo-Nazism is, as the word suggests, a modern version of Nazism. In general, it is an incoherent right-extremist ideology, which is characterised by 'borrowing' many of the elements that constituted traditional Nazism. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessdaymonth=, |month=, |accessyear=, |accessmonthday=, and |coauthors= (help)
  8. ^ Goodrick-Clark, Nicholas. 2002. Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism, and the Politics of Identity. New York: NYU Press.
  9. ^ Blee, Kathleen. 2002. Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  10. ^ Hearst, Ernest, Chip Berlet, and Jack Porter. "Neo-Nazism." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Eds. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 15. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. 74-82. 22 vols. Thomson Gale.
  11. ^ Police: Israeli neo-Nazi ring busted, Associated Press, September 9, 2007
  12. ^ [1] Israel's interior minister has called for reforming the law that grants Jews around the world Israeli citizenship.
  13. ^ Dawidowicz, Lucy. The War Against The Jews, 1933–1945. New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975.
  14. ^ Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Macmillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995)
  15. ^ Hilberg, Raul. The destruction of the European Jews (Yale Univ. Press, 2003, c1961).
  16. ^ Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Bauer, Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp, Indiana University Press, 1998, p.71.
  17. ^ Gilbert, Martin, Atlas of the Holocaust, New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc, 1993.
  18. ^ Brigitte Bailer-Galanda/Wolfgang Neugebauer. (1996). 'Incorrigibly Right - Right-Wing Extremists, "Revisionists" and Anti-Semites in Austrian Politics Today'. Vienna-New York.
  19. ^ De nouvelles découvertes, La Libre Belgique, 8 September 2006 Template:Fr icon
  20. ^ Mandats d'arrêts confirmés pour les néo-nazis, Le Soir, 13 September 2006 Template:Fr icon
  21. ^ Les néonazis voulaient déstabiliser le pays, Le Soir, Jeudi 7 septembre 2006 Template:Fr icon
  22. ^ Un groupe terroriste néonazi démantelé, Le Nouvel Observateur, 8 septembre 2006 Template:Fr icon
  23. ^ La Belgique démantèle un groupe néonazi préparant des attentats, Le Monde, 7 septembre 2006 Template:Fr icon
  24. ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient commettre des attentats, RTL Belgique, 8 septembre 2006 Template:Fr icon
  25. ^ Des militaires néonazis voulaient déstabiliser la Belgique par des attentats, AFP, 08/09/06, 07h12 Template:Fr icon
  26. ^ La Belgique découvre, stupéfaite, un complot néonazi au sein de son armée, AFP, 08/09/06, 12h01. Template:Fr icon
  27. ^ Un réseau terroriste de militaires néonazis démantelé en Belgique, Le Monde, September 8, 2006 Template:Fr icon
  28. ^ "Blood And Homeland": Eugenics And Racial Nationalism in Central And Southeast Europe, 1900-1940 edited by Marius Turda, Paul Weindling Published 2006 Central European University Press Rory Yeomans article: Of "Yugoslav Barbarians" and Croatian Gentlemen Scholars: Nationalist Ideology and Racial Anthropology in Interwar Yugoslavia
  29. ^ Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia by Irina Ognyanova (1941-1945) [2]
  30. ^ Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations by Kurt Jonassohn, Karin Solveig Björnson Transaction Publishers 1998, page 279
    To further legitimize the claim that Croats constituted a distinct nation, entitled to their own state, Starcevic revived archaic usages and invented new words to artificially separate a Croatian literary language from the common Serbo-Croatian linguistic stock. It is interesting to note that Starcevic's ideas were later advocated by Ante Pavelic and the Ustashi
  31. ^ Croatia: A Nation Forged in War by Marcus Tanner, Yale University Press 1997, Page 106:
    Pavelic claimed Starcevic was the spiritual father of the Ustashe-run Independent State of Croatia (NDH)
  32. ^ http://www.jasenovac-info.com/cd/biblioteka/pavelicpapers/pavelic/ap0011.html
  33. ^ http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/index/DGB4V0MCGNFLU49E.pdf
  34. ^ Homeland Calling: exile patriotism and the Balkan wars by Paul Hockenos, Cornell University Press 2003 Page 28
    "Bleiburg" became a charge symbol for the alleged 'Serbo-Communist' campaign to exterminate the Croat nation
  35. ^ Power and Persuasion: Ideology and Rhetoric in Communist Yugoslavia, 1944-1953 by Carol S. Lilly Westview Press 2001 Page 109
    The first books about the alleged Bleibirg massacre appeared after 1990 - based only on memoirs
  36. ^ Video, War and the Diasporic Imagination by Dona Kolar-Panov, Routledge 1997 Page 116
    The story of Bleiburg was to fill the newspapers and to get considerable media attention in Croatia, and some of the media campaign reached Australia, but most of the members of the audience were not sure about 'what really happened' mainly because the 'after war death camps' and their victims inhabited the blurry space between myth and reality
  37. ^ The Formation of Croatian National Identity: A Centuries-old Dream by Alex J. Bellamy, Manchester University Press 2003 Page 71

    The crisis was resolved when Tudjman 'discovered' that among the bones already at Jasenovac were some returned from Bleiburg after the war, so no bodies neded to be exhumed and moved
  38. ^ http://www.ex-yupress.com/novi/novilist29.html
  39. ^ http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/11/27/news/croatia.php
  40. ^ http://www.christusrex.org/www1/news/haaretz-1-15-06a.html
  41. ^ http://www.iwpr.net/?p=bcr&s=f&o=246286&apc_state=henibcr1999
  42. ^ http://arhiv.slobodnadalmacija.hr/20001221/novosti1.htm
  43. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3605236.stm
  44. ^ http://www.ex-yupress.com/nacional/nacional7.html
  45. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3605236.stm
  46. ^ http://see.oneworld.net/article/view/92811/1/
  47. ^ http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=279919
  48. ^ http://www.spc.org.yu/Vesti-2004/04/28-4-04-e01.html#usta
  49. ^ http://www.index.hr/clanak.aspx?id=253042
  50. ^ http://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285A285B2863285D2863285A28582858285E2863286328632859285F2859285F2861285828632863286328592863M
  51. ^ http://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285A285F2863285E2863285A28582858285E286328632863286028582860285D285C28632863286328592863F
  52. ^ http://www.novilist.hr/default.asp?WCI=Pretrazivac&WCU=285B28582863285928592863285A28582858285E2863286328632859285E2861285E285A285C28632863286328592863I
  53. ^ http://www.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeno/2006/1706.htm
  54. ^ Wiesenthal Center Welcomes Opening of Investigation by Austrian Authorities of the Display of Fascist Ustasha Symbols at Recent Bleiburg Gathering [3]
  55. ^ Austrija pokrenula istragu o ustaskim obiljezjima u Bleiburgu [4] (Croatian)
  56. ^ Zuroff Mesiću: Gnušamo se ustaških simbola na Thompsonovu koncertu [5] (Croatian)
  57. ^ Margelov institut traži opoziv ministra Kirina zbog Thompsonovog koncerta [6] (Croatian)
  58. ^ Nazi hunters slam singer’s concert [7]
  59. ^ Nazi hunter raps 'fascist' Croatian rock concert [8]
  60. ^ Jews slam Croatia's failure to condemn 'Nazi' concert [9]
  61. ^ Stratégies et pratiques du mouvement nationaliste-révolutionnaire français : départs, desseins et destin d'Unité Radicale (1989-2002), Le Banquet, n°19, 2004 Template:Fr icon
  62. ^ http://serwisy.gazeta.pl/swiat/1,34180,3354654.html
  63. ^ http://www.statistik.sachsen.de/wahlen/allg/Seite_1.htm
  64. ^ Michas, Takis;"Unholy Alliance", Texas A&M University Press: Eastern European Studies (College Station, Tex.) pp. 22 [10]
  65. ^ a b c d e f "Israeli 'neo-Nazi gang' arrested". BBC. 9 September 2007.
  66. ^ a b c d e Martin Asser (10 September 2007). "Israeli anger over 'Nazi' group". BBC.
  67. ^ a b Aron Heller (September 9, 2007). "Police Break Up Israeli Neo-Nazi Ring". Associated Press.
  68. ^ http://www.wrzuta.pl/film/8vS5sEeFVv/nazisci_wsrod_mlodziezy_wszechpolskiej_czyli_heil_hitler_party
  69. ^ http://fakty.interia.pl/kraj/news/wiechecki-nie-jest-dentysta,824429,3
  70. ^ http://nigdywiecej.prh.pl/english/komunikat/nayism.php
  71. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6946810.stm
  72. ^ Luke Harding (2007-08-16). "Student arrested over Russian neo-Nazi 'execution' video". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-08-16.
  73. ^ Neonacizam, fašizam i desni ekstremizam u Nemačkoj i Srbiji: sličnosti i razlike (in Serbian), centar za nove medije_kuda.org
  74. ^ "Nacionalni stroj" pred sudom, BBC Serbian.com, January 9, 2006
  75. ^ Serbia: Neo-Nazi Vandals Post Message on Adventist Church, Adventist News Network, July 12, 2007
  76. ^ Blood and Honour, official website
  77. ^ "Bela nadmoć" i "Krv i čast", Patriot Online
  78. ^ Hitlerjugend sa gitarama, IMC Beograd, June 25, 2005
  79. ^ Skinheads attack 2 Israelis in Belgrade, Ynet News, August 29, 2006
  80. ^ George Michael, The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right, Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006
  81. ^ http://pnt.libreopinion.com/

Bibliography

Primary sources

Academic surveys

  • The Beast Reawakens by Martin A. Lee, (New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1997, ISBN 0-316-51959-6)
  • Fascism (Oxford Readers) by Roger Griffin (1995, ISBN 0-19-289249-5)
  • Beyond Eagle and Swastika: German nationalism since 1945 by Kurt P. Tauber (Wesleyan University Press; [1st ed.] edition, 1967)
  • Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 edited by Philip Rees, (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3)
  • Hitler's Priestess: Savitri Devi, the Hindu-Aryan Myth, and Neo-Nazism by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (1998, ISBN 0-8147-3111-2 and ISBN 0-8147-3110-4)
  • Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International by Kevin Coogan, (Autonomedia, Brooklyn, NY 1998, ISBN 1-57027-039-2)
  • Hate: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by William H. Schmaltz (Potomac Books, 2000, ISBN 1-57488-262-7)
  • American Fuehrer: George Lincoln Rockwell and the American Nazi Party by Frederick J. Simonelli (University of Illinois Press, 1999, ISBN 0-252-02285-8)
  • Fascism in Britain: A History, 1918-1985 by Richard C. Thurlow (Olympic Marketing Corp, 1987, ISBN 0-631-13618-5)
  • Fascism Today: A World Survey by Angelo Del Boca and Mario Giovana (Pantheon Books, 1st American edition, 1969)
  • Swastika and the Eagle: Neo-Naziism in America Today by Clifford L Linedecker (A & W Pub, 1982, ISBN 0-89479-100-1)
  • The Silent Brotherhood: Inside America's Racist Underground by Kevin Flynn and Gary Gerhardt (Signet Book; Reprint edition, 1995, ISBN 0-451-16786-4)
  • "White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States by Betty A. Dobratz with Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile (hardcover, Twayne Publishers, 1997, ISBN 0-8057-3865-7); a.k.a. The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power White Pride (paperback, Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9)
  • Encyclopedia of White Power: A Sourcebook on the Radical Racist Right by Jeffrey Kaplan (Rowman & Littlefield Pub Inc, 2000, ISBN 0-7425-0340-2)
  • Blood in the Face: The Ku Klux Klan, Aryan Nations, Nazi Skinheads, and the Rise of a New White Culture by James Ridgeway (Thunder's Mouth Press; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 1-56025-100-X)
  • A Hundred Little Hitlers: The Death of a Black Man, the Trial of a White Racist, and the Rise of the Neo-Nazi Movement in America by Elinor Langer (Metropolitan Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-5098-1)
  • The Racist Mind: Portraits of American Neo-Nazis and Klansmen by Raphael S. Ezekiel (Penguin (Non-Classics); Reprint edition, 1996, ISBN 0-14-023449-7)
  • Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke (2001, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)
  • Free to Hate: The Rise of the Right in Post-Communist Eastern Europe by Paul Hockenos (Routledge; Reprint edition, 1994, ISBN 0-415-91058-7)
  • The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today by Geoff Harris, (Edinburgh University Press; New edition, 1994, ISBN 0-7486-0466-9)
  • The Far Right in Western and Eastern Europe by Luciano Cheles, Ronnie Ferguson, and Michalina Vaughan (Longman Publishing Group; 2nd edition, 1995, ISBN 0-582-23881-1)
  • The Radical Right in Western Europe : A Comparative Analysis by Herbert Kitschelt (University of Michigan Press; Reprint edition, 1997, ISBN 0-472-08441-0)
  • Shadows Over Europe: The Development and Impact of the Extreme Right in Western Europe edited by Martin Schain, Aristide Zolberg, and Patrick Hossay (Palgrave Macmillan; 1st edition, 2002, ISBN 0-312-29593-6)
  • The Fame of a Dead Man's Deeds: An Up-Close Portrait of White Nationalist William Pierce by Robert S. Griffin (Authorhouse, 2001, ISBN 0-7596-0933-0)
  • Nation and Race: The Developing Euro-American Racist Subculture by Jeffrey Kaplan, Tore Bjorgo (Northeastern University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55553-331-0)
  • Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism by Mattias Gardell (Duke University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8223-3071-7)
  • The Nazi conception of law (Oxford pamphlets on world affairs) by J. Walter Jones, Clarendon (1939)

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neo-Nazism&oldid=183881650"