Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf

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Franz Xaver Josef Conrad von Hötzendorf , from 1910 Baron Conrad von Hötzendorf , from 1918 Count Conrad von Hötzendorf , from 1919 Franz Conrad (born November 11, 1852 in Penzing near Vienna ; † August 25, 1925 in Mergentheim , Württemberg ) was at the outbreak of the First World War 1914 chief of the general staff for the entire armed power of Austria-Hungary , from 1916 field marshal . Conrad, who had previously unsuccessfully proposed preventive wars for the monarchy against Italy and Serbia , played an important role in the July crisis that led to the outbreak of the First World War.

Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf (with signature: Conrad, FM)

Surname

The field marshal, with full name Franz Xaver Josef (from 1910 Freiherr , 1918/19 up to the elimination of the nobility Count ) Conrad von Hötzendorf , was mentioned during his lifetime as "Conrad von Hötzendorf" or mostly just as "Conrad", which gave the impression that this is his first name. Therefore the following press release was published in 1914: We are requested by a valued party to draw your attention to the fact that the family name of the chief of our General Staff is “Conrad”, that G. d. I. Baron v. Conrad always "Conrad" under manufactures and never mentions his title of nobility. In the Vienna address book 1921/22 he was listed as Franz Conrad (with a list of awards he had received, including two honorary doctorates) .

Life

Origin and education

As a captain at the time, Conrad von Hötzendorf was directly involved in the implementation of the plans to suppress the second Montenegrin uprising in the Krivošije in 1882.

Conrad came from a family of Austrian officers and civil servants. His great-grandfather was raised to hereditary nobility in 1815. The name of Hötzendorf goes back to grandmotherly ancestors from Bavaria . His father Franz Xaver Conrad von Hötzendorf (1793–1878), also written as Hetzendorf , was a lieutenant in the Chevaulegers Regiment "Freiherr von Vincent" No. 4 and already took part in the Battle of Leipzig . In the revolution of 1848 he fought the Viennese revolutionaries . He was badly wounded in the process, which caused bitterness against the 1848 revolutionaries and their ideas, which later also influenced his son Franz. He was born in 1852 to a woman who was 32 years his junior, a daughter of the painter Josef Kügler, when his father had already retired with the rank of colonel of the hussars . As a student, Franz developed a keen interest in the natural sciences . Laws of nature were more important to him than religious convictions. Conrad later developed into a vehement advocate of social Darwinism .

Conrad attended from autumn 1863 the Hainburger Cadet School, from autumn 1867, the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt, where he end of August 1871 as a lieutenant to military police - battalion was retired. 11 In the fall of 1874 Conrad passed the entrance exam for the war school and finished his general staff training in the fall of 1876. On May 1, 1877, he became first lieutenant and served as a staff officer in the 6th Cavalry Brigade in Kosice .

On August 16, 1878 he was assigned to the General Staff of the 4th Infantry Troop Division and took part in the 3rd Corps' occupation campaign in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in September 1879 during the invasion of Sanjak Novi Pazar . On May 1, 1879, he was promoted to captain in the General Staff Corps. In the winter months of 1882 Conrad was involved in the fight against the Montenegrin uprising in the Krivošije in southern Dalmatia . Conrad had been given the task of communicating the plans for mobilization to the individual division commanders and of climbing up with the central column in the Orjen , the center of the rebels. These orders were sent from Herzeg Novi on February 8, 1882 by Conrad to the troops involved.

On April 10, 1886, Conrad married his fiancée Vilma (1860–1905), daughter of the genius director August von Le Beau, in Lemberg , although it was difficult for him to raise the marriage bail required for officers . He had four sons with Vilma, Konrad (first name Kurt 1887–1918), Erwin (1888–1965), Herbert (1891–1914, fallen at Rawa-Ruska ) and Egon (1896–1965) - all of whom later took up the officer profession.

On October 29, 1883 he became chief of staff of the 11th Infantry Troop Division in Lemberg and established his reputation as a great innovator by, for example, implementing maneuvers in the field instead of exercises only on the parade ground. In 1887 he returned to Vienna with his family, initially to the office for operational and special general staff work . On November 1, 1887 he was promoted to major and took over an office for operational general staff work in Vienna until September of the following year. From September 10, 1888 to autumn 1892, Conrad was a major tactics teacher at the kuk war school in Vienna and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on May 1, 1890 . Conrad was a popular teacher and many of his students at the time were high, often devoted officers a quarter of a century later in World War II. In October 1892 he was transferred to Olomouc as battalion commander of the 93rd Infantry Regiment and was promoted to colonel on May 1, 1893 . Afterwards he was a member of the commission for the evaluation of staff officer aspirants. From October 16, 1895 to April 8, 1899, Conrad was in command of the "Kaiser" No. 1 infantry regiment in Opava .

On April 9, 1899, Conrad was appointed commander of the 55th Infantry Brigade in Trieste and promoted to major general on May 1 of the same year . There he put down an uprising by Italian dockworkers by force of arms and thereby gained the conviction that the Italian claims on the Trentino and Trieste made the conflict inevitable.

Conrad as Lieutenant Field Marshal in 1906

On September 8, 1903, Conrad took over the leadership of the 8th Infantry Troop Division in Innsbruck and was promoted to Lieutenant Field Marshal on November 1 .

Chief of the General Staff

In the army as an operational thinker and also known for his modern, war-oriented training methods, he was appointed chief of the general staff for the entire armed power on November 18, 1906 at the suggestion of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Emperor Franz Joseph I by handwriting ; he became the successor of the military master Friedrich Freiherr von Beck-Rzikowsky , who had passed away at the instigation of the heir to the throne for reasons of age . The heir to the throne, who was approaching power due to the age of the emperor, wanted to place his own confidants in key positions.

Conrad was now operationally responsible for any war deployment of the joint army , the navy and the land forces of the two states of the monarchy (the kk Landwehr and the ku Honved ). He was exclusively subordinate to the emperor and king as commander-in-chief and the deputy appointed by him for reasons of age, until 1914 Franz Ferdinand, then subordinate to the army commander Archduke Friedrich .

In 1910 Conrad was elevated to the baron status, but his dispute with Foreign Minister Count Aehrenthal , who rejected the preventive wars propagated by Conrad, led to his dismissal by the Kaiser on December 3, 1911. At an audience on November 15, 1911, the Emperor Conrad reproached: “These continuous attacks, especially the accusations about Italy and the Balkans, which are repeated over and over again, are directed against me, I do politics, that's my policy ! My policy is a policy of peace. Everyone has to adapt to this policy of mine. ”A scandal because of his affair with the married Gina Reininghaus , his later second wife, also played a role.

On December 12, 1912 (Aehrenthal had died in the meantime), the heir to the throne was entrusted again during the Balkan Wars . In May 1913 Conrad tried in vain to resolve the affair surrounding Colonel the Elder's betrayal. G. Alfred Redl to conceal.

Although the heir to the throne had campaigned for his reappointment, their relationship deteriorated noticeably and in the summer of 1913 almost led to the renewed deposition of Conrad.

Pre-war politics

Conrad in 1911 with heir to the throne Franz Ferdinand during the maneuver on the Duklapass

Conrad's view of life became “activism”, by which he understood aggressive determination, purposeful zest for action and indomitable will . As early as April 1907, Conrad suggested “overthrowing” Italy in a preventive war , a suggestion that he should bring forward again and again.

Long before the war, Conrad spoke of the transformation of the monarchy into a modern empire and wanted at the division of the European part of the Ottoman Empire still active, through the destruction and annexation, participate to the monarchy against Russian and Italian competition and Slavic nationalism to strengthen.

Conrad, who was appointed general of the infantry on November 15, 1908 , wanted, like Franz Ferdinand, an elimination of the Hungarian position of power in the dual monarchy . The heir to the throne increasingly distanced himself from Conrad because of his aggressive annexationism. Conrad saw the only remedy for the difficult domestic political situation not so much as a policy that balances the nationalities of the monarchy, but rather one that encompasses the Balkans . He wanted to replace dualism with trialism by integrating Serbia into a South Slavic Habsburg kingdom . He expressed this in a memorandum at the end of 1907, still somewhat vague :

"In the creation of this South Slav complex within the framework of the monarchy, there would have been a very advantageous balance of forces between the nationalities, which would make it possible to create internal order, to establish a balance."

In the spring of 1909, Conrad's adventurous plans to incorporate Serbia with the previous overthrow of the Triple Alliance partner Italy were again rejected , especially by the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister and the Austro-Hungarian War Minister . In October 1912, shortly after the First Balkan War broke out and while he was only an army inspector, Conrad developed the plan that the new Balkan Federation should liquidate the Ottoman Empire in Europe under Austrian leadership and then subordinate itself to the monarchy, as Bavaria did to the German Empire . In 1913 and 1914, Conrad called for war against Serbia no fewer than twenty-five times in vain before it actually came about.

As Chief of Staff Conrad developed detailed operational plans against potential opponents Russia, Serbia and Italy, all of them to the war began in 1914 as a waste turned out. Together with the most important exponents of the overall monarchy, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Leopold Berchtold , the Austrian Prime Minister Karl Stürgkh , the joint Finance Minister Leon Biliński and the Austro-Hungarian War Minister Alexander von Krobatin, he belonged to the so-called war party , the proponents of armed conflict with Serbia. The historian Wolfram Dornik has therefore also referred to him as the emperor's falcon .

First World War: From the summer of 1914 until the death of Emperor Franz Joseph

Conrad 1914

Conrad was one of the main supporters of an immediate war against the Kingdom of Serbia in response to the assassination of the heir to the throne in Sarajevo in the summer of 1914 . Upon hearing of the assassination attempt, he wanted to begin the attack immediately, but Berchtold and Emperor Franz Joseph considered an investigation and diplomatic preparation necessary. To a “surprise strike” against Serbia, as Germany did after the “blank check” of 5./6. July, the monarchy lacked the political and military prerequisites. Conrad only wanted to achieve a state of war, which the politicians had often prevented against his will, and to exclude any possibility of peace.

After the ultimatum to Serbia, Conrad Kaiser and Foreign Minister urged that a return to peace would not be possible given the mood in the army.

After the decision of the emperor and king to declare war , he brought the focus of the Austro-Hungarian army into position against Serbia, but after the entry of Russia into the war had to move large parts of the troops to Galicia , where the Russian attack was expected. The resulting delay and the underestimation of the Russian opponent in particular almost led to Austria-Hungary leaving the war early. However, with massive German support, Conrad managed to recapture the Russian-occupied parts of Galicia and Bukovina, to conquer Serbia and Montenegro as well as Romania and to organize a stable front against Italy. After Lviv was retaken, Conrad was promoted to Colonel General on June 23, 1915 .

Conrad at a briefing

The cooperation with the German Supreme Army Command (OHL) was soon clouded. Conrad complained that the head of the second OHL Erich von Falkenhayn only saw the “weaker brother” in the ally, whom he denied recognition in order to “book all successes on his account”. According to Conrad, Falkenhayn strove to “pave the way for Germany's hegemony over Austria for the hoped-for future”. Conrad counted himself on Tirpitz's side , on the other side he saw Falkenhayn and Bethmann Hollweg . Conrad always spoke of the offensive , Falkenhayn paid homage to the strategy of exhaustion . Personal communication between the two commanders finally ceased completely in the spring of 1916.

Conrad was a staunch advocate of the monarchy's far-reaching war aims . Even before 1914 he consistently stressed the need for a preventive war against the "treacherous ally" Italy. Since November 1915, Conrad has been storming Foreign Minister Burián verbally, but also in endless memoranda, to annex the territories conquered in the Balkans. Even before the conclusion of the decisive campaign against Serbia and Montenegro at the beginning of November 1915, he said, “that only the complete incorporation of Serbia and Montenegro into the monarchy (at least as an inseparable federal state) can prevent the danger that an independent Serbia and Montenegro would be no matter how small it would be. They remained (independently) the focus of agitation for our opponents, primarily Russia and Italy, and would seriously complicate the monarchy's military situation in any war. ”But Hungary in particular resisted an annexionist policy, as there was an imbalance within the monarchy and worsening peace conditions after the war were feared.

When Conrad wanted to enforce the annexation of Montenegro and Northern Albania with the emperor in February 1916, the emperor replied: What, that too? This is too much! Conrad replied: Yes, but it is necessary. Independent Albania is impossible .

The Hungarian Prime Minister István Tisza appeared to Conrad as a great opponent , a horror picture , although the two maintained a good basis for conversation; He saw the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Burián in his tow as the horn of Tiszas . The politically overwhelming power of Hungary and Tiszas would be faced (meaning Austria) with a fool, namely Stürgkh . Therefore, Conrad tried to bring about the overthrow of Prime Minister Stürgkh in early 1916 and stood up for the then Imperial and Royal Interior Minister Konrad zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst as the successor and counterweight to Tisza's Hungary. Conrad was unsuccessful with these intrigues, however. In the absence of great military successes, Conrad and the people from the Austro-Hungarian Army High Command did not have the political weight that would have enabled them, as in the case of the third OHL in Germany, to dominate the civil authorities.

First World War: Removal by the new Kaiser

Army commander in place of the then 86-year-old emperor was Archduke Friedrich until December 2, 1916 . This gave Conrad, the chief of the general staff subordinate to him, a free hand as far as possible. After the death of Franz Joseph I on December 2, 1916, the young Emperor Karl I personally took over the supreme command . Archduke Friedrich acted as his deputy until his removal on February 11, 1917. Conrad was appointed kuk field marshal on November 23, 1916 , but his influence declined sharply. He was replaced by Charles I against his will on March 1, 1917, as Chief of the General Staff by Arthur Arz von Straussenburg , but, under pressure from the Emperor, later took over command of the south-western front against Italy in Tyrol , to convince the Italians to believe The next main attack by the Austro-Hungarian forces would take place on this front.

After the failed June offensive (from Asiago to the lower Piave) and the failed offensive on Monte Grappa , Conrad was relieved of his position as commander of the Army Group in Tyrol on July 14, 1918 by Charles I. In order not to let this decision seem too harsh, the emperor simultaneously elevated him to the rank of count and made him honorary colonel of all imperial guards in Vienna. The collapse of the monarchy a few months later, Conrad believed, to be the result of the lack of hearing his warnings and predictions had found.

Sickness and death

Conrad's grave in the Hietzinger Friedhof in Vienna

Conrad spent the years after the war in Vienna and Innsbruck. He worked on publications about his life and tried to justify his work. After a severe gallbladder disease on a cure in Bad Mergentheim , he complained in his memoirs that the Habsburg family - in particular Archduke Friedrich, whom he had successfully served for over two years - had not even been able to call upon him to wish him well. Conrad died of a relapse on August 25, 1925 in Bad Mergentheim. He was buried in the Hietzinger Friedhof (group 37, row 1, number 1) in Vienna. More than 100,000 mourners attended the pompous funeral celebrations on September 2nd. The honor grave was converted into a "historical grave" by the municipality of Vienna in 2012 in the course of the discussion about the honor grave of Engelbert Dollfuss .

Assessment in research

Propaganda postcard with Conrad's portrait

In the Republic of Austria, cultivating the prestige of the Austro-Hungarian Army was part of the self-portrayal of the former officer corps and, until the 1960s, was part of the patriotic commitment to Austria: “Field marshal Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf was the figure and hero of this historical perspective. In order to protect his fame and the reputation of the army leadership, his former employees were ready to rigorously reject any criticism of Conrad's general genius. "

While his contemporary admirers described him as the greatest Austrian general since Prince Eugene of Savoy , the events soon made the problems of his politics and military plans clear. Conrad consistently ignored critical factors such as terrain, weather, seasons or routes for supplies and troop movements.

The criticism of his leadership in the World War criticizes tactically that he did not take into account the importance of modern automatic weapons and heavy artillery, which means that his attacking behavior always preferred catastrophic losses at the beginning of the war. He was also responsible for serious strategic failures, such as the politically motivated concentration of troops on the Serbian border while the Russian armies were already marching towards Galicia. Under Conrad, offensives against both the Russian army and the massively inferior Serbian army failed. Even offensives in Italy's heartland failed with high losses despite major Italian mistakes. When Conrad was replaced, the Austro-Hungarian army was no longer capable of substantial operations and was almost entirely dependent on German support.

“The bellicism already spread out in the memoranda with a social Darwinist foundation corresponded to or even after the defeat of Conrad's worldview, and so he presented himself in his memoirs as the prevented savior of the Habsburg Empire. Since he assigned the Entente guilt for the World War and the responsibility for Austria-Hungary's precarious situation in the early summer of 1914 to the political leadership of the monarchy, the hagiographic military historiography was able to adopt Conrad's self-portrayal. "

Fritz Fellner is extremely critical of Conrad's behavior during the July crisis:

“If the desired war were actually to be waged without foreign interference, it had to be started without delay, but Conrad von Hötzendorf, who had been preaching the preventive war against Serbia for years and tried to break it off the fence, began as soon as the decision was made was prepared to beg for a delay. A war has never been started more dilettante than the war against Serbia in July 1914 ... They had known since July 7th that they wanted to wage war ... but the Chief of Staff declared himself incapable, the one for three Weeks planned war to actually start before a further period of 14 days. "

Historian Samuel R. Williamson even judges Conrad to be probably the most scheming of all military leaders in Europe before 1914.

Conrad never took his share of responsibility for the outbreak of war and the defeat of his country. He defended himself by saying that he was always "just the military expert" who had not made any political decision.

After the annexation of Serbia, Montenegro and Poland , Conrad wanted to allow the peoples to realize their national aspirations within the framework of the monarchy in nationally closed territories. The lofty plans of the strategist Conrad, however, were not in accordance with the means at his disposal. The real military strength of the monarchy would never have been sufficient for his Balkan plans. Conrad's imperialism was still moving on the field that Metternich had staked out 100 years earlier, because for Conrad, too, only the "reason" of the traditional state was decisive, but not the will of his nations. Like Metternich, Conrad was not concerned with social, economic or colonial problems, but with strengthening the state through expansion.

Conrad saw the salvation of the economically underdeveloped and nationally strongly mixed Habsburg monarchy in the construction of an interest state. This should acquire its political strength and historical justification through the representation of the economic interests of the small Balkan peoples in order to secure their existence in the first place. Conrad's interest state should consist of the three kingdoms Austria-Bohemia, Hungary and Southern Slavia, whose "playing off against each other" should strengthen centralism. His imperialism therefore did not outgrow the vitality of his state, but rather its weakness, his “imperialism of the defensive” looks like a flight forward. Like so many others, he did not understand that incorporations against the will of the affected population weaken a state instead of strengthening it, especially in times of self-determination of peoples . His thinking was austro-centric, so that he did not grasp the absurdity of his efforts to expand towards the extremely nationalistic and independent struggling Balkan peoples.

“If Conrad justified the necessity of expansion economically, among other things, this argument aimed at most at a preventive safeguarding of a large sales area, but it does not characterize the actual purpose of the expansion ... The domestic political prerequisite for his expansion demands was not the development of the economy and society, but rather the threatening disintegration of the state into its national components. ... With the idea that the Austrian state can only be renewed by conquering Serbia, the will for imperialist expansion is deeply rooted in a conservative moment. ... The concern about the internal circumstances was probably the deeper reason for Conrad's aggressive expansion plans. He himself protested against the accusation of being an imperialist, because he understood imperialism to only mean expansion for its own sake. "

Conrad was shaped by social Darwinism in his actions . The struggle for survival is everything, individuals don't matter, nations fight for existence and exist to fight. His basic Darwinist attitude led to an imperialist political program which, with its belief in the submission of the weak and small according to natural law, contained a pronounced warlike note.

reception

Conrad as Chief of Staff in 1915, portrait by Hermann Torggler ( Army History Museum ).

In the Vienna Museum of Military History is located in Room V ( "Franz-Joseph Hall") a showcase, in which personal items Conrads issued, its sash , map pocket , wallet and canteen as well as his saber sword knot , Stulphut for generals , helmet on his Uniform as head of the Royal Prussian 5th Guards Regiment on foot , his lorgnon and Conrad's military science work. Above the showcase there is a portrait showing Conrad as a general of the infantry, made by the painter Hermann Torggler (1878–1939). In the area of ​​the First World War, his field marshal's uniform and his marshal's baton can also be seen.

In 1978/79, the GDR comic mosaic sent the Austrian major Hötzendorfer into the running as an opponent of the Abrafaxe , a clear allusion to Field Marshal von Hötzendorf.

While in other nations after the First World War the General Staff and its activities were subject to general secrecy, even in the expectation of another war, Conrad's work From my service 1906–1918 , whose source value must be judged carefully, was among other things one of the first related representations the work of a chief of staff. In addition to some reviewers, Boris Michailowitsch Schaposchnikow also extensively dealt with Conrad von Hötzendorf's work in his work The General Staff - The Brain of the Army .

With regard to the streets named after him, especially those in Graz, a possible renaming was discussed. In September 2014, the Graz municipal council decided to name the square in front of the newly built Styria Media Center, which is actually centrally located in the 6th district on Conrad-von-Hötzendorf-Straße (house number 78), “ Gadollaplatz ”. Because of the controversy, the new building was given the name “Gadollaplatz 1” in the address instead of the intended address. In February 2018, the Graz city government finally decided against renaming Conrad-von-Hötzendorf-Straße. Instead, additional explanatory panels should be attached.

Fonts

  • To study tactics. Verlag Kreisel u. Kroger.
    • Volume 1: Introduction and Infantry. Vienna 1898.
    • Volume 2: Artillery, Cavalry, from the battle. Vienna 1899.
  • Combat training for the infantry. 6th edition, Seidel, Vienna 1917.
  • From my service from 1906–1918. Rikola-Verlag, Vienna et al. 1921 to 1925:
    • Volume 1: The time of the annexation crisis 1906–1909.
    • Volume 2: 1910-1912. The period of the Libyan War and the Balkan War until the end of 1912.
    • Volume 3: 1913 and the first half of 1914. The outcome of the Balkan War and the time up to the murder of the prince in Sarajevo.
    • Volume 4: June 24, 1914 to September 30, 1914. The political and military events from the murder of the prince in Sarajevo to the conclusion of the first and the beginning of the second offensive against Serbia and Russia.
    • Volume 5: October-November-December 1914. The events of the war and the political processes during this period.
  • My beginning War memories from his youth 1878–1882. With facsimiles based on maps and hand drawings by the Field Marshal . Publishing house for cultural policy, Berlin 1925.
  • Kurt Peball (ed. And edited): Conrad von Hötzendorf: Private records. First publications from the papers of the kuk General Staff chief. Amalthea, Vienna a. a. 1977, ISBN 3-85002-073-8 .

literature

  • August Urbański von Ostrymiecz : Conrad von Hötzendorf In: Ders .: Soldat und Mensch Ulrich Moser Verlag, Graz-Leipzig-Vienna 1939.
  • Peter Broucek , Kurt Peball : Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz Graf. In: Ders .: History of Austrian Military Historiography. Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne 2000, ISBN 3-412-05700-2 , p. 326 ff. (Including list of publications)
  • Wolfram Dornik : The emperor's falcon. Work and after-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. (= Publications of the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Research on the Consequences of War, Graz – Vienna – Raabs . Volume 25). With a review by Verena Moritz and Hannes Leidinger , 2nd corrected edition, Studien-Verlag, Innsbruck a. a. 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 .
  • Peter Fiala : Il feldmaresciallo Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Biografia storico-militare 1852-1925. Rossato, Novate di Valdagno 1990, ISBN 88-8130-011-7 .

Web links

Commons : Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ The title was made bourgeois on the basis of the "Law on the Abolition of the Nobility, Secular Knights and Ladies Orders and Certain Titles and Dignities" of the Republic of Austria (Nobility Repeal Act ) of April 3, 1919 with effect from April 10, 1919.
  2. ↑ Conrad only signed with this name during the monarchy.
  3. ↑ Chief of Staff Baron v. Conrad. In:  Reichspost , September 12, 1914, p. 5 (online at ANNO ).Template: ANNO / Maintenance / rpt
  4. ↑ Lehmann's general housing indicator for Vienna. Edition 1921/1922, Volume 2, p. 176 (= p. 182 of the digital reproduction)
  5. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the apocalypse. Humanity Press, Boston 2000, ISBN 0-391-04097-9 , pp. 2-6 and 15 f.
  6. ↑ Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz. Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 45–47.
  7. ↑ Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz. Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 40–43.
  8. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the apocalypse . Humanity Press, Boston 2000, ISBN 0-391-04097-9 , pp. 20-24 and 29.
  9. ↑ Anonymous: The uprising in Herzegovina, South Bosnia and South Dalmatia 1881-1882. Department for War History of the Imperial and Royal War Archives, Seidel, Vienna 1883. p. 155.
  10. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the apocalypse. Humanity Press, Boston 2000, ISBN 0-391-04097-9 , pp. 35, 66, 157 and 242.
  11. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the apocalypse. Humanity Press, Boston 2000, ISBN 0-391-04097-9 , p. 34 ff.
  12. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the apocalypse. Humanity Press, Boston 2000, ISBN 0-391-04097-9 , pp. 37, 40 and 47.
  13. ^ Peter Broucek , Kurt Peball : Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz Graf. In: Ders .: History of Austrian Military Historiography. Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne 2000, ISBN 3-412-05700-2 , p. 327.
  14. ↑ Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz. Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 52–57.
  15. ^ Wiener Zeitung , No. 270/1906 , November 24, 1906, p. 1, official part .
  16. ^ Günther Kronenbitter : War in Peace. The leadership of the Austro-Hungarian army and the great power politics of Austria-Hungary 1906–1914. Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-486-56700-4 , p. 59.
    Wolfram Dornik: Des Kaisers Falke. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz. Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 58–66.
  17. ^ Günther Kronenbitter: War in Peace. The leadership of the Austro-Hungarian army and the great power politics of Austria-Hungary 1906–1914. Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-486-56700-4 , p. 336.
  18. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the Apocalypse . Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, Vienna / Graz 2003, ISBN 3-7083-0116-1 , p. 117 ff.
  19. ↑ Günther Kronenbitter: "War in Peace". The leadership of the Austro-Hungarian army and the great power politics of Austria-Hungary 1906–1914. Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-486-56700-4 , p. 236 f.
  20. ↑ Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz . Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 109–121.
  21. ^ Rudolf Kiszling: Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Walter Pollak (Ed.): A thousand years of Austria. A biographical chronicle . Volume 3: Parliamentarism and the Two Republics . Verlag Jugend u. Volk, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-7141-6523-1 , pp. 39–46, here p. 40.
  22. ↑ Field Marshal Conrad: From my service time 1906-1918 . Volume 2: 1910-1912. The period of the Libyan War and the Balkan War until the end of 1912 . Vienna / Berlin / Leipzig / Munich 1922, p. 315.
    Rudolf Kiszling: Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Walter Pollak (Ed.): A thousand years of Austria. A biographical chronicle . Volume 3: Parliamentarism and the Two Republics . Verlag Jugend und Volk, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-7141-6523-1 , pp. 39–46, here p. 41.
  23. ↑ Heinz Angermeier: The Austrian Imperialism of Field Marshal Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Dieter Albrecht (Ed.): Festschrift for Max Spindler on his 75th birthday . Munich 1969, pp. 777–792, here: p. 784.
    Field Marshal Conrad: From my service 1906–1918 . Volume 1: The time of the annexation crisis 1906–1909 . Vienna / Berlin / Leipzig / Munich 1921, pp. 537-540.
  24. ↑ Heinz Angermeier: The Austrian Imperialism of Field Marshal Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Dieter Albrecht (Ed.): Festschrift for Max Spindler on his 75th birthday . Munich 1969, pp. 777-792, here: p. 787.
  25. ↑ Field Marshal Conrad: From my service 1906–1918 . Volume 1: The time of the annexation crisis 1906–1909 . Vienna / Berlin / Leipzig / Munich 1921. p. 537.
  26. ↑ Field Marshal Conrad: From my service 1906–1918 . Volume 2: 1910–1912: The period of the Libyan War and the Balkan War until the end of 1912 . Vienna / Berlin / Leipzig / Munich 1922, p. 314f., And Wolfram Dornik: Des Kaisers Falke. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz . Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 90-100.
  27. ↑ John W. Mason: The Dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1867-1918. Longman, London / New York 1985, ISBN 0-582-35393-9 , p. 65.
  28. ^ Rudolf Kiszling: Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Walter Pollak (Ed.): A thousand years of Austria. A biographical chronicle. Volume 3: Parliamentarism and the Two Republics. Verlag Jugend und Volk, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-7141-6523-1 , pp. 39–46, here p. 42.
  29. ↑ William Jannen, Jr .: The Austro-Hungarian Decision For War in July 1914. In Samuel R. Williamson, Jr., Peter Pastor (Ed.): Essays on World War I: Origins and Prisoners of War. New York 1983, ISBN 0-88033-015-5 , pp. 55-81, here: pp. 56f. and 72.
  30. ↑ Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz . Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 .
  31. ^ Samuel R. Williamson, Jr .: Vienna and July 1914: The Origins of the Great War Once More . In: Samuel R. Williamson, Jr., Peter Pastor (Eds.): Essays On World War I: Origins and Prisoners of War . New York 1983, ISBN 0-88033-015-5 , pp. 9-36, here: pp. 27ff.
    Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz . Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 122-134.
  32. ↑ Field Marshal Conrad: From my service 1906–1918 . Volume 4: June 24, 1914 to September 30, 1914. The political and military events from the murder of the prince in Sarajevo to the conclusion of the first and the beginning of the second offensive against Serbia and Russia . Vienna / Berlin / Leipzig / Munich 1923/1925. P. 150 f.
  33. ↑ Field Marshal Conrad: From my service 1906–1918 . Volume 5: October-November-December 1914. The events of the war and the political processes during this period . Vienna / Berlin / Leipzig / Munich 1925, p. 78.
  34. ↑ Rudolf Jerábek, military and politics in the first half of 1916. With an appendix on the tradition in the form Gabelsberger shorthand . Unprinted housework, Vienna 1983. p. 69.
  35. ^ Rudolf Kiszling: Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Walter Pollak (Ed.): A thousand years of Austria. A biographical chronicle . Volume 3: Parliamentarism and the Two Republics . Verlag Jugend u. Volk, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-7141-6523-1 , pp. 39–46, here p. 43.
  36. ↑ Maddalena Guiotto: Italy and Austria: a network of relationships between two dissimilar neighbors . In: Maddalena Guiotto, Wolfgang Wohnout (ed.): Italy and Austria in Central Europe in the interwar period / Italia e Austria nella Mitteleuropa tra le due guerre mondiali . Böhlau, Vienna 2018, ISBN 978-3-205-20269-1 , p. 21 .
  37. ^ Andrej Mitrovic: The war aims of the Central Powers and the Yugoslavia question 1914-1918 . In: Adam Wandruszka, Richard G. Plaschka, Anna M. Drabek (eds.): The Danube Monarchy and the South Slavic Question from 1848 to 1918. Texts from the first Austrian-Yugoslav historians' meeting in Gösing in 1976 . Vienna 1978, pp. 137–172, here: p. 149.
  38. ↑ Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz. Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 154–161.
  39. ^ Gerhard Ritter : Staatskunst und Kriegshandwerk. The problem of "militarism" in Germany. Volume 3: The tragedy of statecraft. Bethmann Hollweg as war chancellor (1914–1917) . Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 1964, p. 52 f.
  40. ↑ Rudolf Jerábek: Military and Politics in the first half of 1916. With an appendix on the tradition in the form Gabelsberger shorthand . Unprinted housework, Vienna 1983, pp. 74f. and 114.
  41. ↑ Manfried Rauchsteiner: The death of the double-headed eagle. Austria-Hungary and the First World War. Böhlau, Vienna / Graz / Cologne 1993, ISBN 3-222-12454-X , p. 431.
  42. ↑ Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz. Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 169–175.
  43. ^ Kurt Peball (ed.): Conrad von Hötzendorf. Private records. First publications from the papers of the kuk General Staff chief. Amalthea, Vienna / Munich 1977, ISBN 3-85002-073-8 , p. 194.
  44. ↑ The death of Field Marshal Conrad. In:  Neue Freie Presse , August 27, 1925, p. 7 (online at ANNO ). Template: ANNO / Maintenance / nfp,
    Field Marshal Conrad †. In:  Reichspost , August 27, 1925 (online at ANNO ). Template: ANNO / Maintenance / rptincluding the following pages 2 and 3
  45. ^ Rudolf Kiszling: Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. In: Walter Pollak (Ed.): A thousand years of Austria. A biographical chronicle. Volume 3: Parliamentarism and the Two Republics. Youth and Volk, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-7141-6523-1 , pp. 39–46, here p. 44ff.
  46. ↑ Field Marshal Conrad von Hötzendorf's last trip. In:  Wiener Bilder , September 6, 1925, p. 1 (online at ANNO ). Template: ANNO / Maintenance / wrband p. 4 ,
    Field Marshal Conrad's last trip. In:  Reichspost , September 3, 1925, p. 7 (online at ANNO ). Template: ANNO / Maintenance / rptand p. 8 ;
    Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the Apocalypse. Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, Vienna / Graz 2003, ISBN 3-7083-0116-1 , p. 244.
  47. ↑ Hans Magenschab : Problematic monuments and honors. The September 20, 2013 standard .
  48. ↑ Günther Kronenbitter: "War in Peace". The leadership of the Austro-Hungarian army and the great power politics of Austria-Hungary 1906–1914. Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-486-56700-4 , p. 9.
    Example of such an apologetics in addition to Conrad's own works: Oskar Regele: Feldmarschall Conrad. Mission and fulfillment 1906–1918. Vienna 1955.
  49. ^ Graydon A. Tunstall, Jr .: Austria-Hungary . In: Richard F. Hamilton, Holger H. Herwig: The Origins of World War I . Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge 2003, ISBN 0-521-81735-8 , pp. 112-149, here: pp. 121f.
    Wolfram Dornik: The emperor's falcon. Work and post-work of Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, with a review by Hannes Leidinger and Verena Moritz. Studienverlag, Innsbruck 2013, ISBN 978-3-7065-5004-8 , pp. 201-221.
  50. ^ Rudolf Kiszling: Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Walter Pollak (Ed.): A thousand years of Austria. A biographical chronicle . Volume 3: Parliamentarism and the Two Republics . Verlag Jugend u. Volk, Vienna 1974, ISBN 3-7141-6523-1 , pp. 39–46, here p. 45.
  51. ↑ Günther Kronenbitter: "War in Peace". The leadership of the Austro-Hungarian army and the great power politics of Austria-Hungary 1906–1914. Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-486-56700-4 , p. 10.
  52. ↑ Fritz Fellner: The " Mission Hoyos ". In: Fritz Fellner, Heidrun Maschl (Ed.): From the Triple Alliance to the League of Nations. Studies on the history of international relations 1882–1919. Verlag für Geschichte und Politik, Vienna 1994, ISBN 3-7028-0333-5 , pp. 112–141, here: pp. 130 f.
  53. ^ Samuel R. Williamson, Jr .: Vienna and July 1914: The Origins of the Great War Once More. In: Samuel R. Williamson, Jr., Peter Pastor (Eds.): Essays On World War I: Origins and Prisoners of War. New York 1983, ISBN 0-88033-015-5 , pp. 9-36, here: p. 13.
  54. ↑ Lawrence Sondhaus: Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf. Architect of the Apocalypse. Neuer Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, Vienna / Graz 2003, ISBN 3-7083-0116-1 , p. 256.
  55. ^ A b c Heinz Angermeier: The Austrian Imperialism of Field Marshal Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Dieter Albrecht (Ed.): Festschrift for Max Spindler on his 75th birthday. Munich 1969, pp. 777-792, here: pp. 778 f.
  56. ↑ Heinz Angermeier: The Austrian Imperialism of Field Marshal Conrad von Hötzendorf. In: Dieter Albrecht (Ed.): Festschrift for Max Spindler on his 75th birthday. Munich 1969, pp. 777-792, here: pp. 786 f.
  57. ↑ Heinz Angermeier: The Austrian Imperialism of Field Marshal Conrad von Hötzendorf . In: Dieter Albrecht (Ed.): Festschrift for Max Spindler on his 75th birthday . Munich 1969, pp. 777-792, here: pp. 778-779.
    Field Marshal Conrad: From my service 1906–1918. Volume 4: June 24, 1914 to September 30, 1914. The political and military events from the murder of the prince in Sarajevo to the conclusion of the first and the beginning of the second offensive against Serbia and Russia. Vienna / Berlin / Leipzig / Munich 1923/1925, pp. 128f.
  58. ↑ Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck : The Army History Museum Vienna. Hall VI - The k. (U.) K. Army from 1867–1914 , Vienna 1989, p. 31.
  59. ^ Manfried Rauchsteiner , Manfred Litscher (Ed.): The Army History Museum in Vienna . Graz / Vienna 2000 p. 32.
  60. ^ Army History Museum / Military History Institute (ed.): The Army History Museum in the Vienna Arsenal. Verlag Militaria , Vienna 2016, ISBN 978-3-902551-69-6 , p. 116.
  61. ^ MosaPedia article on Major Hötzendorfer
  62. ^ Martin Moll: Graf, Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf and his street: A contribution to the current discussion about the appropriateness of personal street names. In: Historicum. Journal of History, University of Linz, Winter 12/13 - Spring 2013, pp. 15–29.
  63. ^ From the municipal council II: New Gadollaplatz as a peace signal. Website of the city of Graz
  64. ↑ Houses look Plus: Styria Media Center Graz
  65. ↑ From Conrad von Hötzendorf to Lueger: Graz wants to explain contaminated street names Die Presse , February 11, 2018
personal data
SURNAME Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Conrad von Hötzendorf, Franz Xaver Josef
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Austrian field marshal and chief of staff in the First World War
DATE OF BIRTH November 11, 1852
PLACE OF BIRTH Penzing
DATE OF DEATH August 25, 1925
Place of death Bad Mergentheim