Orjen
| Orjen | |
|---|---|
 Topographic map of the Orjen |
|
 Zubački kabao and Vučji zub from Velika Jastrebica |
|
| Highest peak | Zubački kabao ( 1894 m. I. Y. ) |
| location | SW- Montenegro |
| part of | South-East Dinarides, Littoral Dinarides |
| Classification according to | Cvijic |
| Coordinates | 42 ° 34 ' N , 18 ° 32' E |
| Type | Fold Mountains |
| rock | lime |
| Age of the rock | Chalk , jurassic |
| surface | 400 km² |
| particularities | Glaziokarst |
The Orjen is a strongly karstified high mountain in Montenegro . It is part of the Dinaric Mountains and, together with the Lovćen and Rumija, forms the southernmost element of the littoral Dinarides made up of Mesozoic limestone .
At 1894 meters, the summit of Zubački kabao is the highest point of the Sub-Adriatic Dinarides and thus at the same time the highest mountain range in Dalmatia . The Orjen is a refuge for numerous rare and endemic species of flora and fauna. In international cooperation, these are the goal of species and area protection measures. The Montenegrin part and the Bosnian part has been designated as a nature park since 2017 .
General
The most impressive element of the southern Adriatic coast is the Bay of Kotor , a flooded canyon cut deep into the heart of the coastal mountains . The inner bays of Risan and Kotor are surrounded by steep walls up to 1,300 m high, which overhang the narrow cultivated coastal strip almost vertically.
A serpentine road leads from the small town of Risan in the innermost protected corner of the bay to the 1600 m high pass in the Orjen Mountains. A variety of hikes into the mountains are possible from here, affording impressive views of the sea and the surrounding pale limestone mountains. Glacial traces as well as the endemic vegetation ( Dinaric karst block heaps-fir forest , snake skin-pine- rock forest) are noteworthy in the natural area.
Because of the importance of the coastal resorts of the historical development of the region and the unique nature of the interaction of the natural landscape and human culture history, the historic seafaring town of Kotor with the bay, which is also the mountain area between Orjen and was Lovćen includes having, by the UNESCO as a World Heritage of Humanity expelled.
A special feature of the subtropical mountains is its very impressive glaciation during the last Ice Age ( Würme Ice Age ) as well as the extremely high amounts of precipitation in the Mediterranean area, which at the climatological measuring station Crkvice also mean the European record with almost 5000 mm of precipitation per year. Geomorphologically, the deep cut of the Bay of Kotor is striking. The area was ruled over by Illyrians, Greeks and Romans in historical times. In modern times, the triangle between Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro ran above the Vučji zub . Historically, the Montenegrin popular uprising in the Krivošije in 1869 and in 1882 against the troops of the imperial and royal monarchy was a prominent national event. The military efforts to strategically fortify the Bay of Kotor have been sustained in Orjen by numerous forts and abandoned military trails.
geography
Location and topography
The Orjen is the only high mountain range in Dalmatia . The mountain body is separated from the surroundings by an impressive 800 to 1300 meter high steep step to the sea (“megacliff”) and the glacial character of the high mountains. As a tectonically raised floe, the Orjen towers over 800 to 900 meters above sea level. The Montenegrin-Herzegovinian karst highlands are 1000 meters above sea level.
Favored by precipitation and relief, the Orjen was a center of the Pleistocene glaciation of the Balkan Peninsula . In the reservoir of the Orjen Mountains, the annual precipitation increases to over 5000 mm annually. This is also Europe's highest total precipitation, which is more typical for tropical rainforest regions or the monsoon -shaped Eastern Himalayas than for the summer-dry Mediterranean region. In particular, the vegetation benefits from the frequent rainfall, because even large-scale high forests are possible on the otherwise dry limestone soil.
Evolution of the relief
Geomorphology and morphological evolution in Orjen and the Bay of Kotor have aroused much interest. The geological structure determines the regional morphological characteristics. Temporally different processes of geological history worked in the formation of the relief, development and effect controlled endogenous neotectonic movements. Older structures predisposed these movements - the regional ceilings . The central zone of Orjen was raised relatively, the coast was lowered. The Orjen area experiences the highest uplift rates, with 6 mm / a.
In Würm and probably also in the plan , a local Gebirgsvergletscherung formed. The inactive initial fluvial relief due to karst processes at the beginning of the Rift Ice Age acted as a predisposition.
geology
Montenegro is divided into four stratigraphic-geological zones. Over two thirds of Montenegro belong to the Karst. The tectonic units of the coast belong to the neotectonically active area, which led to catastrophic earthquakes (1556, 1666, 1979 - 7.0 on the Richter scale). Geologically characteristic are the at least 4.3 kilometers thick Cretaceous and Jurassic limestone. Due to the monotony of the massive Mesozoic limestone and the high amount of precipitation, the region is extremely karstified.
The Orjen lies in a neotectonically active zone which is characterized by the edge of the Adriatic plate and the thrust of the high karst nappes over the narrow flysch area of the Budva-Cukali zone. The Budva-Cukali zone separates the two carbonate platforms of the outermost Dalmatian zone from the high karst nappe a little further inside. The central zone of the High Karst Nappe is formed by monotonous carbonates from the Cretaceous to Tertiary. To the west of the central zone the Graben von Grab forms a prominent meridional fault. Another fault runs from north to south, which can be traced south of Grahovo Polje and west of Dragaljsko Polje to Risan Bay and on to Tivat. Thus all poles in the Orjen are due to these two faults. The northern zone pushes over the central zone at the fault. Dolomite rock is characteristic of the northern zone. These result in a calmer, less karstified relief. The only active river in the Orjen is formed here in the cut of the Nudoljska reka.
The tectonically and geomorphologically pronounced contrast to the Bay of Kotor, which is carved deep on the edge of the high karst ceiling . At the border of three geological units of soluble and insoluble sediments, this bay was created by erosive and tectonic processes. The high karst cover in the area of the inner bays of Risan and Orahovac extends directly to the coast. The central part of the Bay of Kotor is formed by the strongly folded flysch facia of the Budva-Cukali zone (Vramac peninsula). The Dalmatian Zone follows on the outside. A carbonate platform that is less karst to the high karst ceiling.
More favorable conditions prevail where water-holding flysch - facies of the Triassic , Jurassic , Cretaceous and Paleocene lie. They are preserved as heavily eroded remains in the central part of the Bay of Kotor, where the short streams are used for mills.
The geological base map Kotor (K34-50, scale 1: 100,000) was developed by Antonijević, Pavić and Karović in general about the geology of the Orjen.
Structural geology
The Orjen mountain area lies on the frontal subduction zone of the Adriatic plate under the high karst ceiling. The narrow geological units that lie in front of the high karst cover, the Pinuds-Cukali Zone and the Dalmatian Zone, are therefore very narrow. While the Dalmatian Zone is still made up of carbonates from the Mesozoic Era, the Pindus-Cukali Zone is characterized by megelige limestones and flysch. The geological change to the high karst blanket is distinctive both topographically and hydrographically. The high karst ceiling rises abruptly in a 1000 m high step. It is mainly divided here by monotonous limestone and dolomite stones from the Upper Cretaceous (Cenoman and Turon). The heavily folded, thinly layered limestones mostly have marly layers. These are particularly noticeable on the Buganja greda and the Gnjila greda due to limestone debris, which occurs in particular on the north side. Massive Cretaceous limestones occur at Vučji zub and Reovačka greda. As a rule, a 45 ° collapse of the limestone layers can be observed. In the summit structure of the Subra lie horizontally layered massive limestones. They are the basis of the high and impressive Subra east wall. In the gentle Jastrebica ridge lie thinly layered, saiger-standing limestones, glacial erosion created alpine corridors on the Jastrebica.
In general, the Cretaceous carbonate series in Orjen are much more folded than the Jurassic limestones in the neighboring rounded Lovčen or Velebit. Since these massive Jurassic carbonates are not very layered, they were folded much less strongly.
The Orjen is bounded by faults in the west, east and north. The trenches of Grab and Risan lie transversely to the strike direction of the geological layers. Both trenches are topographically striking. Structurally, they contributed to the formation of the structural poljen of Dubrava, Dragalj and Grahovo. The poljes themselves were quaternary filled with flufioglacial, limnoglacial and, in the case of the Dragalj polje, also by moraine deposits.
Neogene deposits are periglacial limestone debris corridors on the northern slopes of the Orjen. They occur in particular around Zubački kabao, Buganja greda, Borovik, Goliševac and Jastrebica. Linear debris flows were created by avalanche runways. They can be observed on the southern slope of Velika Jastrebica as well as the southern slope of Reovačka greda. Current periglacial processes of surface erosion and periglacial debris formation take place on the northern slope of Velika Jastrebica. Due to high moisture penetration and strong solifluction, the process observed here is recently a rare occurrence in the Mediterranean region. In Orjen this formation can only be observed on Velika Jastrebica.
Quaternary geology
The quaternary sediments were deposited in the form of mighty terminal moraines, especially in the Middle Ice Age. They lie on all sides of the Orjen and can even be followed on the south side near Herceg Novi below 600 m above sea level. The terminal compression moraine of Ubli at the exit of Dobri do and the moraine in Grahovo polje and the mighty lateral moraine of Gvozd in Bijela gora are particularly impressive. The moraines of Crkvice are particularly easy to reach and Albrecht Penck realized in 1899 that an impressive ice age glaciation must have taken place here.
The type and intensity of the Pleistocene Worm Age glaciation in the Orjen was unusual for a Mediterranean mountain range. The Orjen also plays a prominent role in the Quaternary research of the Dinarides . Albrecht Penck discovered these glacial traces together with William Morris Davis in 1899 . They were also the first traces of a massive worm-age glaciation of the Balkan peninsula:
- “Then we have to do in the Krivošije with the traces of a 5 to 10 km long, 3.5 to 5.5 km wide glacier of at least 35 km², which leaned against the eastern slope and almost reached the edge of the Bocche . The mean height of the framing of its catchment area, formed in the north by the ridge of the Pazua, in the south by the Crljena greda, in the west by the Orjen is at most 1650 m, and if its end is assumed to be around 800 m, then if so from Hoefer mentioned method for calculating the height of the snow limit should apply as a center height of glacial framing and glacial end here, the amount of glacial firn line give too little about 1200 m. "
Jovan Cvijić later described the glacial series on the eastern roof of the Krivošije :
- “A glacier came from the huge glacial nutrient area of the Pazua and reached the bottom of the north side of Dragalj Polje . The terminal moraine develops like a staircase from Polje Dvrsno and can be followed for a few kilometers. It is 140 m high above the bottom of the Polje and made up of limestone blocks and pieces, many of which are angular and sharp. A huge fluvio-glacial debris cone attaches to the moraine; Gravel and sand covers almost the entire ground from the village of Dragalj in the NE to the village of Paljkovca in the SW. Here they mix with the fluvio-glacial debris cone of another glacier that came down from the highest mountain of the Orjen to Dvrsno and stopped above the edge of the Poljen. "
Valley glaciers (3 to 9 km long) and two plateau glaciers, from which ten tongues emanated, reached down to 500 to 1000 meters at the Ice Age maximum. Different estimates have been made of the maximum glaciated area, which was specified between 89 km², 102.5 km² and 109 km². However, new findings show that this should actually have been up to 150 km².
It has also been shown that the Orjen was iced over several times during the Würm Ice Age. Three different ice stands show, as was found analogously in neighboring mountains of the Mediterran, that the climate here was also exposed to greater fluctuations in the last ice age .
A special feature of the glacial relief of the Orjen is the relationship between glacial erosion and the primary karst relief. This prompted Jovan Cvijić to describe his own type of glacier, the Karst glacier , which as a type could be compared with glaciers in the Dachstein and Wetterstein . These were among the most typically developed on the limestone plateaus of the Bijela-gora and Krivošije des Orjens.
There were valley glaciers of the alpine type on the west side of the Orjen. The glacial cirque of Pavolvica do (1570 m) between Zubački kabao ( 1894 m ) and Buganja greda ( 1849 m ) has an impressive stepped kart staircase and is particularly impressive due to the high surrounding walls and its very beautiful tub shape. The largest glacial valley glacier in Orjen (9 km long, 20 km² area) developed in the trough valley of Dobri do. With its frame, the maximum former glacier thickness can be estimated here at 400 meters. The ice age snow line is assumed to be particularly low in Orjen at 1200 to 1300 meters. Compared to the much more massive mountains of the Dinarides, the Orjen had the most pronounced glaciation of the Balkan Peninsula.
geomorphology
Karst
The active evolution of the karst relief depends on temperature, lithology , vegetation and the availability of water. The elevation distribution of the karst forms depends on this. The area of the orjens is set to the strongly developed holokarst. This term is based on the lack of fluvial forms. Geologically, massive limestone is a prerequisite. The pair of terms “Holokarst-Merokarst” laid the foundation for climatic variations in karst phenomena. Holokarst is subtropical and tropical, Merokarst is temperate (in Germany the Swabian Alb ).
Jovan Cvijić sees the Montenegrin-Herzegovinian high karst as the most developed karst in Europe: “There is no deeper and more developed karst than this Herzegovinian-Montenegrin karst between the lower Neretva, Lake Skadar and the Adriatic Sea. Not a drop of water runs off the surface, everything sinks into chimneys, ponors, crevices and depressions. "
Strong tectonic movements combined with extreme karstification have also destroyed the only original large drainage system, the Bokeljska reka (still to be reconstructed in the lower reaches by the Bay of Kotor ).
climate
The special local effect of the high karst zone of Montenegro and the offshore Adriatic has a lasting effect on the local and regional climatology in Orjen in several ways. On the one hand, in its climatological function, the Orjen provides an effective barrier and effective climatic divide between the Mediterranean zone and the temperate continental inland zone; on the other hand, the steep relief and the consequent sliding of moist warm air masses of the Mediterranean sea results in a labilization of the air over the Orjen plateau, which in Its consequence here contributes to the highest mean precipitation values in Europe.
From the resulting extreme annual average rainfall, which can amount to between 3000 and 8000 mm, the subtype of a special perhumid southern Adriatic climate variant has developed here. The main precipitation seasons fall in late autumn and high winter. In November and December, heavy rain events with daily maximums of 480 mm and maximum monthly sums over 2000 mm were measured.
From this, the snowfall in Orjen is also considerable and the aperitif often lasts until the last decade of June. Avalanches resulting from the rich snow masses and the warm air currents of the Mediterranean Sea have been observed in the Dobri do valley on the southern roof of Velika Jastrebica as well as on the northern roof of Reovačcka greda.
Climatological recordings began at the Crkvice climatological measuring station in the late 1880s. In continuation of the Crkvice station in Malo Polje, a record of the climatological parameters of the mountains has been recorded for over 100 years. Further stations have been set up in the surrounding areas, of which the measuring stations in Trebinje and Herceg Novi are also the official climatological main measuring stations.
The table shows the climatic parameters of the Crkvice station.
|
Average monthly temperatures and precipitation for Crkvice at an altitude of 940 m
Source: «Crkvice Climate (1960–1991)», website of the Hydrometeorological Institute of Montenegro
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| station | Height in m | Type | character | Precipitation in mm | Snow cover |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zubački kabao | 1894 | D. | perhumid Mediterranean snowy climate | approx. 6250 | approx. 140 days |
| Crkvice | 940 | Cfsb | (fs = without summer drought), perhumid Mediterranean mountain climate | 4926 | 70 days |
| Risan | 0 | Cs′′a | (s ′ ′ = double winter rainy season), perhumid Mediterranean coastal climate | 3500 | 2 days |
* According to Köppen's effective climate classification , the Montenegrin coastal mountains belong to the climate type Cs′′b (s ′ ′ double winter rainy season). The special character of the Mediterranean mountain station Crkvice in Orjen is due to the climate type Cfsb (fs without summer drought). In the Bay of Kotor , the climate type Cs′′a is formed by the stronger summer drought.
Since precipitation is not uncommon in summer, the summer dry period that is characteristic of the Mediterranean climate does not occur and is characterized by a semi-dry season. The perhumid subtropical climate of the Bay of Kotor (Montenegro) is one of the few Mediterranean transition regions to the laurel forest climate in the Mediterranean area. Mountains differ from this mainly thermally, as frost and abundance of snow are characteristic in winter. Periodic ingress of cold air, which occurs when polar cold air is released over the Dinarides into the Adriatic Sea due to violent bora winds in winter, causes a structural change in the vegetation, which is characterized by the appearance of a garigue floristically but by frost-hard elements.
Precipitation
Since the region is facing the rain-bringing Mediterranean cyclones , there is an uplift of humid maritime air masses in the windward direction of the Dinarides , which cause tropical precipitation values and intensities. The mountain ridge of the Bay of Kotor reaches maximum values. With 129 rainy days, great intensities occur, which can lead to powerful flash floods. Maximum daily values are 480 mm (November 21, 1937).
For high altitudes, hot air masses saturated with water vapor mean heavy snowfalls. On the coast there are snow spells 2 to 10 days a year, Crkvice (940 m) has an average of 70 days. In the oromediterranean zone (1000 to 1900 m) the snow cover then lasts at least two months. The highest snow cover in a winter was 164 cm (1965), the lowest 24 cm (1975).
Snow remains on the coast only episodically longer. But the situation in Risan seems unusual . In the snowy winter of 1965, 93 cm of fresh snow fell here and lasted for nine days. In 1983 there was a continuous snow cover on 43 days with 19 snowfall days. The episodic snowfalls in the Bay of Kotor only lead to prolonged snow cover in the innermost, secluded corner of the Bay of Risan, as there is a road of continental cold air that falls into the bay in the form of a hurricane-like cold bora in winter.
| station | period | Height [m] | I. | II | III | IV | V | VI | VII | VIII | IX | X | XI | XII | I-XII [mm / m²a] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dubrovnik | 1931-1960 | 49 | 147 | 113 | 102 | 92 | 79 | 60 | 24 | 38 | 97 | 156 | 213 | 186 | 1307 |
| Herceg Novi | 1961-1984 | 40 | 230 | 221 | 183 | 135 | 130 | 73 | 28 | 45 | 160 | 181 | 326 | 262 | 1974 |
| Risan | 1961-1984 | 40 | 405 | 342 | 340 | 235 | 153 | 101 | 66 | 123 | 188 | 295 | 423 | 434 | 3105 |
| Trebinje | 1931-1960 | 276 | 193 | 190 | 160 | 102 | 119 | 70 | 43 | 76 | 110 | 239 | 247 | 249 | 1762 |
| Cetinje | 1961-1984 | 655 | 434 | 357 | 367 | 288 | 164 | 92 | 72 | 118 | 209 | 306 | 489 | 498 | 3394 |
| Grahovo | 1961-1984 | 710 | 351 | 324 | 305 | 251 | 142 | 94 | 55 | 103 | 202 | 416 | 508 | 473 | 3224 |
| Crkvice | 1961-1984 | 940 | 610 | 499 | 503 | 398 | 198 | 135 | 82 | 155 | 295 | 502 | 714 | 683 | 4774 |
| Podvrsnik | 1961-1984 | 630 | 407 | 398 | 367 | 305 | 151 | 101 | 77 | 132 | 238 | 465 | 593 | 586 | 3820 |
| Vrbanje | 1961-1984 | 1010 | 472 | 390 | 388 | 321 | 181 | 104 | 70 | 122 | 224 | 369 | 565 | 536 | 3742 |
| Knezlaz | 1961-1984 | 620 | 547 | 472 | 473 | 373 | 207 | 120 | 72 | 136 | 268 | 400 | 629 | 661 | 4358 |
* Average monthly and annual rainfall [mm] in Dalmatia , Herzegovina and Montenegro
biology
Habitats
The Orjen is a high karst mountain range characterized by galziokarstige and karstic glacial landscapes. Glaziokarst landscapes are characterized by a wavy rock relief, karst glacial landscapes by high mountain relief and prominent gravitational relief processes as well as by periglacial and glacial forms . The habitats in the Orjen are also characterized by the deep and wide dry valleys , the Dolovi and plateaus, which are bordered by steep ridges and pointed peaks. All habitats in the Orjen are water scarce, so at no point has humid vegetation developed. The Orjen is characterized mainly by dry forests or at least warmth-loving types of deciduous and coniferous forests. The open vegetation on rocks and rubble slopes is built up by completely drought-resistant and species-rich Oro-Mediterranean vegetation communities . The vegetation in the Orjen differs from other mountains in Montenegro in that formations are more adapted to drought and the number of Mediterranean species that emerge. A salient feature of the orjens habitat is the richness of the Mediterranean flora. The important Ottoman travel writer Evlija Tschelebis noticed this as early as 1664 :
- “All of the water in the city of Herceg Novi comes from the Karlice (Turkish Orjen) high mountain plateau, where you can see snow and icebergs in summer and winter. On all sides we are surrounded by a diverse sea of flowers, from which a wonderful scent rises that dazes the senses. Our horses have fed up on all sorts of flowers and have grown as fat as elephants. In short, we had a good time and stayed on this mountain plateau for two days and two nights. "
flora
In the flora in Orjen, so-called Illyrian character types are decisive. This includes many endemic species. In addition to the snake skin pine ( Pinus heldreichii ), there are Greek maple ( Acer heldreichii ), Crimean peony ( Paeonia daurica ) and species that grow on rocks such as Dinaric Columbine ( Aqulegia dinarica ), Rock Moltkie ( Moltkia petraea ), Neumayer jug fruit ( Amphoricarpos neumayerianus ), sticky honeysuckle ( Lonicera glutinosa ), orjen snowball ( Viburnum maculatum ) and the pleasant columbine ( Aquilegia grata ).
The oromediterranean zone is characterized by the blue grasses Sesleria robusta , locations exposed to the wind by Sesleria juncifolia . Numerous endemics can also be found here, e.g. B. the Orjen Iris - Iris orjenii and the violet species Viola chelmea ssp. vratnikensis (syn. Viola vilaensis ) or the Dinaric Columbine ( Aquilegia dinarica ).
Noteworthy are numerous spring flowers, including Crocus dalmaticus , Crocus tommasinianus and the always white-flowered Crocus vernus (forma albiflorus ) in Orjen , which rises up to 1,800 m. In addition, the delicate checkerboard flower ( Fritillaria messanensis subsp. Gracilis ) and the vineyard grape hyacinth ( Muscari neglectum ). The Dalmatian form of the Turkish League was sensational. Their presence, confirmed by the Austrian court garden inspector in the Upper Belvedere in Vienna, Franz de Paula Maly in 1864, prompted Maximilian Leichtlin to undertake his own expedition to the Orjen in 1874 for the commercial collection of onions. Leichtlin immediately offered this to the English gardening associations. The unusually burgundy-colored Lilium martagon var. Cattaniae (formerly Lilium dalmaticum ) found many friends in England at the end of the 19th century. Among other things, the important English lithographer Walter Hood Fitch made two panels of the plant in 1874 and 1880.
Rock sites of the forest level are characterized by the Dinaric karst block dump fir forest and snake skin pine open forests. With the species-rich limestone grassland species occurring here, they are biotopes characterized by their high biodiversity. Ancient Tertiary relics are numerous in the tree flora. Among others tree hazel ( Corylus colurna ), Greek maple ( Acer heldreichii ) and the semi-evergreen Macedonian oak ( Quercus trojana ).
vegetation
The Dinarides are ecologically and biogeographically divided into Alpine and Mediterranean altitude types. In Orjen there is the Mediterranean gradation type.
| Altitude level | Altitude belt | Altitude | description |
|---|---|---|---|
| eu-mediterranean | Low altitude | 0-400 | Hard-leaf vegetation with holm oak and olive tree . Laurel - oleander bush formationin humid places. |
| supra-Mediterranean | Middle position | 400-1100 | semi-evergreen oak forest with Macedonian oak ( Quercus trojana ) and oriental hornbeam ( Carpinus orientalis ). In oaks - and Balkan oak forests ( Quercus frainetto ). In damp and shady locations, chestnuts - downy oak forests , as well as warmth- loving hop beech and downy oak forests. Silver fir and hazel trees are pioneer species and grow on dry and sunny log heaps . |
| oro-Mediterranean | 1100-1450 | Warmth-loving beech forest with fir trees. On rocky areas, drought-loving snakeskin pine and Dinaric karst block dump fir forests, some with Crimean peony . | |
| alti-Mediterranean | High altitude | 1450-1700 | At the tree line , beech , snake skin pine and Greek maple . The Mediterranean Alpine zone - old Mediterranean - is characterized by dry juniper heaths and Sesleria robusta grass communities with many endemic species (e.g. Iris orjenii , Viola chelmea ) . On coarse boulders and rocks, shrub communities with chasmophytic limestone crevices (e.g. mountain savory , Asplenium trichomanes , Neumayer jug fruit ( Amphoricarpos neumayerianus )). |
| kryoro-Mediterranean | 1700-1900 | A real cold Mediterranean climatic zone level is not developed in the highest mountains of the Dinaric coast. Due to high winter precipitation and stormy Bora summit winds, small snow valleys with Greek-Anatolian, Iranian-Turanian and Armeno-Tibetan xerophytes develop under extensive snow layers . The latter include the semi-desert snow valleys with predominant onion monocotyledons , which are adapted to rocky soils, dry summers and hurricane-like bora and sirocco winds. The petastion paradoxi, belonging to the order Thlaspietalia, is found in the more humid rock rubble and scree slopes of avalanche tracks and snow hollows, in which the conspicuous star worm Dryopteris villarii , Valeriana montana but also Muscari neglectum are common. |
- In the Orjen the type of the Mediterranean altitude level has been developed, which differs from the alpine type by a high endemic abundance and the lower proportion of arctic-alpine species.
Forest vegetation
The forest vegetation of the warmth-loving blue-grass beech forests is rich in characteristic Illyrian species such as Agrimonia agrimoniodes , Prenanthes purpurea and Anemona apennina . The Greek maple appears in the cold-loving subalpine beech forests . Like the snakeskin pine that has been found here, it is a tertiary relic. In addition, the mesophilic acidic subalpine beech forests are characterized by Pyrola uniflora and Asarum europaeum .
The armored pine comes to dominate the initial raw soil, block heaps and rock walls. The pristine impression of armored pine forests is underlined by the gaps and the disheveled canopy of the trees, which are often centuries old. These open forests give rise to many light plants as well as onion monocots. Characteristic are Fritillaria messanensis ssp. gracilis , Muscari botryoides , Cheironia lakusicii and Peucedanum longifolium and others. Sesleria robusta, which leads to rock and rubble vegetation, is also characteristic .
Besides armored pine and beech also to find silver fir in the mountains. These are tied to humid and cool locations and can only be found on northern slopes in the Orjens. The tree hazel finally characterizes the open karst block heaps of fir forests . This permanent pioneering society of pure silver fir forests mediates ecologically to Mediterranean fir forests.
Willows ( Salix caprea ), which belong to the pioneer trees, occur sporadically in depressions with higher nitrogen contents and greater soil moisture. Parts of the Ostryetum can be found in lower montane layers . These warm subtropical forests are dominated by Ostrya carpinifolia and show a special diversity of species, including many Mediterranean mint family and orchids .
Among the rare endemics, the Pleasant Columbine , the Crimean Peony and the Dinaric Turkish Association occur in a large number of different forest habitats .
Rubble and rock vegetation
Rubble and rocky sites occupy significant areas in Orjen. Most of the rare Balkan endemics can be found here, such as the violet of the series Eflagelatae - Viola chelmea, which is limited to the mountains of Southeast Europe and Asia Minor . In the rocky vegetation, the relictic Asteraceae of the Neumayer jug fruit ( Amphoricarpos neumayerianus ), the Dinaric Columbine ( Aquilegia dinarica ) on the shaded northern slopes of the highest peaks and the whorleaved mountain mint and the endemic mountain savory Sature on the rocky slopes of the oro-Mediterranean level are to be mentioned . Besides the particularly attractive blue Blüttenteppiche the Rock Moltkie ( Moltkia petraea ), Dinaric columbine ( Aquilegia Dinarica ) and saxifrage TYPES (u. A. Saxifraga frederici-augusti ssp. Federici-augusti ), and numerous cruciferous , including Arabis gracilis and numerous species of the genera of the tufted bell ( Edraianthus ) characteristic of the Dinarides with the whitefly tufted bell ( Edraianthus serpyllifolius ) and species of the genus Campanula . Rubble sites are due to the staring fern , Dinaric Columbine and on snow soils with Heliosperma pusillum subsp. monachorum , Salix retusa and on more sunny heaps with Oxytropis dinarica and Anthyllis vulneraria ssp. pulchella as well as other, especially small, rubble hikers .
Oro-Mediterranean mats
The Oro-Mediterranean vegetation in Orjen is characterized by numerous endemes. Crocuses, gentians, blue stars and irises are known. These are well adapted to the dry summers by means of persistence organs. The onion monocots also include the numerous orchids. In addition, xerophytes are characterized by leathery leaves and thick leaf hairs.
fauna
Reptiles occur through one of the most pristine collar lizards, the Mosor lizard Archoelacerta mosorensis itself on the higher peaks and karst rock slopes . The dreaded sand otter ( Vipera ammodytes L.) is also common here . A population of the alpine salamander , which was only discovered in 2018, is found on the northern slopes of the Jastrebica; it has presumably been relictic within a cold-air lake since the end of the Ice Age.
The mammalian fauna is partly impoverished. As there are hardly any water points, the natural area is unfavorable for larger mammals. Due to the strong hunting pressure, the Balkan chamois ( Rupicarpa rupicarpa balcanica ) is represented as one of the strongest chamois subspecies in steep walls of the Orjen well below its optimal number. Chamois now only stay in places inaccessible to hunters. The European brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) is in the mountains in a few specimens. An animal drowned in a well in the Bajgorovica in 1975, and in 1999 an old bear that had killed a cow was killed above Risan.
natural reserve
A national park has been planned for a long time. The UNESCO declared the Natural and Cultural History Region of Kotor World Heritage . Endemic forms of flora and vegetation such as the Dinaric karst block dump fir forest and the snake skin pine rock forests with their species-rich herb flora (for example Crimean peony ) are examples of the natural peculiarity of the mountains that hardly occur anywhere else in this form.
history
Historically, the settlement of Orjen is closely tied to the Bay of Kotor and thus the Mediterranean cultural area of Dalmatia as well as generally to the history of the Balkans . Unless it shares the fate of the other coastal stretches of Dalmatia, the historical outline below refers to the Bay of Kotor.
Human settlement activity can be traced back to the Neolithic. Prehistoric rock carvings depicting hunters and deer can be found near Risan. An important Neolithic site is on the Herzegovinian side. The Illyrians founded in Dalmatia in the 3rd century BC. A kingdom and Risan became the capital of the Ardian Empire under Queen Teuta . Since the 1st Illyrian War (229 to 228 BC) became dependent on Rome , came for the administrative district 59 BC. The name Illyricum, which was extended to the Danube. The ancient name of the bay - Sinus Rhizonicus - refers to Risan as the central settlement. Floor mosaics excavated here are the most important Roman finds in Montenegro. During the division of the empire in 395, Illyria came to the Italian prefecture and shared the fate of the Western Roman Empire . Reintegrated in 535 under Justinian I , the Byzantine administration remained until 1077.
South Slavic tribes displaced the Romanized population in the 7th century, and only the Macedonian dynasty regained control of the coast in the theme of Dalmatia (869). The competing missionary work of the time has an impact on the division of Catholics and Orthodox until today. The first historical mention of Kotor falls in the period of Basil I (867-886). After Basil II (976-1025), local principalities gained strength and the region between Ragusa and Cattaro became the nucleus of the Serbian nation-state. From 1185 to 1371 part of the Nemanjid dynasty, Kotor achieved an outstanding reputation under Tsar Stefan Uroš IV. Dušan (1332-1355) as an important trading center (mining flourished) and as an art center (gold, silversmiths, icons, Fresco painting, architecture) of the empire.
With the Ottoman invasion, all Christian states in the Balkans lost their statehood. The inaccessible Principality of Montenegro, nominally incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1499, and Ragusa retained their autonomy. Venice took control of the Dalmatian port cities except Ragusa in 1420, while the Turks expanded their rule in the interior of the peninsula. When Herceg Novi and Risan fell into Turkish hands, the Bay of Kotor was divided into an Ottoman and a Venetian part. From 1481 the Orjen was administered Ottoman. In 1688 Venice finally ousted the Turks from their Dalmatian possessions and lasted until 1797. During the Napoleonic Wars, Austria-Hungary , Russia, France and again Austria-Hungary alternated as masters of the bay in quick succession.
With the reorganization of the Congress of Vienna , Dalmatia became a kingdom part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy (1814–1918) and Kotor was expanded into a heavily fortified naval port. Until 1878 the military border ran over the Jastrebica and Bijela gora. The later Kingdom of Yugoslavia secured the region in 1920, which was incorporated into the Republic of Montenegro in 1945 .
With 70 percent urban population, the Bay of Kotor is the most urbanized region in Montenegro. In 1981 only 2% of the population lived from agriculture. In the 1981 census, of 53,000 inhabitants of the bay, 60% had identified themselves as Orthodox ( Montenegrins and Serbs ), 20% as Yugoslavs and 20% as Croatians .
Settlement structure and traditional livestock farming in the Balkans
Which until the antique back overall evolution of the livestock industry in its manifestations and impact on the natural environment of South Eastern Europe to light, provides a hard problem to solve. The special natural conditions of the Dinaric Karst also complicate an assessment by the excessive grazing of since historic times Dinaric mountain area verifiable herding of livestock. Today intensive herding is rarely found in the Karst. The very demanding conditions here were most likely to have led to the abandonment of traditional forms of economy and ultimately to the migration of the population. Pasture forms adapted to the natural environment developed through remote grazing , nomadism and alpine farming . In addition, social, political and economic developments strongly influenced the phenomena of the livestock industry.
Taking advantage of the natural conditions, the cattle-breeding, cultural behavior of the Balkan peoples uniformly shaped their social and cultural development. Side by side, partly in the immediate vicinity, and the close interweaving of the various forms of pasture farming has created a differentiated use of space, which was also based on ethnic characteristics. The Vlachs (serb. Tsintsaren ), mainly south spread of the Danube, were regarded as principal representative of a nomadic ethnic group. They played an important role in long-distance trade on the Balkan Peninsula in the 19th century. Nomadic migrations were widespread until the First World War . The emergence of the nation states from the "bankruptcy estate" of the Ottoman Empire after the Berlin Congress in 1878 and the Balkan Wars in 1912/13 required a change in the remote grazing industry, which was not restricted by any territorial boundaries within the Ottoman Empire.
Herd migrations between summer pastures in Prokletije and winter pastures, adapted to the respective political realities and agricultural developments, took place, for example, to the Save lowlands, the Albanian lowlands, the Kampania of Thessaloniki, the Morava lowlands and the Metohija. Ultimately, such herd migrations with trails of up to 300 km as the crow flies were abandoned due to the conversion to alpine farming.
The border of the original herd migration extended northwards to Herzegovina , Montenegro , Metohija (Kosovo), southern Serbia and Bulgaria south of the Balkan Mountains. The herd migration was only able to last longer in regions where agriculture is hardly suitable for any other type of economy due to the natural environment. In Herzegovina, for example, forms of transhumance and long-distance grazing were still evident after the Second World War . Continental areas of the Dinarides belong to the area of alpine pasture farming (Slovenia, Gorski Kotar, Bosanska Krajina, Central Bosnia, Sandžak, North Montenegro and Western Serbia). Forms of Mediterranean alpine farming can be found in Velebit, Herzegovina and West Montenegro.
Orjen was a traditional destination of the nomadic pasture and herd migration was still common in the years before the Second World War. Today the few shepherds are settled. They have their summer pastures mainly in the Bijela gora . This is where the members of the clans meet for an annual summer festival in August, where traditional songs and dances are performed. One of the songs sings about the fir trees of the Bijela gora.
activities
Mountain hiking, alpine mountaineering, mountain biking as well as interesting visits dedicated to the culture of the Dinaric mountain population are possible in Orjen.
hike
Routes are maintained by the Alpine Club in Herceg Novi . Most of the tours are in the area of the mountain huts Vratlo ( 1160 m ) and Orjensattel ( 1594 m ). 40 km of marked trails exist in Orjen and connect the most beautiful peaks.
Particularly beautiful hikes lead around the Zubački kabao , which has all types of vegetation with untouched nature, including some of the last primeval forests in Dalmatia. In Pavlovica do beautiful rock formations, natural bridges and deep shafts are combined in a spectacular ambience. An ascent to the Zubacki kabao through the untouched Međugorje valley does have some difficult rocky sections, but no alpine equipment is necessary anywhere.
Longer tours are possible in the extensive Bijela gora. However, the supply of water is difficult. Camping is not a problem in this area. Suitable locations are the high valleys such as Borovi do, Pirina poljana and the Kantuniste.
The so-called Orjen Marathon is held every year in May.
Alpine mountaineering
There are various alpine climbing opportunities in Orjen. The 500 m high wall in the Subra amphitheater is well known.
| summit | Height in m | character | difficulty |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zubački kabao | 1894 | Rock climbing, wall | North side demanding, block pile (east side) |
| Velika Jastrebica | 1864 | stratified limestone | Hike |
| Buganya greda | 1849 | megeliger limestone | Block heap (north slope) |
| Visoki breg | 1833 | marbled limestone | Block heap (northern slope) |
| Vučji zub | 1802 | massive limestone | alpine climbing |
| Borovik | 1777 | marbled limestone | Block heap (north slope) |
| Međugorje | 1769 | massive limestone | alpine climbing |
| Markov kuk (Duga) | 1734 | mergly limestone | Block heap (north slope) |
| Goliševac | 1721 | stratified limestone | Block heap (north slope) |
| Pazua | 1680 | massive limestone | horn |
| Subra | 1679 | horizontally stratified lime, largest wall | 500 m large wall |
Summer activities
- Backpacking - between April and September.
- Mountain biking - on local transport and connection routes in the mountains.
- Swimming - beautiful beaches in the Bay of Kotor.
- Orjen marathon - annual event on Subra 1679 m and Zubački kabao 1894 m
Winter activities
Most of the Orjen is inaccessible in winter. Nevertheless, some winter climbs are carried out every year. Ski areas can be found on the Orjen Pass (1594 m).
credentials
- Miroslav Marković 1976: Geomorfološka karta Orjena . In: Prvi Jugoslovenski Simpozijum o Geomorfološkom Kartiranju , Geografski Institut Jovan Cvijić, Zbornik radova 27: 101-110 (PDF) .
- Pavle Cikovac: Sociology and the local distribution of fir forests in the Orjen Mountains - Montenegro . Diploma thesis at the LMU, Faculty of Geography, Munich (2003). PDF
- Kathryn R. Adamson, James C. Woodward, Phil D. Hughes 2016: Middle Pleistocene glacial outwash in poljes of the Dinaric karst . Geological Society of America, Special Papers, 516, 247-262 (PDF)
- Phil D. Hughes, Jamie C. Woodward, JC, PC van Calsteren, LE Thomas, Kathryn R. Adamson 2010: Pleistocene ice caps on the coastal mountains of the Adriatic Sea . Quaternary Science Reviews, 2010; 29 (27-28): 3690-3708
- Paul Friedrich August Ascherson : The mountain Orjen at the Bocche di Cattaro. - In time. Ges. Erdk., 3, pp. 319-336, Berlin. (1868) (PDF)
- Paul Ascherson: Contribution to the flora of Dalmatia. Easter. Bot. Magazine Vol. 19, pp. 65-70. (1869)
- Josef Pančić 1875: Botanical tour of Montenegro in 1873. - Elenchus plantarum vascularium quas aestate anno 1873 in Crna Gora, Belgradi [1]
- Oleg Grebenščikov (Олег Сергеевич Гребенщиков): The Vegetation of the Kotor Bay seaboard (Crna Gora, Yugoslavia) and some comparative studies with the Caucasian seaboard of the Black sea. Bjulleten 'Moskovskogo Obščestva Ispytatelej Prirody, Izdat. Moskovskogo Univ., Otdel biologičeskij, vol. 65/131., Pp. 99-108 Moskva 1960.
- L. Sawicki: The Ice Age glaciation of the Orjen in southern Dalmatia. Magazine für Gletscherkunde, V, 1910–1911, pp. 339–355. (1911)
- G. Ž. Komar: Planinska sela Dračevice pod vlašću Venecije. 1687-1797 (1997)
- Himmel 1883: The march of the 44th Infantry Troop Division over the Orien and the cooperation of the same in the occupation of the Krivoscie in March 182. Streffleur's Österreichische Militärische Zeidtschrift, 24 (1): 213-230, Vienna
Web links
Individual evidence
- ^ Birdlife International Protecting rare plant species on Orjen Mountain
- ↑ a b Unesco World Heritage, Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor
- ^ Antonijević, R., Pavić, A., and Karović, J., 1969. Osnovna geološka karta, List Kotor, K34-50. Beograd, Srbija: Savezni geološki zavod, scale 1: 100,000.
- ^ Albrecht Penck 1900: The Ice Age on the Balkan Peninsula.- In: Globus LXXVIII (9), p. 161, Braunschweig.
- ↑ Jovan Cvijić 1924: Геоморфологија I, Beograd.
- ↑ Albrecht Penck 1900: The Ice Age on the Balkan Peninsula.- In: Globus LXXVIII (9), 133-178, Braunschweig.
- ↑ Sawicki, LR 1913: The Ice Age glaciation of the Orjen in southern Dalmatia. In: Zt. F. Glacier Science, IV, 341-355.
- ↑ Markovic, M. 1974: Геоморфолошка еволуција и неотектоника Орјјена. Beograd.
- ↑ Cikovac, P. 2002: Sociology and site-related distribution of fir-rich forests in Orjen. Munich.
- ^ Hughes, PD & Woodward, JC 2008: Timing of glaciation in the Mediterranean mountains during the last cold stage. Journal of Quaternary Science 23,575-588.
- ↑ Gams, I. 1978: The aridity in the growing season in Yugoslavia. In: Contributions to Quaternary and Landscape Research, 183-194. Festschrift for the 60th birthday of Julius Fink / ed. by H. Nagl., Vienna, 1978. ISBN 3-7019-6005-4
- ↑ Pavle Cikovac, Christian Bräuchler: DYNAMICS AND PATTERNS OF ECOSYSTEMS IN A COMPLEX-STRUCTURED KARSTI-GLACIAL VALLEY ON ORJEN WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE ON ORIGIN OF THE OROPHYTIC VEGETATION ( PDF ( Memento of the original from December 14, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: Der Archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this note. )
- ↑ Pavle Cikovac & Katarina Ljubisavljević 2020: Another isolated relic population of the Alpine Salamander ( Salamandra atra Laurenti, 1768) (Amphibia: Caudata: Salamandridae) in the Balkans. Russian Journal of Herpetology, Vol. 27/2: 109-112, April 25, 2020 (PDF) .
- ↑ Goran Z. Komar: Planinska sela Dračevice pod vlašću Venecije ( Memento of the original from January 11, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ a b PSD Subra mountaineering association ( Memento of the original from August 18, 2005 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
