History of the Jews in Brazil

Cenotaph for the first Jewish colonialists in the Itaara community in Rio Grande do Sul , called the Philippson Colony

The history of the Jews in Brazil begins with the arrival of the first Jews around 1500. The Brazilian Jewish community gained members in the 16th century when the Inquisition reached Portugal. They arrived in Brazil during the Dutch rule . Most were Sephardic Jews who had fled the Spanish Inquisition and the Portuguese Inquisition to the Netherlands and who valued the Netherlands' religious freedom . They played a large part in the development of the sugar industry in Brazil. Several waves of Jewish immigration followed in the later centuries, triggered by the rubber boom , the gold rush and persecution of Jews in Russia , the “ Third Reich ” and later also in Egypt . The latter resulted in three large waves of refugees, 1950, 1956 and 1967. Many Jews were expropriated or even imprisoned and then forced to emigrate. In Brazil, religious freedom and anti-Semitism alternated over the centuries.

Today, the Jewish communities in Brazil are thriving. There have been some anti-Semitic events in the past, mainly during the 2006 Lebanon War , specifically vandalism in Jewish cemeteries. The Jews are a minority in Brazil, making up only 0.05% of the population.

First immigration

With the arrival of the first Portuguese in Brazil in 1500, Jews, including Mestre João and Gaspar da Gama (1460 - approx. 1516), arrived on the first ships. A number of Sephardic Jews immigrated during the first settlements in Brazil. They were called Cristãos novos ("New Christians") - Conversos or Marranos - Jews who had to convert to the Roman Catholic faith at the behest of the Portuguese royal family .

The Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue in Recife

The Portuguese crown had decided not to invest in Brazil itself, but to grant concessions to adventurous merchants with a willingness to take risks and the necessary capital. Among them was Femao de Loronha (approx. 1470-1540), a Jewish merchant who had converted to Christianity, who acted as a representative of the Augsburg banker Jakob Fugger (1459-1525) on the Iberian Peninsula and in 1503, in partnership with Fugger, his export concession rights von Brasilholz expanded what made Fugger the first non-Portuguese to invest in Brazil. The first proven German-Jewish merchant and shipowner families arrived in Brazil in 1534. Arnual of Holland acquired sugar cane plantations and sugar mills near the town of Olinda in Pernambuco . He was followed by Sebald Lins and Erasmus Schetz , who exported sugar , Brazilian wood and cotton from their lands to Europe using their own ships.

Around 1645 the Jewish community had over 1,600 members. With the expulsion of the Dutch in 1654 , the majority of Jews emigrated to the Dutch and English colonies in North America . Based on the discovery of a manuscript from 1657, archaeological excavations in 2000 uncovered the remains of what is believed to be the first synagogue on the American continent, the Kahal-Zur-Israel-Synagoge ( Hebrew קהל צור ישראל, German: 'Fels Israels') to the fore. The first immigrants built it in Recife in 1636. Members of the Kahal-Zur-Israel Synagogue were among the founders of Nieuw Amsterdam , later New York City . With the decline of the Jewish community in Recife, the building's use as a synagogue ended.

Most Jews from Portugal, however, avoided immigration to Brazil because they would have been persecuted by the Inquisition there too. Most of the Portuguese Marranos therefore sought refuge in Mediterranean countries. In contrast, many Sephardic Jews from Holland and England worked in the sea trade of the Dutch West India Company , especially in sugar production in northeast Brazil. Incidentally, the first Jews to come to North America were Sephardic Jews who settled in the Northeast of America after the Portuguese were expelled from Brazil.

18th century

In the last decades of the 18th century, some Marranos came to southeastern Brazil to work in the gold mines . Many were arrested for belonging to Judaism. Brazilian families of Marranos descent are mainly concentrated in the states of Minas Gerais , Rio de Janeiro , Pará, and Bahia . Most sources say that the first synagogue of Belém , Sha'ar haShamaim ( Hebrew שער השמים Gate of Heaven ), founded in 1824. This is controversial: the first synagogue in Belém was Eschel Avraham ( Hebrew אשל אברהם "Abraham's tamarisk " ) and was founded in 1823 or 1824, while Sha'ar HaShamaim was only opened in 1826 or 1828. The Jewish population in Belém, capital of the former Grão-Pará province , had an established necropolis until 1842 .

19th century

After the first Brazilian constitution, which granted freedom of religion, came into force in 1824, the immigration of Jews increased. Many Moroccan Jews arrived in the 19th century, mainly because of the boom in rubber growing in the Amazon . After the discovery of the manufacturing process of rubber (by vulcanization of rubber) in 1839, the demand increased enormously and led to a rubber boom in the Amazon region around Manaus and Belém .

20th century

Beth El Synagogue, São Paulo, built in 1929

Further waves of Jewish immigration followed, first through Russian Jews fleeing pogroms and the Russian Revolution . In 1904, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul , the southernmost state of Brazil, Jewish agricultural colonization , supported by the Jewish Colonization Association (JCA), began. The aim was the settlement of Russian Jews during the mass immigration from the Russian Empire.

The first colonies were Philippson (1904) and Quatro Irmãos (1912). However, these attempts at colonization all failed due to inexperience, insufficient resources, poor planning, administrative problems, and a lack of agricultural facilities. In 1920 the JCA began selling part of the land to non-Jewish settlers. The main benefit of these agricultural experiments was the removal of restrictions on Jewish immigration from Europe to Brazil in the 20th century.

In the 1930s, Polish Jews fled to Brazil from Nazism , especially after the attack on Poland . In the late 1950s, thousands of North African Jews came to Brazil in another wave of immigration.

Dark chapter

For decades, the “Judeus” of Brazil kept a dark, sore point of their past like a secret - the Jewish forced prostitutes . In 1867, seventy women went ashore in Rio de Janeiro. They came from Poland and therefore, like their successors from Russia, Lithuania, Romania and Austria, Germany and France, they will soon be referred to as “Polacas” in the vernacular. Thousands of young Jewish women who wanted to escape poverty and anti-Semitism were lured to South America with false promises. In the noble brothels of the Latin American economic metropolis, Jewish prostitutes from Europe once dominated , many of them deeply religious. They gave themselves to the suitors against their will - forced by Jewish pimps. Zwi Migdal ( Hebrew צבי מגדל) was a Jewish pimp organization founded in 1906 . At the end of the 1920s, the organization is said to have consisted of 500 members who had 2,000 brothels and 30,000 women among themselves. In 1931 Brazil had 431 Jewish brothels. "Jewish women from Eastern Europe promise the most exciting perversions - what made them end up selling themselves for the equivalent of three francs?" Writes Stefan Zweig in his diary in 1936 after a visit to the red light district in Rio de Janeiro. "Some women are really beautiful - there is a discreet melancholy over them all - and that is why their humiliation, exhibiting in a shop window, does not even appear vulgar, touching more than it excites." It was not until 1970 that the dreary chapter of Jewish prostitution ended due to a lack of supplies .

First World War

About 7,000 Jews lived in Brazil until the First World War . In 1910 a Jewish school was opened in Porto Alegre , the capital of Rio Grande do Sul, and in 1915 Josef Halevi founded the Yiddish newspaper Di Menschhait (“Menschlichkeit”, A humanidade). A year later, the Jewish community of Rio de Janeiro formed a relief committee for the victims of the First World War. The Yiddish newspaper Di Idiche Tsukunft (“The Jewish Future”; O Futuro Israelita ) followed in 1915 . The Congregação Israelita Paulista (Israeli Congregation of São Paulo), the largest synagogue in Brazil, was founded by the future chief rabbi of São Paulo, Fritz Pinkuss , who was born in Egeln (Germany). The Beth El Synagogue, ( Hebrew בית אל House of God ) was built in São Paulo in 1929 and consecrated in 1932. Nowadays, only Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur are prayed there. It also functions as a museum of Jewish culture.

The Jewish cemetery of Vila Mariana was inaugurated in 1923, and the Israelite cemetery of Butantã was established in 1953 . In 2001 the new Israelite cemetery opened in Embu near São Paulo. In Butantã and Embu monuments were erected in memory of the victims of the Shoah .

Plaque in honor of Aranhas in Jerusalem

The Associação Religiosa Israelita (Israeli Religious Association of Brazil), which is now a member of the World Union for Progressive Judaism (World Union for Progressive Judaism), was founded by Heinrich Lemle (1909–1978), who emigrated from Frankfurt to Rio de Janeiro in 1941 . Lemle later became chief rabbi of Brazil and in 1959 an honorary citizen of Rio de Janeiro.

Escape helper from National Socialism

During the Second World War , Oswaldo Aranha was Brazil's Foreign Minister. Between 1938 and 1944, many Jews received visas to Brazil. Luís Martins de Souza Dantas (1876–1954) had been Brazil's ambassador to France since 1922. In June 1940, in Paris and then in Vichy, he witnessed the massive flight of French and refugees southwards when the country was overrun by German troops. From 1937 onwards, Brazil prohibited Jewish emigration from entering Brazil. Souza Dantas was looking for ways to get around this ban. On October 8, 1940, Souza Dantas asked the Brazilian Foreign Minister Oswaldo Aranha for permission to deliver visas to stateless persons with Nansen passports or other proof of identity under his own responsibility in exceptional cases. The ambassador interpreted the permission given by his minister extremely generously and issued hundreds of visas to Jews and non-Jewish refugees in the unoccupied zone with the aim of allowing them to leave France. In 1939 alone, Jews were granted 4,601 visas for permanent or temporary residence. This means that 9% of all visas for permanent residence and 14% of all visas for temporary residence in Brazil were issued to persons of Jewish origin. In 1940, 2,500 Jewish immigrants were granted visas for Brazil. Yad Vashem distinguished Luiz Martins de Souza Dantas as Righteous Among the Nations .

Albert Einstein asked Osvaldo Aranha for help with applying for a visa for his girlfriend, the German Jew Helene Fabian-Katz . Einstein had previously asked the United States government for help, but the United States refused Fabian-Katz a visa. Helene Fabian-Katz received a visa for Brazil and was able to see her brother, who was already living in São Paulo.

Second exodus from Egypt

The anti-Semitic stance of the Nasser regime in Egypt led to an expulsion (“Second Exodus”) of 75,000 Jews from Egypt after the Second World War, of which around 15,000 came to Brazil over a longer period of time.

21st century

Synagogue in Bairro Bom Fim, a district of Porto Alegre

The Jewish community is made up of 75% Ashkenazi Jews of Polish and German descent and 25% of Sephardic Jews of Spanish, Portuguese and North African descent. A significant number of North African Jews are of Egyptian descent.

Brazilian Jews play active roles in politics, sports, science, commerce, and industry, and are generally well integrated into all areas of Brazilian life. The majority of Brazilian Jews live in the state of São Paulo, there are also large communities in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Minas Gerais , Pernambuco and Paraná .

Jews in Brazil lead an open religious life and anti-Semitic incidents are rare. In the capital cities there are schools, clubs and synagogues where Brazilian Jews can practice and pass on Jewish culture and traditions. Some Jewish scholars say the only threat to Judaism in Brazil is the relatively high incidence of mixed marriages, which was estimated at 60% in 2002. Mixed marriages are particularly high among the country's Jews and Arabs. Just like mixed marriages, religions mix in Brazil. For example, Umbanda , a syncretistic or mystical-spiritual religion, which in its aesthetic symbolic language unites the most heterogeneous beliefs, such as from popular Catholicism , Jewish Kabbalah , universal esotericism and indigenous Hindu or Buddhist values, came into being.

Children of the forced

Since the beginning of the 21st century there has been a growing interest in converting to Judaism among the descendants of those Jews in Brazil who were forcibly converted to Christianity . They become Sephardic Bnei Anusim ( Hebrew בני אנוסים ספרדיים) called. The term anusim (Hebrew אנוסים, plural of Hebrew אנוס anús "forced") is a rabbinical-legal term for Jews who were forced to leave Judaism against their will and who, as far as possible, continued to practice Judaism under the repressive circumstances. The "children of the forced" are called "Bnei Anusim". The organization Reconectar (Spanish / Portuguese for " reconnect ") deals worldwide with the descendants of Jews forced to convert and offers information and support to those who want to reconnect with Judaism.

Sandra Kochmann, born in Paraguay , was the first female rabbi in Brazil to work at the Rio de Janeiro's synagogue of the Associação Religiosa Israelita since 2003 . She was followed by Luciana Pajecki Lederman, who has worked in São Paulo's Shalom community since 2005. In 1936, German Jews who had fled the Nazis founded the CIP ( Congregação Israelita Paulista ) congregation in São Paulo and built their synagogue Etz Chaim ( Hebrew עץ חיים Tree of Life ) in São Paulo. In addition to the rabbis Michel Schlesinger and Ruben Sternschein, a rabbi has also been working since 2017 - 30-year-old Fernanda Tomchinsky-Galanternik.

There has been a steady stream of Aliyah (immigration to Israel) since the state of Israel was founded in 1948 . Between 1948 and 2010, 11,586 Brazilian Jews emigrated to Israel.

anti-Semitism

In the 1930s and 1940s, ambivalent behavior by the Brazilian government dominated immigration policy for Jews. Brazil's apparently contradicting immigration policy towards Jews was the result of changing views about Jews. On June 7, 1937, the Brazilian government issued a series of top secret dispatches ordering that all Jews should be denied all visas. This directive was directed mainly against German-Jewish refugees, of whom perhaps 10,000 had reached Brazil since 1933. For the regime under Getúlio Vargas (1882–1954), Jews were just as economically desirable as they were politically uncomfortable. From 1939, however, German Jews were openly entering Brazil on legal visas in greater numbers than ever before - a situation that would last until 1942. On the one hand, regardless of the entry restrictions, Jewish immigrants brought expertise and capital to Brazil and helped stimulate economic expansion in the post-war period. At the same time, harsh domestic critics were kept silent while Brazil took advantage of its alliance with the United States and England. In 1995, the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs opened its archives completely, which revealed anti-Semitism in the Vargas era. Rejected visa applications for Jewish refugees reached over 16,000 - people who could have been saved. When Brazil entered the war against Germany in 1943, the Jews officially became an enemy of the state because Germans, German Nazis and German Jews were lumped together.

During the government of Vargas' successor General Eurico Gaspar Dutra from 1946 to 1951, the unofficial anti-Semitic stance of the administrative apparatus continued and immigration was made more difficult. Regardless of this, an unknown number of German and Eastern European Jews managed to enter Brazil, often in search of relatives and friends and a new beginning. Many came to Brazil, legally or illegally, through Bolivia .

• See also Brazil action

Synagogue in Rio de Janeiro

With its 1988 Constitution, Brazil severely condemns anti-Semitism and such practice is explicitly against the law. Under the Brazilian Criminal Code, it is illegal to write, edit, publish, or sell literature that promotes anti-Semitism or racism. The law provides sentences of up to five years in prison for crimes of racism or religious intolerance and allows the courts to impose between two and five years in prison for anyone who exhibits, disseminates or broadcasts anti-Semitic or racist material. In 2005, a group of Jews outside a bar in Porto Alegre was attacked by neo-Nazis and seriously injured. Nine people were formally charged and received long terms. Since 2005, forty people have been charged in Rio Grande do Sul with crimes linked to neo-Nazism .

In 1989, the Brazilian Congress passed a law governing the manufacture, trade and distribution of swastikas for the purpose of dissemination of Nazi bans. Anyone who violates this law faces a prison sentence of between two and five years. Nevertheless, it is accepted and tolerated by society and politics to this day to give children the first names Hitler , Himmler or Göring as officially registered first names in Brazil.

According to a report by the US State Department, anti-Semitism is still rare in Brazil. The results of a global survey on anti-Semitic tendencies, published by the Anti-Defamation League , ranked Brazil as one of the world's least anti-Semitic countries. According to this global survey conducted between July 2013 and February 2014, Brazil has the lowest “Anti-Semitic Index” (16%) in Latin America and the third lowest in America, behind Canada (14%) and the United States (9%).

Institutions of Jewish Culture in Brazil

Centro da Cultura Judaica (Center for Jewish Culture), Pinheiros District, São Paulo

Albert Einstein Hospital in São Paulo

The involvement of Arnaldo Niskier in institutions of Jewish culture in Brazil should be emphasized . Niskier (* 1935 in Rio de Janeiro), is the son of Mordko Majer Niskier and Fany Niskier, a Jewish couple who immigrated to Brazil from Ostrowiec (Poland) in the early 1930s.

The Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein (Israelite Hospital Albert Einstein) was opened in São Paulo in 1971 and has been one of the leading hospitals in Latin America for years .

In February 2016, the Memorial da Imigração Judaica e do Holocausto , a first museum about Jewish immigration in Brazil and the Holocaust, was opened in São Paulo , in which over 1000 exhibits are presented.

• The Confederacdo Israelita do Brasil (CONIB), founded in 1948, acts as an umbrella organization for the representation and political representation of all Jews in Brazil.
• Academic Council of the Center for Jewish-Brazilian Culture, ( Conselho Acadêmico do Centro de Cultura Judaico-Brasileiro )
• Center for Jewish History and Culture ( Centro de História e Cultura Judaica ) in Rio de Janeiro
• Jewish Association of Brazil ( Conselho Superior da Confederação Israelita do Brasil (CONIB))
• House of Culture of Israel in São Paulo ( Casa de Cultura de Israel )
• Clube Philo Dramatico Musical
• Israelite Society Friends of the Poor ( Sociedade Israelita Amigos dos Pobres )

The Jewish communities in Brazil welcome a new law from March 2019 that allows high school and university students to absent from classes on religious holidays. Jewish students no longer have to appear in class on Shabbat , nor on days such as Passover , Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur . Brazil's new President Jair Messias Bolsonaro signed the law on January 4, 2019. It applies to all religious communities. The law exempts students from teaching on days when religious festivals are held.

Synagogues in Rio de Janeiro (selection)

• Beit Lubavitch Rio de Janeiro (Chabad)
• Bnei Akiva Copacabana (parent, Hebrew קופקבנה בני עקיבא Akiva's children in Copacabana )
• Bnei Akiva Tijuca (parent, Hebrew בני עקיבא טיג'וקה Akiva's children in Tijuca )
• Lubavitch Copacabana (Orthodox)
• Kehilat Jaacov (Orthodox, Hebrew קהילת יעקב Church of Jacob )
• Yeshiva Colegial Machne Israel (Orthodox)
• Kirov Achim ( Hebrew קירוב אחים)

Synagogues in São Paulo (selection)

Jewish Community of São Paulo:

• Beit Chabad do Brazil (Chabad, Hebrew בית חב"ד ברזיל Chabad House in Brazil )
• Beit Chabad Morumbi (Chabad, Hebrew בית חב"ד מורומבי Chabad House in Morumbi )
• Beit Chabad Perdizes / Sumaré (Chabad, Hebrew בית חב"ד פרדיצ'ס Chabad House in Perdizes )
• Beit Menachem (Chabad, Hebrew בית מנחם House of Consolation )
• Beth Yaakov (Sephardim, Hebrew בית יעקב Jacob's house )
• Bnei Akiva (Orthodox, Hebrew בני עקיבא Children of Akivas )
• Centro Tifferet Lubavitsch (Chabad, Hebrew תפארת ליובאוויטש Lubavitch ornament )
• Iavne (Sephardim, Hebrew לבנה)
• Israeli Beth Jacob (Orthodox)
• Knesset Israel (Ashkenazim, Hebrew כנסת ישראל)
• Mekor Chaim (Sephardim, Hebrew מקור חיים Source of life )
• Maor HaTorah - Javne ( Hebrew מאור התורה - יבנה Light of the torah )
• O Shil - Beit Chabad do Itaim (Chabad)
• Tseirei Agudas Chabad (Chabad)
• Jeschiva Tomchei Tmimim Lubawitsch Ohel Menachem (Chabad, Hebrew ישיבת תומכי לובביץ-אוהל מנחם)
• Abir Jaakov ( Hebrew אביר יעקב)

Demographics

Brazil has the ninth largest Jewish community in the world, around 107,329 as of 2010 according to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics ( Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística , IBGE) census. After Argentina, Brazil has the second largest Jewish population in Latin America. The Jewish Association of Brazil (CONIB) estimates that there are more than 120,000 Jews in Brazil.

The table shows the number of people of Jewish faith by state according to the Brazilian census. As descending primary sorting, it has the highest number of the last census.

Regions and states of Brazil

State	2000	2010	2020	region
São Paulo	42,174	51,050 ▲		southeast
Rio de Janeiro	25,752	24,451 ▼		southeast
Rio Grande do Sul	7,269	7,805 ▲		south
Paraná	2,280	4.122 ▲		south
Minas Gerais	2.213	3,509 ▲		southeast
Pernambuco	1,398	2.408 ▲		Northeast
Bahia	927	2,302 ▲		Northeast
Pará	967	1,971 ▲		north
Amazon	663	1,696 ▲		north
Federal District	624	1.103 ▲		Midwest
Santa Catarina	462	1,036 ▲		south
Espírito Santo	247	900 ▲		southeast
Goiás	350	813 ▲		Midwest
Paraíba	76	628 ▲		Northeast
Ceará	223	580 ▲		Northeast
Mato Grosso do Sul	203	416 ▲		Midwest
Mato Grosso	135	374 ▲		Midwest
Maranhão	101	368 ▲		Northeast
Rio Grande do Norte	106	320 ▲		Northeast
Alagoas	9	309 ▲		Northeast
Piauí	49	229 ▲		Northeast
Amapá	45	217 ▲		north
Sergipe	171	184 ▲		Northeast
Rondônia	126	166 ▲		north
Tocantins	246	162 ▼		north
Roraima	0	154 ▲		north
acre	12	59 ▲		north
Brazil	86,825	107,329 ▲		total

In relation to the total population of Brazil (208,360,000 inhabitants, as of December 2017), the proportion of Jewish Brazilians is 0.05%.

Well-known Jews who emigrated to Brazil (selection)

Portraits of hundreds of immigrant Jews on the walls of the Memorial da Imigração Judaica e do Holocausto.

Jews who fled or emigrated to Brazil before National Socialism:

• Frank Arnau (1894–1976), writer
• Olga Benario-Prestes (1908–1942), communist
• Ernst Bresslau (1877–1935), zoologist and professor
• Friedrich Gustav Brieger (1900–1985), botanist and geneticist
• Herbert Caro (1906–1991), lawyer, translator and table tennis player
• Ernst Feder (1881–1964), writer and journalist
• Fritz Feigl (1891–1971), chemist
• Vilém Flusser (1920–1991), media philosopher and communication scientist
• Paul Frischauer (1898–1977), novelist and journalist
• Norbert Geyerhahn (1885–1943), bookseller
• Walter Geyerhahn (1912–1990), publisher and member of the Guanabara House of Representatives
• Alfred Hirschberg (1901–1971) Director of the Congregacao Israelita Paulista and the Keren Hayesod
• Richard Katz (1888–1968), journalist and travel writer
• Itzhak Hans Klinghofer (1905–1990), science advisor, lawyer and politician
• Victor Leinz (1904–1983), geologist and petrograph
• Richard Lewinsohn (1894–1968), doctor, business journalist and writer
• Ludwig Lorch (1900–1974), founder of the Congregacao Israelita Paulista
• Felix Rawitscher (1890–1957), botanist and university professor
• Heinrich Rheinboldt (1891–1955), chemist
• Anatol Rosenfeld (1912–1973), literary critic
• Paul Rosenstein (1875–1964), urologist
• Lasar Segall (1891–1957), painter, printmaker and sculptor
• Hugo Simon (1880–1950), banker and politician
• Hans Stammreich (1902–1969), chemist
• Léopold Stern (1886–?), Author, member of the PEN club
• Hans Stern (1922–2007), jeweler
• Stefan Zweig (1881–1942), writer

literature

• Pedro Moreira: Jews from the German-speaking cultural area in Brazil. An overview. The cultural heritage of German-speaking Jews. In: Elke-Vera Kotowski : A search for traces in the countries of origin, transit and emigration. 1st edition. De Gruyter, Berlin / Munich / Boston 2015, pp. 410–435, JSTOR j.ctvbkk3vk.31 .
• Alberto Milkewitz: The Jewish Community of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, December 1, 1991. Retrieved July 2, 2019.
• Nachman Falbel : Judeus no Brasil. Estudos e notas . Edusp, São Paulo 2008 (Brazilian Portuguese, academia.edu ).

Web links

Commons : Judaism in Brazil  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Arnold Wiznitzer: Jews in Colonial Brazil . Columbia University Press, New York 1960.
2. ^ Adam Smith : The Wealth of Nations . (PDF) October 20, 2013. Republication 2005 to 1776 by Pennsylvania State University, p. 476. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
3. ↑ Cancan Lipshiz Iris Tzur: How culpable were Dutch Jews in the slave trade? December 26, 2013. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
4. ↑ Samuel Benchimol, Eretz Amazônia: Os Judeus na Amazônia . Valer Editora, 1998, ISBN 85-86512-21-4 , pp. 114-115.
5. ^ Cássia shinbone: Línguas em extinção: o hakitia em Belém do Pará . Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 2006, p. 45 (Brazilian Portuguese, catedra-alberto-benveniste.org [PDF]).
6. ↑ Hans-Dieter Feger: History and economic development of rubber ( Memento of the original of March 18, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Summary of a diploma thesis including various images, Innsbruck, 1973. Retrieved on June 29, 2019. 
7. ↑ Nachman Falbel: Jewish agricultural settlement in Brazil. In: Jewish History. 21, 2007, p. 325, doi: 10.1007 / s10835-007-9043-6 .
8. ↑ Sonja Peteranderl: The suffering of the "white slaves" . one day , July 23, 2013. Accessed July 1, 2019.
9. ↑ Kitty Rosman: The German roots of Brazil's largest synagogues . In: Jewish Renaissance . 12, No. 1, October 2012, p. 16.
10. ^ ^{A b} Maria Luiza Tucci Carneiro: O anti-semitismo nas Américas: memória e história . EdUSP, 2007, ISBN 978-85-314-1050-5 , p. 285.
11. ↑ Luís Martins de Souza Dantas , Bad Vashem. Retrieved July 10, 2019.
12. ^ Gilbert Cabasso: Juifs d'Egypte. Images et textes. Editions du Scribe, Paris 1984, p. 42. Repeated information in: Joel Beinin: The dispersion of Egyptian Jewry. Culture, politics, and the formation of a modern diaspora. University of California Press, Berkeley 1998, ISBN 0-520-21175-8 .
13. ↑ Sherwood L. Weingarten: Brazil's Jews face 60% intermarriage rate , San Francisco Jewish Community Publications Inc. January 4, 2002. Retrieved September 7, 2016. 
14. ^ Hilary Krieger, Rebecca Stoil: Brazilian FM suggests Arab-Jewish intermarriage is a model for peace . May 4, 2012. Retrieved September 7, 2016.
15. ↑ Inga Scharf da Silva: Umbanda. A religion between Candomblé and Cardezism. About syncretism in everyday urban life in Brazil . Humboldt University, Berlin 2017 (second publication); Lit Verlag, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-8258-6270-4 , p. 56
16. ↑ Reconectar . Retrieved July 10, 2019.
17. ↑ Tradition and innovation . In: Jüdische Allgemeine , August 14, 2017. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
18. ^ Anti-Semitism and Jewish History in Brazil , Jüdische Rundschau, October 8, 2014. Accessed June 30, 2019.
19. ↑ Jeff H. Lesser: From Anti-Semitism to Philosemitism: The Changing Image of German-Jewish Immigrants in Brazil 1935-1945 . Ibero American Institute of Prussian Cultural Heritage. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
20. ^ Brazil , US State Department. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
21. ↑ Attack on Jews: Long prison sentences for neo-Nazis in Brazil , latinopress, September 20, 2018. Accessed July 1, 2019.
22. ^ Legislation against Antisemitism and Holocaust denial , December 4, 2013. The Coordination Forum For Countering Antisemitism. Retrieved June 29, 2019 (Law No. 7716 of January 5, 1989).
23. ↑ Klaus Hart, Hitler, Himmler, Göring - officially registered first names in Brazil , in: Klaus Hart, Unter dem Zuckerhut - Brazilian abysses, Picus Reportages, Hardcover, Picus-Verlag Vienna, 2001. Accessed July 1, 2019.
24. ^ Arnaldo Niskier , Perfil do Academico, Academia Brasileira de Letras. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
25. ↑ Le Brésil ouvre son premier musée de l'immigration juive . The Times of Israel (French) February 26, 2016. Retrieved June 30, 2019.
26. ^ Website of the Memorial da Imigração Judaica. In: memij.org.br. Retrieved June 30, 2019 (Brazilian Portuguese). 
27. ↑ Brazil's Jews welcome liberation from Saturday classes , Domradio, January 10, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2019.
28. ^ Synagogues in Rio de Janeiro . Retrieved July 3, 2019.
29. ↑ São Paulo Jewish Community. (PDF) Retrieved July 10, 2019.
30. ^ Synagogues in São Paolo . Retrieved July 3, 2019.
31. ^ The Jewish Community of Brazil . The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot.
32. ↑ SIDRA database , Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics.