Friedrich Fromhold Martens

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Friedrich Fromhold Martens, around 1900

Friedrich Fromhold Martens (* 15 August July / 27 August  1845 greg. In Pärnu ; † 7 June July / 20 June  1909 greg. In Walk ; for the place of death see literature , for name spelling and variants see personal circumstances and Tod ) was a Russian diplomat and lawyer . He worked particularly in the field of international lawand acted as Russia's negotiator in negotiating a number of international agreements. In addition, he has worked successfully as a mediator in conflicts between different countries.

During the First Hague Peace Conference in 1899, he proposed the Martens Clause , which was later named after him and is still regarded as an important principle of international humanitarian law to the present day . It says that in all situations during a war that are not governed by written international law , common customs , the principles of humanity and the demands of public conscience should govern action. In addition, during the conference his draft for a Convention on the Rules and Customs of War, which he had drawn up a quarter of a century earlier for the Brussels Conference of 1874 , was adopted as the Hague Land Warfare Regulations .

Friedrich Fromhold Martens is considered to be the founder of the Hague traditions of humanitarian international law and one of the most influential international law experts of his time. For his diverse mediation efforts as well as for his role at the Hague Peace Conferences and his commitment to the establishment of international arbitration , he was honored many times and nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize from 1901 to 1908 . He was shortlisted on the Nobel Prize Committee several times and was incorrectly named as the 1902 laureate in some older works.

Life

Youth and education

Martens' thesis, 1869

Friedrich Fromhold Martens was born in 1845 as the youngest child of his parents in the city of Pernau (Estonian Pärnu in Estonia ) and baptized in the German Sankt Nikolai parish. His father was the former clerk of the Lutheran parish Audern Friedrich Wilhelm Martens, who lived since 1845 in Pärnu, where he worked as a tailor and bailiffs; his mother, Therese Wilhelmine Knast, came from Pernau. The titular councilor Friedrich von Kluver and the notary Fromhold Drewnick acted as godparents who gave it the name . While some older German-language publications indicate a German-Baltic origin of his parents, Russian and Estonian sources in particular support the assumption of Estonian ancestry. This is justified in particular by the fact that the Baltic Germans generally belonged to the socially better off strata of society at that time. Martens' father, on the other hand, was a tailor, the family lived in simple circumstances. Friedrich Fromhold Martens was raised and educated in German , which, due to the cultural significance of the German language in the Livonia region, was not uncommon for its Estonian residents. German was the language of instruction at the Estonian University of Dorpat until 1893 , before it was replaced by the Russian language as part of the Russification process .

Little is known about Martens' childhood and youth. He lost his father at the age of five and his mother four years later. Shortly afterwards he was sent to an Evangelical Lutheran orphanage in Saint Petersburg . Here he finished his training at the German-speaking Petri School and began studying at the Law Faculty of the University of Saint Petersburg in 1863 . Due to his very good academic performance and his skills, he was promoted by the dean of the faculty. He also gave tutoring classes for other students and private lessons for children from wealthy families in order to improve his financial situation. In 1867 he graduated as a candidate for law. At the end of the following year he submitted a master's thesis entitled “On the Right of Private Property in War”, which he successfully defended in October 1869. He was influenced by international and constitutional law experts of the time, including Lorenz von Stein in Vienna and Johann Caspar Bluntschli in Heidelberg, through subsequent study visits to the universities in Vienna , Heidelberg and Leipzig .

Academic work

Dissertation by Martens, 1873

After the chair for international law at the University of Saint Petersburg became vacant in 1870, Friedrich Fromhold Martens returned from his studies abroad and took on a corresponding teaching position as a lecturer at the beginning of 1871. A year later he became a professor of public law at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in what is now Pushkin and at the Imperial Law School. In 1873 he received his doctorate with a dissertation on consular jurisdiction in the Middle and Far East . In the same year he was appointed associate professor and three years later full professor at the University of Saint Petersburg, a position he held until 1905. His master's thesis and his dissertation already received professional attention and recognition. Through further publications that have been translated into different languages ​​and also appeared in other countries, he became internationally known and contributed to the reputation of his country in the field of international law . During this time, this legal discipline developed into an independent subject in Russia, which was expressed, among other things, in the establishment of corresponding faculties for international law at several traditional Russian universities .

One of the best-known works that Martens published in the following years was the book “Völkerrecht”, published in two volumes in 1881/1882. The international law of civilized nations ”, in which he set out his theory of international law. It appeared in German in 1883 and has been translated into a total of seven languages. From 1874 to 1909, in parallel in Russian and French, he compiled a collection of 15 volumes on the treaties that Russia had concluded with other states under the title “Recueil des traités et conventions conclus par la Russie” . The treatises it contains on the individual agreements and the history of their origins make this work an encyclopedia of Russian foreign relations of its time. In 1880 he initiated the establishment of the Russian Society for International Law, as its secretary he acted. In addition to his legal work, Martens was also a member of the Russian Imperial Historical Society and wrote a number of essays on European history , which also received international attention and have been translated into various languages.

Civil service and diplomatic career

Friedrich Fromhold Martens, around 1878

In 1868 Friedrich Fromhold Martens joined the state service for the Russian Foreign Ministry. Six years later he was appointed attaché for special assignments from the Russian Chancellor and Foreign Minister Alexander Michailowitsch Gorchakov . During the next almost four decades he worked as a diplomat for three different tsars : until 1881 for Alexander II , until 1894 for Alexander III. and then until his death for Nicholas II , who was later overthrown by the February Revolution in 1917 . He represented Russia at almost all international conferences in which the country participated during this period, such as the Brussels Congress of 1889 on Trade and Maritime Law , the Anti-Slavery Conference of 1889/1890 in Brussels and the first four sessions of the Hague Conference on International Affairs Private law in 1893, 1894, 1900 and 1904. In addition, from 1884 until his death he took part in almost all international Red Cross conferences. He was an active member of the Institut de Droit international (Institute for International Law) founded in Ghent , Belgium in 1873 , including as Vice-President in 1885 and 1894, and participated in its activities in a variety of ways, for example in drafting the conference documents for the November 1884 conference Congo conference held in Berlin until February 1885 .

He acted successfully as a mediator in several international disputes. This concerned, for example, the dispute between France and Great Britain in 1891 over French fishing rights on the coast of Newfoundland and a corresponding French base on the north shore of the island. In 1899 he was president of a mediation tribunal to settle border disputes between Venezuela and the United Kingdom in what was then the British Crown Colony of British Guiana . The line he proposed represents the border between Venezuela and Guyana up to the present day . In the dispute between Mexico and the USA in 1902, the first case to be heard by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague , Friedrich Fromhold Martens of the United States acted as mediator selected. The cause of the clashes was the activities of the Pious Fund of California , a donation-based Mexican fund to finance Catholic missionary work in California . Friedrich Fromhold Martens was part of the Russian delegation in the negotiations between Russia and Japan , which led to the Treaty of Portsmouth in August 1905 and thus the end of the Russo-Japanese War .

His diverse activities as a mediator earned him the nickname Lord Chancellor of Europe ("Lord Chancellor of Europe", meaning "Head of European Justice") and Chief Justice of Christendom ("Supreme Judge of the Christian World"). One of the reasons for his success as a diplomat and mediator was the fact that he was fluent in English , French and German, three important languages ​​in international politics. With regard to his skills, he was not primarily seen as an imaginative source of ideas and initiator, but above all as a persistent, energetic and ambitious practitioner. According to tradition, his character was also characterized by a pronounced lack of humor and a lack of self-irony .

The Hague Peace Conferences

The Russian delegation to the Hague Peace Conference in 1899 (Martens: seated, 2nd from left)

In contrast to the peace movement , which gained popularity in the second half of the 19th century, Friedrich Fromhold Martens considered the complete elimination of wars in the near or distant future to be a utopia. On the other hand, he saw the reduction of suffering caused by war through clearly defined rules as feasible. For the Brussels conference initiated by Tsar Alexander II in 1874 , he therefore worked out a draft for a convention on the rules and customs of war. Although this was accepted by the participants in the conference with a few changes, it never became binding under international law due to the lack of later ratifications . The main reason, especially among smaller countries, was the fear that the principles formulated in the Brussels Declaration were primarily in the interests of the great powers.

Friedrich Fromhold Martens played an important role at the peace conferences held in The Hague on the initiative of Tsar Nicholas II in 1899 and 1907 . During the first conference he helped organize in 1899, at which his 1874 draft was adopted as the Hague Convention II , he was Plenipotentiary for Russia and President of the Committee on the Rules and Customs of War. In the course of the conference he was, among other things, significantly involved in the elaboration of the prisoner of war definition as well as the convention "on the application of the principles of the Geneva Convention of August 22, 1864 to naval warfare" and the Hague Agreement "for the peaceful settlement of international disputes". In order to settle a dispute over the treatment of civilians who would have participated in combat operations in a war, he proposed the Martens Clause , which was later named after him . For situations that are not expressly regulated by written international law, this specifies the generally accepted customs, the principles of humanity and the demands of public conscience as guidelines for action. The clause is part of the preamble to the Hague Land Warfare Regulations and was incorporated into Article 1 of Additional Protocol I to the 1949 Geneva Conventions in 1977. It still represents an important principle of international humanitarian law today. The Hague Conference of 1899, the focus of which expanded from pure disarmament negotiations to the establishment of peacekeeping measures and institutions as a result of Martens' activities, is generally regarded as a complete success of diplomatic efforts Of Russia. In addition to his on-site activities, he made several trips to Paris during the conference to lead the mediation process between Venezuela and the United Kingdom in the dispute over British Guiana.

The construction of the Peace Palace in The Hague as the seat of the permanent court of arbitration, the construction of which was largely financed by the American industrialist Andrew Carnegie , was based on a proposal by Friedrich Fromhold Martens, who also took part in the laying of the foundation stone in 1907. During the second peace conference that took place in the same year, he headed the Committee on the Law of the Sea , whose topics he viewed as particularly difficult due to the emerging rivalry between Great Britain and the German Reich in the area of ​​maritime armament. In preparation for this conference he visited a number of European countries at the beginning of 1907. He met among others in Berlin with the German Emperor Wilhelm II , in Paris with the French President Armand Fallières , in London with the British King Edward VII , in Italy with King Victor Emanuel III. , in Austria with Emperor Franz Joseph I and in The Hague with the entire royal family. He was also involved in drafting the revision of the Geneva Convention, which had been decided a year earlier. He was less satisfied with the outcome of the 1907 conference than with the results of 1899.

Personal circumstances and death

Report on Martens' death in the Estonian newspaper Postimees

Friedrich Fromhold Martens married Katarina Maria Luisa Tuhr, who was born in Saint Petersburg in 1861 in Baden-Baden on December 22, 1879 . Together they had a son and three daughters. His son Nikolai also became a diplomat and worked, among other things, as secretary of the Russian embassy in Sofia . Through his diverse professional activities, Martens achieved a life of prosperity and financial independence, leaving the conditions of his family origins far behind. His annual salary from service for the Russian Foreign Ministry alone, which was initially 2,000 rubles and was later increased to 4,500 and on the occasion of his 60th birthday to 6,000 rubles, was many times that of a simple farm worker in Russia, which at the time was an average of around 90 Rubles earned a year. In addition, there was income from his university teaching activities and royalties due to his publications. His social advancement enabled him in his later life to acquire the property in Pärnu on which his parents had lived and which he mainly used as a summer residence for himself and his family. He died in 1909, four years before his wife's death, during a trip while staying at the train station in the Livonian city ​​of Walk , and was buried in Saint Petersburg.

Depending on the language and historical context, different spellings and forms of his name can be found for Martens in various publications. The German-language birth name was "Friedrich Fromhold Martens", occasionally the spelling "Friedrich Frommhold Martens" can be found. He later adopted the Russian name " Фёдор Фёдорович Мартенс ", whose scientific transliteration is " Fëdor Fëdorovič Martens ". Based on the conventions for transcribing Russian names into German, this results in the spelling “Fyodor Fyodorovich Martens”, while corresponding transcriptions into English are “Fedor Fedorovich Martens” and “Fyodor Fyodorovich Martens”. In addition, Martens himself has given his name since the early 1870s in his writings as "Friedrich von Martens" or in the French form "Frederic de Martens". The background was probably the automatically associated with a certain rank in the Russian state administration to the personal or hereditary nobility , which he achieved as a result of his rise in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The form "Friedrich Freiherr von Martens" is also occasionally used, as is, for example, the spelling "Friedrich Fromholz von Martens" in the German translation of his dissertation. In contrast to the title of count in the Russian Empire, the title of baron was not awarded to newcomers, but was limited to the older aristocracy of German-Baltic or Swedish-Finnish circles. The ennoblement could also by a high Russian Martens but military orders have been awarded, but his name is in the parish registers of the Livonian knights not listed or the other active in the region Order.

Act

Legal philosophical and political views

Friedrich Fromhold Martens, around 1880

The legal philosophy of Martens, as it is particularly in his book “Völkerrecht. The international law of civilized nations ”was expressed in a traditionalist manner. In this work he treated the history of international law on around 150 pages . In his opinion, the driving force behind its development was the organization of international relations . According to the motto “ubi societas ibi jus est” (“Where there is a society, there is also law”), he saw each independent country as a member of the international community and thus as part of a uniform whole, regulated by a legal system, connected with the others Countries through common interests, rights and needs. For him, international law was not only an expression of the state of international relations, but also a manifestation of the moral values of human society. The principles that he formulated in this regard in his work included the assumption of a progressive development of mankind as well as respect for life , honor and dignity of every human being. Dealing with a particular country in the context of international relations should therefore be geared, just like its role in the international community, to the importance it attaches to the fundamental rights and freedom of its citizens in the domestic sphere . However, he only saw the “civilized peoples” as the area of ​​application of international law, including those countries which recognize the principles of European culture. In his opinion, the exclusive validity of the Koran in Muslim states is hostile to Christians and would therefore not offer any possibility of applying international law in relations with these countries. An expression of his legal philosophical views is the statement attributed to him that the ten biblical commandments can be chiseled into stone tablets, cast in bronze or embossed in steel plates, but they still have no meaning as long as they are not part of the legal consciousness of society.

The sole primacy of the law over state sovereignty , political equilibrium or nationalistically motivated endeavors was, in his view, the basic requirement for an orderly coexistence of people and countries without war and violence. He therefore considered a codification of international law in the form of agreements to be essential , even though he viewed the existing international treaties critically because, in his opinion, they were formulated too general and unspecific. In addition, he saw an organization of the international world of states as absolutely necessary and in this regard suggested the subordination of all independent states to a higher power. For this he suggested two possibilities, either a universal monarchy or a representative community which he had already called the League of Nations . He was one of the first diplomats to assume the necessity and benefit of international legal and administrative structures, and he introduced the term “international administration” into international law. He was critical of the expansion efforts of various states, including his home country Russia, as, in his opinion, they would represent the seed for future conflicts. He was also negative about military armament and the colonial policy practice of the major European powers . However, he was not fundamentally against the "taking possession of free land", but wanted to prevent above all conflicts between the "civilized peoples" by laying down rules for colonization, such as in the context of the Congo Conference. However, some authors such as the German-American lawyer and legal historian Arthur Nussbaum were of the opinion, when evaluating Martens' views and work, that he acted partly out of calculating expediency and viewed international law merely as a means of diplomacy. As a representative of the tsarist monarchy and as a diplomat of Russia, according to this point of view, he primarily pursued the interests of his country. Because of the loyalty obligations that arose from his position, he rarely expressed public criticism of Russian foreign policy and statements on domestic issues .

Friedrich Fromhold Martens described the philosopher and legal scholar Hugo Grotius, who worked during the 17th century, as the "father of international law". As influential figures in the development of international law, he called in his work especially those born in the mid-18th century German international law expert Georg Friedrich von Martens , an unrelated with him namesake, as well as the in Heidelberg acting Swiss jurist Johann Caspar BLUNTSCHLI a of his previous teachers. His views both on the need for an international legal order and on war were also influenced by the ideas of the French sociologist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon . Although this judged wars critically, he also assigned them a “creative role in the formation of states” and regarded them as something “divine” and as the “most enduring and most mysterious fact in history” ( La Guerre et la Paix , 1861). In a similar way, Martens tried on the one hand through his diplomatic work to prevent wars or to lessen their effects. On the other hand, he was not only of the opinion that wars were inevitable. He also saw them as useful under certain circumstances or even, such as the Russo-Turkish War of 1877/1878, as necessary for humanitarian reasons and as justified from the point of view of international law.

Life's work

Reception of the delegates to the Portsmouth negotiations 1905 (Martens: front row, 6th from left)

Friedrich Fromhold Martens was one of the most important international law experts and diplomats of his time due to his diverse activities. In the more than three decades of his career, he played a leading role in the codification of international humanitarian law and thus, alongside the Swiss Gustave Moynier, had significant influence on the further development of this branch of international law. One of his most important contributions in this area, in addition to the Martens Clause named after him and contained in various conventions to this day , was the Hague Land Warfare Regulations . With this treaty, fundamentally new concepts such as the definition of prisoners of war and rules for their treatment and for the sparing of buildings and facilities with religious, cultural, scientific, social and medical significance were introduced into international humanitarian law. In addition, with the Hague Land Warfare Regulations, a number of important principles of customary law were contractually fixed for the first time. These included banning the use of toxic substances for warfare and command, not a pardon to give. The principles of the Hague Land Warfare Regulations, which are one of the most important agreements in the development of international humanitarian law, are still valid today and have been specified and expanded upon in a number of later treaties.

The activities of the Institut de Droit international , which since its founding in 1873 had assumed an increasingly important position in the dissemination and further development of international law and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize by Martens while he was still alive , he shaped as Vice-President and as rapporteur of various committees decisive in many ways. His works “Recueil des traités et conventions conclus par la Russie” and “Völkerrecht. The international law of civilized nations ”found widespread international circulation and at the time of their publication were among the most important publications in the field of systematics and theory of international law. In addition, Friedrich Fromhold Martens distinguished himself as one of the most outstanding experts of the time for the peaceful settlement of international conflicts. To this end, he made important contributions both through his own work as a mediator and through his role at the Hague Peace Conferences and the establishment of the Permanent Court of Arbitration and international arbitration . As a diplomat, he represented Russia at a number of important conferences on various topics such as trade and maritime law and private international law .

Reception and aftermath

Awards and recognition

Friedrich Fromhold Martens, around 1880

Among the awards that Friedrich Fromhold Martens received for his work included honorary doctorates from the universities of Oxford , Cambridge , Edinburgh and Yale . He was also a member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences , the British Academy , the Institut de France and the Royal Academy of Sciences and Fine Arts of Belgium . Within the career classes of the Russian state administration , he reached the civilian rank of a Privy Council ( Russian Тайный советник) and thus the third highest of 14 rank classes. In addition to a number of other state awards, he received the Alexander Nevsky Order and the Order of the White Eagle, the second and third highest Russian order, respectively, as well as foreign honors such as the Austrian Order of the Iron Crown , the Greek Order of the Redeemer and the Order of the Crown of Italy . In all years from 1901 to 1908, various personalities nominated him for the Nobel Peace Prize . He was shortlisted on the Nobel Committee several times, including as early as 1901 when the prize was first awarded, and in particular in 1902 he was one of the favorites for the award. In several publications of the time, for example in an obituary published in 1909 in the "Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation" and in the eleventh edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica published in 1911 , he was incorrectly named as a laureate in this regard.

Friedrich Fromhold Martens was already listed during his lifetime or shortly after his death both in the Russian encyclopedia Brockhaus-Efron , which appeared before the October Revolution , and in several leading foreign-language encyclopedias, in addition to the Encyclopædia Britannica, among others, in the German-language works Meyers Konversations-Lexikon and Brockhaus' Konversationslexikon as well as the Swedish Nordisk familjebok and the Finnish Pieni Tietosanakirja . As early as 1910, and thus only one year after his death, the work "Friedrich v. Friedrich v. Friedrich v. Friedrich was published by the German lawyer Hans Wehberg" appeared in the "Zeitschrift für internationales Recht". Martens and the Hague Peace Conferences ”a publication on the work of Martens. The first comprehensive biographical treatise was written by Michael von Taube , who had received his doctorate from Martens and was his successor at the University of Saint Petersburg.

However, it was not recognized in the consciousness of the Russian public until many decades later. In the historical perception during the time of the Soviet Union , Friedrich Fromhold Martens was considered a “reactionary” and “Tsarist accomplice”. He was not mentioned in reference works of the period such as the Great Soviet Encyclopedia , and it was not until 1993 that the first treatise on him appeared in Russian. Since 1995, the Russian Academy of Sciences has awarded the Martens Prize for outstanding academic achievements in the field of international law and international relations . A year later a new edition of his work “Völkerrecht. The International Law of Civilized Nations ”published in Russian. A bronze bust of Martens donated by the Russian government has been in the Peace Palace in The Hague since 1999.

Literary representation

Friedrich Fromhold Martens is the main character of the historical novel " Professor Martens' Departure " (Estonian original title "Professor Martensi ärasõit") by the Estonian author Jaan Kross , published in 1984, which has been translated into ten different languages, including German, English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Russian. This book shows Martens from a first-person perspective how he looked back on his life during his last train journey on June 20, 1909. The direction of the journey from Pärnu to Saint Petersburg symbolizes his professional and private advancement.

The reviews of his diplomatic career, which appeared to be outstanding from the outside, in the form of imaginary conversations with his wife who was not present, are characterized by the conflict between the personal demands on his work and the adjustment to political constraints, as well as his inner turmoil between loyalty to the tsarist Russia and its own Estonian ancestry. In addition, Jaan Kross shows some parallels between the lives of Friedrich Fromhold Martens and Georg Friedrich von Martens in the form of dream-like memories from Martens of a previous life.

A documentary biography was published in 1993 by Vladimir Vasilyevich Pustogarow, who at the time was a senior staff member at the Institute for Law and Political Science of the Russian Academy of Sciences . An English translation of this work was published in 2000. The memoirs of Martens' daughter Edith Natalie, who was born in 1886 and who had been married to the Russian nobleman Alexander Sollohub from 1906, were edited by her youngest son and published in 2009 under the title "The Russian Countess: Escaping Revolutionary Russia" .

Works (selection)

  • About the right of private property in war. Saint Petersburg 1869; Original Russian title: О праве частной собственности во время войны.
  • The Consular System and the Consular Jurisdiction in the Orient. Saint Petersburg 1873 (Russian), Berlin 1874 (German); Original Russian title: О консулах и консульской юрисдикции на Востоке.
  • Recueil des traités et conventions conclus par la Russie. 1874-1909
  • The Brussels Conference and the Oriental War of 1877–1878. Saint Petersburg 1878
  • La Russie et l'Angleterre en Asie centrale. Brussels 1879
  • La question égyptienne. Brussels 1882
  • International law. The international law of civilized nations. 1881/1882 (Russian), Berlin 1884/1885 (German), Paris 1887/1888 (French)
  • La conférence africaine de Berlin et la politique coloniale des Etats modern. Brussels 1887

literature

The article is based entirely on the publications listed below. The entries in the contemporary editions of Meyer's Konversationslexikon and Brockhaus-Konversationslexikon served primarily to compile the list of works. They were also the source of basic biographical data, which were then supplemented in the corresponding sections by information from the articles by Wladimir Wassiljewitsch Pustogarow, Dieter Fleck and Henn- Jueri Uibopuu . The publication by Fleck also contains the information in the section “Personal circumstances and death” on the circumstances of Martens' elevation to the nobility.

The statements on the legal philosophical and political views of Friedrich Fromhold Martens as well as on the perception of himself in the Soviet Union and on his language skills are based on the work by Henn-Jüri Uibopuu published in the monthly booklet for Eastern European Law, the information on the evaluation of the war by Martens to Part also on the publication by Martti Koskenniemi . The source for the additional information on the controversial assessment of its work by some authors is the contribution by Peter Macalister-Smith. The information on his character traits, as well as the statement on the role of the ten commandments for legal awareness, based on a corresponding translation from English, come from the chapter on Martens in Arthur Eyffinger's book.

In the Martens biography of Vladimir Wassiljewitsch Pustogarow on page 338 of the Martens biography mentioned in the section entitled “Further publications”, the place of death is named Walk, while Dieter Fleck states that Saint Petersburg deviates from this. In relation to this discrepancy, Pustogarow's statement was adopted for the presentation in the article, which was also used in the Estonian newspaper Postimees (No. 124 of June 8, 1909, p. 3) and in the New York Times (issue of June 21 , 1909) June 1909, p. 7) is confirmed. The article by Pustogarow, published in the journal “International Review of the Red Cross”, also provided information on the place of the burial. The remarks on the parentage of Friedrich Fromhold Martens' parents (p. 12/13) and the living conditions in his later life (p. 332) are also based on the biography of Pustogarow.

Further publications

  • Wladimir Wassiljewitsch Pustogarow, William Elliott Butler (transl.): Our Martens. FF Martens: International Lawyer and Architect of Peace. Kluwer Law International, Alphen aan den Rijn 2000, ISBN 90-411-9602-1
  • Maia Ruttu, Rita Hillermaa: Friedrich Fromhold von Martens (15.8.1845–7.6.1909) . (PDF; 328 kB) In: Acta Societatis Martensis. 4 (1) / 2010. Martens Society, pp. 267–290, ISSN  1736-3918 (bibliographic index of the writings of Friedrich Fromhold Martens)

Web links

This article was added to the list of excellent articles on March 13, 2008 in this version .
personal data
SURNAME Martens, Friedrich Fromhold
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Martens, Fyodor Fyodorovich; de Martens, Frederic
BRIEF DESCRIPTION Russian diplomat and lawyer of Estonian origin
DATE OF BIRTH August 27, 1845
PLACE OF BIRTH Parnu
DATE OF DEATH June 20, 1909
Place of death St. Petersburg