Spurge family

Spurge family
Spicy Spurge ( Euphorbia esula )
Systematics
Eudicotyledons Nuclear eudicotyledons Rosids Eurosiden I Order : Malpighiales (Malpighiales) Family : Spurge family
Scientific name
Euphorbiaceae
Yuss.

The milkweed family (Euphorbiaceae) form a family of plants in the order of the Malpighian-like (Malpighiales). The family Euphorbiaceae s. st. contains only about 300 genera with about 7500 species and is distributed worldwide from the temperate to the tropical regions.

description

Habit and leaves

Spurge plants are extremely diverse. They grow as a one- , two- , perennial to perennial herbaceous plants or woody plants than half bushes , shrubs or trees grow.

The plant parts can be bald or hairy. They sometimes contain white or colored milky juice . The shoot axes and branches are soft and herbaceous or woody or sometimes succulent . They are unarmed or sometimes thorny.

The leaves are usually alternate , sometimes opposite , rarely whorled , usually stalked, sometimes shield-shaped, simple or compound, entire, lobed or toothed. Stipules are often conspicuous, sometimes thorny, glandular or completely reduced.

Diagram of a dichasial branch of Euphorbia with three cyathia

Flowering diagrams of Mercurialis annua ; left male, right female flower

Inflorescences and flowers

The flowers are always separate sexes. The species can be single- sexed ( monoecious ) or dioecious ( dioecious ). The inflorescences can be terminal or axillary, zymose, paniculate, racemose , spike-shaped or with extremely reduced flowers in involucral pseudo-flowers ( cyathia ).

The small, unisexual flowers are usually radial symmetry . The calyx consists of three to six sepals (sepals) or lobes, sometimes absent. The corolla consists of three to six petals , sometimes absent. Discs of nectar gland are often present. Stamens there are one to three male flowers (100 to 1000). The anthers usually tear open lengthways, pistillodiums often present. Staminodes are only sometimes present. The seated or stalked ovary is upper constant, it can rarely one to three and to 20-kammerig, with an ovule per ovary chamber to be. There are usually three styluses .

Fruits and seeds

Mostly tearing, three-lobed capsule fruits , occasionally drupe-like fruits with fleshy exocarp and woody endocarp are formed. The seeds are with or without a caruncula .

ingredients

The milky sap ( latex ) present in some species is often toxic and serves as a wound closure and protection against eating. Among the ingredients, the skin-irritating di- and triterpene esters are worth mentioning.

The seeds and the milky sap contain poisonous euphorbon . These have a strong local irritant effect on the skin and the mucous membranes with tissue destruction. Eye injuries are particularly dangerous.

Important genera with a few selected species

• Spurge ( Euphorbia ):
  • Poinsettia ( Euphorbia pulcherrima ) (old name: Poinsettia)
  • Christ thorn ( Euphorbia milii ),
  • many succulent species,
  • many species native to Central Europe.
• Rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis )
• Jatropha with the physic nut .
• Wonder Tree ( Ricinus )
• Manihot , important food in the tropics; Cassava or yuka.
• Aleurites with the light walnut .
• Sebastiania pavoniana , the "jumping bean"
• Milk trees ( synadenium )

Common representatives of the spurge family in Central Europe belong to the genus Euphorbia , for example: the cypress spurge ( Euphorbia cyparissias ) and the solstice spurge ( Euphorbia helioscopia ); and the mercurialis ( Mercurialis ).

Systematics and distribution

Taxonomy

The Euphorbiaceae family was set up under the name "Euphorbiae" in 1789 by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in Genera Plantarum , pp. 384–385. The scientific name of the type genus Euphorbia is derived from Euphorbos , a personal physician to King Juba II of Mauritania (around 50 BC to 23/24 AD).

External system

The Euphorbiaceae family belongs to the order of the Malpighiales . The genera of the previous subfamily Oldfieldioideae was split off as the family Picrodendraceae Small from the family Euphorbiaceae. The former subfamily Phyllanthoideae became the family Phyllanthaceae , their tribe Drypeteae became the family Putranjivaceae and their tribe Centroplaceae became the new family Centroplacaceae in 2009. Since the genera Pandaceae , Phyllanthaceae, Picrodendraceae, Putranjivaceae, Peraceae and Centroplacaceae were separated from the family Euphorbiaceae sl, the family Euphorbiaceae s applies. st. as monophyletic.

Tribus Acalypheae Subtribus Acalyphinae: cat's tail ( Acalypha hispida ), a houseplant

Tribus Acalypheae Subtribus Claoxylinae: Claoxylon sandwicense

Tribus Acalypheae Subtribus Macaranginae: Macaranga peltata

Tribe Acalypheae Subtribus Macaranginae: Macaranga tanarius

Tribus Acalypheae Subtribus Mercurialinae: forest ringelkraut ( Mercurialis perennis )

Tribus Acalypheae Subtribus Ricininae: Wonder Tree ( Ricinus communis )

Tribe Acalypheae Subtribus Rottlerinae: Mallotus japonicus

Tribe Acalypheae Subtribus Rottlerinae: Mallotus philippinensis

Tribe Adelieae: Leucocroton havanensis

Tribe Chrozophoreae: habit, leaves and inflorescences of Chrozophora tinctoria

Tribus Ampereae: Monotaxis grandiflora

Tribe Epiprineae: Epiprinus mallotiformis

Tribus Omphaleae: Illustration of Omphalea triandra

Tribus Plukenetieae: inflorescence of Dalechampia spathulata

Internal system

The milkweed family (Euphorbiaceae s. Str.) Is divided into three to five subfamilies, depending on the author: Acalyphoideae, Crotonoideae and Euphorbioideae. The typically white (in rare cases yellow) milky sap is only present in Euphorbioideae .

The three or four subfamilies with their tribe, subtribe and about 300 genera with about 7500 species:

Subfamily Acalyphoideae

• Subfamily Acalyphoideae Beilschm. :
  • Tribe Acalypheae Dumort. :
    • Subtribe Acalyphinae:
      • Genus Acalypha L .: The approximately 450 species are distributed in tropical to subtropical areas worldwide.
    • Subtribe Adrianinae:
      • Genus Adriana Gaudich. : There are about two species in Australia .
    • Claoxylinae subtribe:
      • Genus Claoxylon A.Juss. : The approximately 114 species occur in the tropics and subtropics.
      • Genus Claoxylopsis Leandri : The only three species occur in Madagascar .
      • Genus Discoclaoxylon (Müll.Arg.) Pax & K.Hoffm. : The four or so species are common in tropical Africa.
      • Genus Erythrococca Benth. : The approximately 41 species occur in Africa and Arabia .
      • Genus Micrococca Benth. : It contains about twelve species found in Africa, Madagascar, the Arabian Peninsula and tropical Asia.
    • Subtribus Cleidiinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Cleidion flower : The approximately 32 species are widespread in the Neotropics , in tropical Africa, in Madagascar, in Asia and on islands of the southwestern Pacific.
      • Genus Sampantaea Airy Shaw : It contains only one species:
        • Sampantaea amentiflora (Airy Shaw) Airy Shaw : It occurs from Thailand to Cambodia .
      • Genus Wetria Baill. : The only two species occur from tropical Asia to northern Australia.
    • Subtribe Dysopsidinae:
      • Genus Dysopsis Baill. : The three or so species occur from Costa Rica to Chile and the Juan Fernández Islands .
    • Subtribe Lasiococcinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Homonoia Lour. : The only three species are common in tropical Asia, for example in China.
      • Genus Lasiococca Hook. f. : The approximately five species occur from India to Hainan and in Malesia .
      • Genus Spathiostemon Flower : The only two species come from Thailand to Papua Rhodesia before.
    • Subtribus Lobaniliinae Radcl.-Sm. :
      • Genus Lobanilia Radcl.-Sm. : The seven or so species only occur in Madagascar.
    • Subtribe Macaranginae GLWebster ex Reveal :
      • Genus Macaranga Thouars : The approximately 300 species are distributed in the tropics and subtropics.
    • Subtribus Mareyinae Radcl.-Sm. ex Reveal :
      • Genus Mareya Baill. : The four or so species are common in Africa.
      • Genus Mareyopsis Pax & K.Hoffm. : The only two types are common in tropical Africa.
    • Subtribe Mercurialinae:
      • Genus Leidesia Müll.Arg. : It contains only one type:
        • Leidesia procumbens (L.) Prain : It occurs from the Democratic Republic of the Congo to South Africa .
      • Genus Bingelkräuter ( Mercurialis L. , Syn .: Cynocrambe Hill , Discoplis Raf. , Synema Dulac.): The eight to ten species are common in Eurasia , with a focus on the Mediterranean .
      • Genus Seidelia Baill. : The only two species occur in South Africa.
    • Subtribe Ricininae:
      • Genus Ricinus L .: It contains only one species:
        • Wonder tree ( Ricinus communis L. ): This species is only known from civilization, but it is believed that it originated in northeastern Africa.
    • Subtribe Rottlerinae:
      • Genus Avellanita Phil .: It contains only one species:
        • Avellanita bustillosii Phil . : It occurs only in Chile .
      • Genus Hancea Seem. (including Cordemoya Baill. and Deuteromallotus Pax & K.Hoffm. ): The approximately 18 species occur from southern China to tropical Asia and on islands in the western Indian Ocean.
      • Genus Mallotus Lour. (Syn .: Coccoceras Miq. , Neotrewia Pax & K.Hoffm. , Octospermum Airy Shaw and Trewia L. ): The approximately 122 species are distributed from tropical Africa to the islands in the western Pacific.
      • Genus Rockinghamia Airy Shaw : The only two species are common in tropical Australia.
  • Tribus Adelieae GLWebster :
    • Genus Adelia L .: The ten or so species occur from Texas to the Neotropic.
    • Genus Crotonogynopsis Pax : The only two species are common in Africa.
    • Genus Enriquebeltrania Rzed. : The only two species occur in southern Mexico .
    • Genus Lasiocroton Griseb. : The approximately five species occur on Caribbean islands from the Bahamas and Cuba to Haiti and Jamaica .
    • Genus Leucocroton Griseb. : The approximately 28 species only occur in Cuba.
  • Tribus Agrostistachydeae GLWebster :
    • Genus Agrostistachys Dalzell : The six or so species are common in tropical Asia.
    • Genus Chondrostylis Boerl. : The only two species are common in Indochina and Malesia .
    • Genus Cyttaranthus J.Léonard : It contains only one species:
      • Cyttaranthus congolensis J.Léonard : It occurs in tropical Africa.
    • Genus Pseudagrostistachys Pax & K.Hoffm. : The only two types are common in tropical Africa.
  • Tribe Alchorneae:
    • Subtribe Alchorneinae:
      • Genus Alchornea Sw. (Syn .: Coelebogyne J.Sm. ): The approximately 50 species thrive in many tropical to subtropical areas.
      • Genus Aparisthmium Endl. : It contains only one type:
        • Aparisthmium cordatum (A.Juss.) Baill. : It occurs from Costa Rica to tropical South America.
      • Genus Bocquillonia Baill. : The approximately 14 species occur only in New Caledonia .
      • Genus Bossera Leandri : It contains only one species:
        • Bossera cristatocarpa Leandri : It occurs in Madagascar.
      • Genus Orfilea Baill. : The four or so species occur on islands in the western Indian Ocean.
    • Subtribus Conceveibinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Conceveiba Aubl. (Syn .: Gavarretia Baill. And Polyandra Leal ): The approximately 14 species are common in South America.
  • Tribus Ampereae:
    • Genus Amperea A.Juss. : The eight or so species occur in Australia.
    • Genus Monotaxis Brongn. : The eight or so species occur in Australia.
  • Tribus Bernardieae GLWebster :
    • Genus Adenophaedra (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg. : The only three species occur from Costa Rica to tropical South America.
    • Genus Amyrea Leandri : The eleven or so species occur in Madagascar and the Comoros .
    • Genus Bernardia Mill .: The approximately 73 species are widespread in the Neotropic.
    • Genus Discocleidion (Müll.Arg.) Pax & K.Hoffm. : It contains only one type:
      • Discocleidion rufescens (Franch.) Pax & K.Hoffm. : It thrives over limestone at altitudes of 200 to 1000 meters in the Chinese provinces of western Anhui , Gansu , northern Guangdong , Guangxi , Guizhou , Hubei , Hunan , Shaanxi , Shanxi and eastern Sichuan .
    • Genus Necepsia Prain : The only three species occur in tropical Africa and Madagascar.
    • Genus Paranecepsia Radcl.-Sm. : It contains only one type:
      • Paranecepsia alchorneifolia Radcl.-Sm. : It occurs in southern and eastern tropical Africa.
  • Tribe Caryodendreae GLWebster :
    • Genus Alchorneopsis Müll.Arg. : The only two types occur in the Neotropic.
    • Genus Caryodendron H.Karst. : The four or so species occur in Central America and in tropical South America .
      • Caryodendron orinocense H.Karst. : It occurs in Venezuela , Colombia and Ecuador .
    • Genus Discoglypremna Prain : It contains only one species:
      • Discoglypremna caloneura (Pax) Prain : It occurs in tropical West Africa to Uganda .
  • Tribe Cheiloseae Garbage. Arg . :
    • Genus Cheilosa flower : It contains only one species:
      • Cheilosa montana flower : It occurs in Malesia.
    • Genus Neoscortechinia Pax : The six or so species come from tropical Asia to the Solomon Islands .
  • Tribe Chrozophoreae:
    • Subtribe Chrozophorinae:
      • Genus Chrozophora A. Juss. : The ten to twelve species are distributed from southern Europe via east Africa to south and central Asia.
    • Subtribus Ditaxinae :
      • Genus Argythamnia P.Browne : The approximately 23 species occur from Texas to Colombia and mainly on Caribbean islands.
      • Genus Caperonia A.St.-Hil. : The approximately 35 species occur in the Neotropic, Africa and Madagascar.
      • Genus Chiropetalum A. Juss. : The approximately 23 species occur from Mexico to tropical South America.
      • Genus Ditaxis Vahl ex A.Juss. : There are about 50 species in the New World.
      • Genus Philyra Klotzsch : It contains only one species:
        • Philyra braziliensis Klotzsch : It occurs in Brazil , Paraguay and northeast Argentina .
    • Subtribus Doryxylinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Doryxylon inch. : It contains only one type:
        • Doryxylon spinosum inches. : It occurs on the Lesser Sunda Islands and on Luzon .
      • Genus Melanolepis Rchb. ex customs. : The only two species occur from Indochina to the western islands of the Pacific.
      • Genus Sumbaviopsis J.J.Sm. : It contains only one type:
        • Sumbaviopsis albicans (flower) JJSm. : It occurs in tropical Asia from northeast India to southern China.
      • Genus Thyrsanthera Pierre ex Gagnep. : It contains only one type:
        • Thyrsanthera suborbicularis Pierre ex Gagnep. : It occurs in Thailand, Vietnam and Cambodia .
    • Subtribe Speranskiinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Speranskia Baill. : The only three species are found in China and Indochina .
  • Tribe Dicoelieae
    • Genus Dicoelia Benth. : Of the only two species, one occurs on Borneo and the other on Sumatra .
  • Tribe Epiprineae:
    • Subtribe Cephalomappinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Cephalomappa Baill. : The five or so species are found in Malesia.
    • Subtribe Epiprininae:
      • Genus Adenochlaena Boivin ex Baill. : The only two species occur in the Comoros, Madagascar and Sri Lanka .
      • Genus Cephalocroton Hochst. : The approximately four species occur in South Africa and in tropical Africa.
      • Genus Cephalocrotonopsis Pax : It contains only one species:
        • Cephalocrotonopsis socotranus (Balf. F.) Pax : It is an endemic to Socotra .
      • Genus Cladogynos Zipp. ex chip. : It contains only one type:
        • Cladogynos orientalis Zipp. ex chip. : It occurs in Malesia.
      • Genus Cleidiocarpon Airy Shaw : The only two species occur in southern China and Myanmar .
      • Genus Epiprinus handle. : The six or so species occur in tropical Asia and southern China.
      • Genus Koilodepas Hassk. : The approximately eleven species occur in tropical Asia and in Hainan.
      • Genus Symphyllia Baill. : With some authors there are up to three types, but most of them are related to Epiprinus .
  • Tribe Erismantheae GLWebster : The only three genera are common in Southeast Asia:
    • Genus Erismanthus Wall. ex Müll.Arg. : The only two types occur in tropical Asia and on Hainan.
    • Genus Moultonianthus Merr. : It contains only one type:
      • Moultonianthus leembruggianus (Boerl. & Koord.) Steenis : It occurs on Borneo and Sumatra .
    • Genus Syndyophyllum Lauterb. & K.Schum. : Of the two species since 1995, one occurs only in northern New Guinea and the other in northern Borneo and Sumatra.
  • Tribus Omphaleae GLWebster :
    • Genus Omphalea L. (Syn .: Duchola Adans. , Hebecocca Beurl. , Hecatea Thouars , Neomphalea Pax & K.Hoffm. , Omphalandria P.Browne , Ronnowia Buc'hoz ): The 17 to 22 species are common in the tropics, twelve of which occur in the Neotropic.
  • Tribus Plukenetieae: It contains three subtribes with about 13 genera:
    • Subtribus Dalechampiinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Dalechampia L .: The approximately 123 species are distributed in the tropics.
    • Subtribe Plukenetiinae:
      • Genus Angostylis Benth. : Of the only two species, one occurs only in Suriname and the other only in the Brazilian state of Amazonas .
      • Genus Astrococcus Benth. : It contains only one type:
        • Astrococcus cornutus Benth. : It occurs from Venezuela to Brazil.
      • Genus Haematostemon (Müll. Arg.) Pax & K.Hoffm. : The only two types are found in Venezuela and Guiana .
      • Genus Plukenetia L. (Syn .: Accia A.St.-Hil. , Angostylidium (Müll.Arg.) Pax & K.Hoffm. , Apodandra Pax & K.Hoffm. , Botryanthe Klotzsch , Ceratococcus Meisn. , Elaeophora Ducke , Eleutherostigma Pax & K.Hoffm. , Fragariopsis A.St.-Hil. , Hedraiostylus Hassk. , Pseudotragia Pax , Pterococcus Hassk. Nom. Cons., Sajorium Endl. , Tetracarpidium Pax , Vigia Vell. ): Which have been around 19 species since 2013 distributed in the Neotropics, from tropical to southern Africa and in Madagascar.
      • Genus Romanoa Trevis. : It contains only one type:
        • Romanoa tamnoides (A.Juss.) Radcl.-Sm. : It occurs in Brazil and Paraguay.
    • Subtribe Tragiinae GLWebster :
      • Genus Acidoton Sw. : The six or so species are common in the Neotropic.
      • Genus Cnesmone flower : The approximately eleven species are found in tropical Asia from northeast India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Malaysia, southern China, Vietnam, Indonesia and the Philippines.
      • Genus Megistostigma Hook. f. : The five or so species are common in Southeast Asia. There are two species in China, one of them only there.
      • Genus Pachystylidium Pax & K. Hoffm . : It contains only one type:
        • Pachystylidium hirsutum (flower) Pax & K.Hoffm. : It occurs in tropical Asia.
      • Genus Platygyna P. Mercier : The seven or so species all occur in Cuba and one of them also in Haiti .
      • Genus Sphaerostylis Baill. : The only two species occur only in Madagascar.
      • Genus Tragia L .: The approximately 152 species are distributed in the New World, in tropical and southern Africa, on the Indian subcontinent and in Australia.
      • Genus Tragiella Pax & K.Hoffm. : The four or so species are common in tropical and southern Africa.
  • Tribe Pycnocomeae Huth. ex Reveal :
    • Subtribe Blumeodendrinae GLWebster :
      • Genus flowerodendron (Müll.Arg.) In short : The six or so species are distributed from Indochina to Papuasia .
      • Genus Botryophora Hook. f. : It contains only one type:
        • Botryophora geniculata (Miq.) Beumée ex Airy Shaw : It is distributed from southern Myanmar to western Malesia.
      • Genus Podadenia Thwaites : It contains only one species:
        • Podadenia sapida Thwaites : It occurs only in Sri Lanka .
      • Genus Ptychopyxis Miq. : The ten or so species are distributed from Indochina to New Guinea .
    • Subtribe Pycnocominae GLWebster :
      • Genus Argomuellera Pax : The approximately twelve species occur in tropical Africa and Madagascar.
      • Genus Droceloncia J.Léonard : It contains only one species:
        • Droceloncia rigidifolia (Baill.) J.Léonard : It occurs in Madagascar and on the Comoros island of Mayotte .
      • Genus Pycnocoma Benth. : The approximately 18 species occur in tropical Africa and Madagascar.
  • Tribus Sphyranthereae:
    • Genus Sphyranthera Hook. f. : The only two species occur on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands .
  • The genus is not assigned to any tribe ( incertae sedis ):
    • Genus Afrotrewia Pax & K.Hoffm. : It contains only one type:
      • Afrotrewia kamerunica Pax & K. Hoffm . : It occurs in Cameroon to Gabon .

Tribe Aleuritideae: leaves and flowers of Vernicia montana

Tribus Codiaeeae: Wonder shrub ( Codiaeum variegatum ), here a variety with the variegated leaves typical of the species and with a male inflorescence

Tribus Crotoneae: Croton malabaricus with fruits

Tribe Crotoneae: Paracroton integrifolius with fruits

Tribus Jatropheae: The pagoda plant ( Jatropha podagrica ) is used in Germany as a houseplant for a very bright location

Tribe Manihoteae: Cnidoscolus chayamansa

Tribe: Manihoteae: Manihot esculenta

Micrandreae tribe: plantation of Hevea brasiliensis

Tribus Tribus Ricinocarpeae: branch with leaves and flowers of Ricinocarpus tuberculatus

Tribus Ricinodendreae: tribe of Ricinodendron heudelotii

Tribus Trigonostemoneae: Illustration from A hand-book to the flora of Ceylon , panel LXXXIII by Trigonostemon diplopetalus

Subfamily Crotonoideae

• Subfamily Crotonoideae Beilschm. : It contains twelve tribes:
  • Tribus Adenoclineae GLWebster : It contains two sub- tribes :
    • Subtribe Adenoclininae Garbage. Arg . : It contains five genera:
      • Genus Adenocline Turcz. : The three or so species are distributed from southern tropical Africa to southern Africa.
      • Genus Ditta Griseb. : Of the only two species, Ditta maestrensis Borhidi is endemic to the Sierra Maestra in eastern Cuba and Ditta myricoides occurs on the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola and Puerto Rico .
      • Genus Glycydendron Ducke : Of the only two species, one occurs only in the Brazilian state of Espírito Santo and the other is more widespread in tropical South America.
      • Genus Klaineanthus Pierre ex Prain : It contains only one species:
        • Klaineanthus gaboniae Pierre ex Prain : It is distributed from Nigeria to tropical west-central Africa.
      • Genus Tetrorchidium Poepp. : The approximately 22 species are common in the Neotropic and tropical Africa.
    • Subtribe Endosperminae: It contains only one genus:
      • Genus Endospermum Benth. : The approximately 14 species are distributed in tropical to subtropical Asia and in the southwestern Pacific region.
    • Without assignment to a subtribe:
      • Genus Omphalea L. ( Duchola Adans. , Hebecocca Beurl. , Hecatea Thouars , Neomphalea Pax & K.Hoffm. , Omphalandria P.Browne , Ronnowia Buc'hoz ): The 17 to 22 species are common in the tropics, twelve of them come in the Neotropic before.
  • Tribus Aleuritideae: It contains six subtribes with about 16 genera:
    • Subtribus Aleuritinae: It contains three genera:
      • Genus Aleurites J.R. Forst. & G.Forst. (Syn .: Camirium Gaertn. ): Of the only two species, one occurs only in Hawaii and the other, the light walnut ( Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd. ), Is widespread in tropical and subtropical Asia and Oceania.
      • Genus Reutealis Airy Shaw : It contains only one species:
        • Reutealis trisperma (Blanco) Airy Shaw : It occurs in the Philippines .
      • Genus Vernicia Lour. : The only three species occur from Myanmar to Indonesia, in China (two species) and Japan. One species is cultivated in many areas of the world.
    • Subtribus Benoistiinae Radcl.-Sm. : It contains only one genus:
      • Genus Benoistia H.Perrier & Leandri : The only three species occur only in Madagascar.
    • Subtribus Crotonogyninae G.L.Webster : It contains three genera:
      • Genus Crotonogyne Garbage. Arg . : The approximately 16 species are distributed in western and west-central tropical Africa.
      • Genus Cyrtogonone Prain : It contains only one species:
        • Cyrtogonone argentea (Pax) Prain : It is distributed from Nigeria to tropical west-central Africa.
      • Genus Manniophyton Garbage. Arg . : It contains only one type:
        • Manniophyton fulvum Garbage. Arg . : It iswidespreadfrom tropical West Africa to Angola .
    • Subtribus Garciinae: It contains only one genus:
      • Genus Garcia Rohr : Of the only two species, one occurs only in Mexico and the other from Mexico to Venezuela.
    • Subtribus Grosserinae GLWebster : It contains five genera:
      • Genus Cavacoa J.Léonard : The only three species occur in tropical and southern Africa.
      • Genus Grossera Pax : The eight or so species are common in Africa and Madagascar.
      • Genus Sandwithia Lanj. : The only two types are common in tropical South America.
      • Genus Tannodia Baill. (including Domohinea Leandri , Neoholstia Rauschert ): The nine or so species occur in Africa and on islands in the western Indian Ocean.
      • Genus Tapoides Airy Shaw : It contains only one species:
        • Tapoides villamilii (Merr.) Airy Shaw : It occurs in Borneo.
    • Subtribus Neoboutoniinae GLWebster : It contains only one genus:
      • Genus Neoboutonia Müll.Arg. : The three or so species are common in tropical Africa.
  • Tribus Codiaeeae: It contains about 15 genera:
    • Genus Acidocroton Griseb. : The twelve species that have been around since 2013 occur on the Caribbean islands and in Colombia.
    • Genus Baliospermum flower : The approximately five species are distributed in the Himalayas, China and tropical Asia.
    • Genus Baloghia Endl. : The approximately 15 species occur in Australia and New Caledonia.
    • Genus Blachia Baill. : The eleven or so species occur in tropical Asia and China.
    • Genus Codiaeum A.Juss. (Syn .: Crozophyla Raf. , Junghuhnia Miq. Nom. Illeg., Phyllaurea Lour. Nom. Rej., Synaspisma Endl. ): The approximately 17 species occur from Indonesia and the Philippines to New Guinea, in tropical Australia and on the Pacific islands .
    • Genus Dimorphocalyx Thwaites : The approximately 17 species occur from Hainan and tropical Asia to Queensland .
    • Genus Dodecastigma Ducke (Syn .: Anomalocalyx Ducke ): The three species since 2007 are common in tropical South America.
    • Genus Fontainea Heckel : The roughly nine species occur in New Guinea, Australia, Vanuatu and New Caledonia.
    • Genus Hylandia Airy Shaw : It contains only one species:
      • Hylandia dockrillii Airy Shaw : It is only found in Queensland.
    • Genus Ophellantha Standl. : The only two types occur from Mexico to Central America. It is perhaps a subgenus of Acidocroton .
    • Genus Ostodes flower : The only two types occur in China and in tropical Asia.
    • Genus Pantadenia Gagnep. (Syn .: Parapantadenia Capuron ): The only three species occur in Madagascar and Indochina.
    • Genus Pausandra Radlk. : The eight or so species are distributed from Honduras to Brazil.
    • Genus Sagotia Baill. : The only two types are common in the Neotropic.
    • Genus Strophioblachia Boerl. : It contains only one type:
      • Strophioblachia fimbricalyx Boerl. : It occurs in China, Indochina and Malesia.
  • Tribe Crotoneae Dumort. : It contains about five genera:
    • Genus Astraea Klotzsch : The eight or so species are distributed from Florida to Mexico to South America.
    • Genus Brasiliocroton P.E.Berry & Cordeiro : It was established in 2005 and contains only two species:
      • Brasiliocroton mamoninha P.E.Berry & Cordeiro : It occurs in lowland forests only in two isolated locations in eastern and northeastern Brazil.
      • Brasiliocroton muricatus Riina & Cordeiro : It occurs only in eastern Brazil.
    • Genus Croton L .: With around 1223 species, this genus is one of the ten most species-rich of the flowering plants (Magnoliopsida) and is divided into around 40 sections. They are distributed in tropical to subtropical areas worldwide, with a center of biodiversity in the Neotropic .
    • Genus Mildbraedia Pax (Syn .: Neojatropha Pax , Plesiatropha Pierre ex Hutch. ): The three or so species are common in tropical Africa.
    • Genus Paracroton Miq. ( Desmostemon Thwaites , Fahrenheitia Rchb. F. & Zoll. Ex Müll. Arg. ): The four or so species are common in tropical Asia.
  • Tribe Elateriospermeae: It contains only one monotypic genus:
    • Genus Elateriospermum flower : It contains only one species:
      • Elateriospermum tapos flower : It occurs from Thailand to western Malesia.
  • Tribus Gelonieae : It contains two genera:
    • Genus Cladogelonium Leandri : It contains only one species:
      • Cladogelonium madagacariense Leandri : It occurs in Madagascar.
    • Genus Suregada Roxb. ex Rottler : The approximately 31 species are distributed in Africa, Asia and the western Indian Ocean.
  • Tribe Jatropheae: It contains seven genera:
    • Genus Annesijoa Pax & K.Hoffm. : It contains only one type:
      • Annesijoa novoguineensis Pax & K. Hoffm. : It only occurs in New Guinea.
    • Genus Deutzianthus Gagnep. (incl. Loerzingia Airy Shaw ): The only two species occur in Vietnam, southern China and Sumatra.
    • Genus Jatropha L .: The approximately 188 species occur in tropical and subtropical America, in Africa, in Arabia, on the Comoros, in Madagascar, India and Sri Lanka.
    • Genus Joannesia Vell. : The only two types are common in Brazil.
    • Genus Leeuwenbergia Letouzey & N.Hallé : The only two species are common in tropical Africa.
    • Genus Oligoceras Gagnep. : It contains only one type:
      • Oligoceras eberhardtii Gagnep. : It occurs only in southern Vietnam.
    • Genus Vaupesia R.E. Schul . : It contains only one type:
      • Vaupesia cataractarum R.E. Schul . : It occurs in southeastern Colombia and northwestern Brazil.
  • Tribus Manihoteae: It contains two genera:
    • Genus Cnidoscolus Pohl : The approximately 94 species are common in the Neotropic.
    • Genus Manihot Mill .: The approximately 107 species are common in the Neotropic.
  • Tribus Micrandreae GLWebster : It contains two subtribes:
    • Subtribe Heveinae Garbage. Arg . : It contains only one genus:
      • Genus Hevea Aubl. : The nine or so species are common in tropical South America. They include:
        • Rubber tree ( Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. Ex A.Juss.) Müll.Arg. )
    • Subtribus Micrandrinae: It contains two genera:
      • Genus Micrandra Benth. (Including Cunuria Baill. ): The 12 or so species occur in tropical South America.
      • Genus Micrandropsis W.A. Rodrigues : It contains only one species:
        • Micrandropsis scleroxylon (WARodrigues) WARodrigues : It occurs in the Amazon region.
  • Tribus Ricinocarpeae: It contains two sub-tribes:
    • Subtribus Bertyinae: It contains four genera:
      • Genus Bertya Planch. : The approximately 28 species occur in Australia.
      • Genus Borneodendron Airy Shaw : It contains only one species:
        • Borneodendron aenigmaticum Airy Shaw : It only occurs in Borneo.
      • Genus Cocconerion Baill. : The only two species occur only in New Caledonia.
      • Genus Myricanthe Airy Shaw : It contains only one species:
        • Myricanthe discolor Airy Shaw : It occurs in northwestern New Caledonia.
    • Subtribe Ricinocarpinae GLWebster : It contains three genera:
      • Genus Alphandia Baill. : With about four species occur in New Caledonia, New Guinea and Vanuatu.
      • Genus Beyeria Miq. : The approximately 24 species occur in Australia.
      • Genus Ricinocarpos Desf. : The approximately 28 species occur in Australia.
  • Tribus ricinodendreae: It contains three genera:
    • Genus Givotia handle. : The four or so species occur in East Africa, Madagascar, India and Sri Lanka.
    • Genus Ricinodendron Garbage. Arg . : It contains only one type:
      • Ricinodendron heudelotii (Baill.) Heckel : It is widespread in tropical Africa.
    • Genus Schinziophyton Hutch. ex Radcl.-Sm. : It contains only one type:
      • Schinziophyton rautanenii (Schinz) Radcl.-Sm. : It occurs from Tanzania to Namibia .
  • Tribus Trigonostemoneae GLWebster : It contains only one genus:
    • Genus Trigonostemon Blume : The approximately 83 species are widespread from tropical and subtropical Asia to islands in the southwestern Pacific.
  • The genera are not assigned to any tribe ( incertae sedis ):
    • Genus Chlamydojatropha Pax & K. Hoffm. : It contains only one type:
      • Chlamydojatropha kamerunica Pax & K. Hoffm. : It only occurs in Cameroon.
    • Genus Radcliffea Petra Hoffm. & KJWurdack : It contains only one species:
      • Radcliffea smithii Petra Hoffm. & K.Wurdack : It only occurs in Madagascar.

Tribe Euphorbieae: cypress wolf milk ( Euphorbia cyparissias )

Tribus Euphorbieae: Christ thorn ( Euphorbia milii )

Tribus Euphorbieae: Poinsettia ( Euphorbia pulcherrima ), a popular houseplant

Tribe Euphorbieae: Euphorbia trigona , a succulent Euphorbia species that has the appearance of candelabra cacti

Tribus Hippomaneae: branch with leaves and inflorescences of Colliguaja odorifera

Tribus Hippomaneae: habit and leaves of Excoecaria cochinchinensis

Tribus Hureae: leaves and inflorescence of Hura polyandra

Subfamily Euphorbioideae

• Subfamily Euphorbioideae Beilschm. :
  • Tribus Euphorbieae: It contains three subtribes with about five genera:
    • Subtribus Anthosteminae GLWebster : It contains only two genera:
      • Genus Anthostema A.Juss. : The four or so species occur in Africa and Madagascar.
      • Genus Dichostemma Pierre : The only two types are common in tropical Africa.
    • Subtribus Euphorbiinae : It contains only one genus:
      • Genus Euphorbia L. (Syn .: Ademo Post & Kuntze , Adenopetalum Klotzsch & Garcke , Adenorima Raf. , Agaloma Raf. , Aklema Raf. , Alectoroctonum Schltdl. , Allobia Raf. , Anisophyllum Haw. , Anthacantha Lem. , Aplarina Raf. , Arthrothamnus Klotzsch & Garcke , Bojeria Raf. , Ceraselma Wittst. , Chamaesyce Gray , characias Gray , Chylogala Fourr. , Ctenadena Prokh. , Cubanthus (Boiss.) Millsp. , Cyathophora Raf. , Cystidospermum Prokh. , Dactylanthes Haw. , Dematra Raf. , Desmonema Raf. , Dichrophyllum Klotzsch & Garcke , Dichylium Britton , Diplocyathium Heinr. Schmidt , Ditritra Raf. , Elaeophorbia Stapf , Endadenium L.C.Leach , Endoisila Raf. , Epurga Fourr. , esula (pers.) Haw. , Euforbia Ten. orth. var., Eumecanthus Klotzsch & Garcke , Euphorbiastrum Klotzsch & Garcke , Euphorbiodendron Millsp. , Euphorbiopsis H.Lév. , Euphorbium Hill , Galarhoeus Haw. , Kanopikon Raf. , Kobiosis Raf. , Lacan This Raf. , lathyris Trew , Lepadena Raf. , Leptopus Klotzsch & Garcke , Lophobios Raf. , Lor tia Rendle , Lyciopsis (Boiss.) Schweinf. , Medusea Haw. , Monadenium Pax , Murtekias Raf. , Nisomenes Raf. , Ossifraga Rumph. , Peccana Raf. , Pedilanthus Neck. ex Poit. , Petalandra F. Muell. ex Boiss. , Pleuradena Raf. , Poinsettia Graham , Pythius B.D. Jacks . , Sclerocyathium Prokh. , Stenadenium Pax , Sterigmanthe Klotzsch & Garcke , Synadenium Boiss. , Tithymalopsis Klotzsch & Garcke , Tithymalus Gaertn. , Tithymalus Hill , Torfasadis Raf. , Treisia Haw. , Tricherostigma Boiss. , Trichosterigma Klotzsch & Garcke , Tumalis Raf. , Vallaris Raf. , Xamesike Raf. , Zalitea Raf. , Zygophyllidium (Boiss.) Small ): The approximately 2000 species are distributed worldwide in temperate to tropical areas.
    • Subtribus Neoguillauminiinae: It contains only two genera:
      • Genus Calycopeplus Planch. : The five types are common in Australia.
      • Genus Neoguillauminia Croizat : It contains only one species:
        • Neoguillauminia cleopatra (Baill.) Croizat : It occurs only in New Caledonia.
  • Tribus Hippomaneae A.Juss. ex Bartl. : It contains two subtribes with about 33 genera with about 300 species. It is pantropical and only a few species thrive outside the tropics:
    • Subtribus Carumbiinae Garbage. Arg . : It contains only one genus:
      • Genus Homalanthus A. Juss. : The approximately 23 species are distributed in tropical Asia and the Pacific.
    • Subtribus Hippomaninae: It contains about 32 genera:
      • Genus Actinostemon Mart. ex Klotzsch : The 15 to 19 species are distributed in South America, with the focus on biodiversity in Brazil, most of which are only found in eastern Brazil.
      • Genus Adenopeltis Bertero ex A.Juss. : It contains only one type:
        • Adenopeltis serrata (WTAiton) IMJohnst. : It only occurs in Chile.
      • Genus Anomostachys (Baill.) Hurus. : It contains only one type:
        • Anomostachys lastellei (Müll.Arg.) Kruijt : It occurs in Madagascar.
      • Genus Balakata eater : The only two species occur in southern China and in tropical Asia.
      • Genus Bonania A.Rich. : The seven or so species occur only in the Caribbean.
      • Genus Colliguaja Molina : The five or so species are common in South America.
      • Genus Conosapium Müll.Arg. : It contains only one type:
        • Conosapium madagascariense Garbage. Arg . : It occurs only in northwestern Madagascar.
      • Genus Dalembertia Baill. : The four species occur from Mexico to Guatemala .
      • Genus Dendrocousinsia Millsp. : The only three species occur only in Jamaica.
      • Genus Dendrothrix eater : Of the only three species, two occur only on the Guiana shield and the other only in Venezuela and in the Brazilian state of Amazonas .
      • Genus Ditrysinia Raf. : It contains only one type:
        • Ditrysinia fruticosa (W.Bartram) Govaerts & Frodin : It occurs in the southern USA.
      • Genus Excoecaria L .: The 35 to 38 species are common in the Paläotropis.
      • Genus Falconeria Royle : It contains only one species:
        • Falconeria insignis Royle : It occurs in South and Southeast Asia.
      • Genus Grimmeodendron Urb. : The only two species occur in the Caribbean.
      • Genus Gymnanthes Sw. : The scope of this genus is controversial. (Perhaps synonyms are: Ateramnus P.Browne , Gussonia Spreng. , Sarothrostachys Klotzsch , Gymnanthus Endl. , Duvigneaudia J.Léonard ): With some authors the scope is about 25 and with other authors it is about 45 species, which are in the Neotropic and are common in Africa.
      • Genus Hippomane L .: The only three species are distributed from the southern USA and Mexico to tropical South America; including:
        • Manchinelbaum ( Hippomane mancinella L. )
      • Genus Mabea Aubl. : The 39 to 50 species are distributed in the Neotropics from Mexico to South America; 24 of these species are found in Brazil.
      • Genus Maprounea Aubl. : The six species are common in the Neotropic and tropical Africa.
      • Genus Microstachys A. Juss. : The approximately 15 species distributed in the subtropics to the tropics; the focus of biodiversity with around eleven species is in Brazil.
      • Genus Neoshirakia Esser : It contains only one species:
        • Neoshirakia japonica (Siebold & Zucc.) Esser : It occurs in China, Korea and Japan .
      • Genus Pleradenophora Esser : The approximately six species occur from Mexico to Central America.
      • Genus Pseudosenefeldera Esser : It was validly published in 2001 and contains only one species that was previously contained in Senefeldera :
        • Pseudosenefeldera inclinata (Müll.Arg.) Esser : This new combination was validly published in 2001. It occurs from Panama to tropical South America.
      • Genus Rhodothyrsus eater : The only two types are common in the Neotropic.
      • Genus Sapium Jacq. : The 21 to 23 species are common in the Neotropic.
      • Genus Sclerocroton Hochst. : The approximately six species occur in Africa and Madagascar.
      • Genus Sebastiania Spreng. : The only about 20 species left since 2012 or up to about 70 according to other authors are common in the Neotropic.
      • Genus Senefeldera Mart. : The only three species occur from Colombia to Brazil.
      • Genus Senefelderopsis Steyerm. : The only two types are common in the Neotropic.
      • Genus Shirakiopsis eater : The six species are common in the Paläotropis .
      • Genus Spegazziniophytum Esser : It contains only one species:
        • Spagazziniophytum patagonicum (Speg.) Esser : It occurs in southern Argentina.
      • Genus Spirostachys Sond. : The only two types are common in tropical and southern Africa.
      • Genus Stillingia Garden ex L .: Of the 28 to 30 species, most of the species come in the New World, with a main emphasis from the USA to Mexico; only a few species occur in Madagascar, the Mascarene Islands, Malesia and the Fiji Islands . It is discussed about this genus (as of 2012) that it may not be monophyletic to this extent.
      • Genus Triadica Lour. : The only three species are common in tropical and subtropical Asia.
  • Tribus Hureae: It contains three genera:
    • Genus Algernonia Baill. (Syn .: Tetraplandra Baill. , Dendrobryon Klotzsch ex Pax ): The approximately twelve species are distributed from Peru to Brazil.
    • Genus Hura L .: The only two species are common in the Neotropic. They are dehydration spreaders, the fruits explode with a loud bang, individual carpels are thrown up to 40 meters
    • Genus Ophthalmoblapton Allemão : The four kinds are common in Brazil.
  • Tribus Pachystromateae Reveal : It contains only one genus:
    • Genus Pachystroma Müll.Arg. : It contains only one type:
      • Pachystroma longifolium (Nees) IMJohnst. : It occurs from Brazil to Bolivia.
  • Tribus Stomatocalyceae GLWebster : It contains two sub- tribes with four genera:
    • Subtribus Hamilcoinae: It contains two genera:
      • Genus Hamilcoa Prain : It contains only one species:
        • Hamilcoa zenkeri (Pax) Prain : It occurs from Nigeria to Cameroon .
      • Genus Nealchornea Huber : Of the only two species, both occur in the Amazon region and one species also occurs from eastern Colombia to Peru.
    • Subtribus Stomatocalycinae Garbage. Arg . : It contains two types:
      • Genus Pimelodendron Hassk. : The four or so species occur in tropical Asia and northern Australia.
      • Genus Plagiostyles Pierre : It contains only one species:
        • Plagiostyles africana (Müll.Arg.) Prain : It is distributed from Nigeria to tropical west-central Africa.

Subfamily Cheilosoideae

• In 2005 a subfamily Cheilosoideae (Müll.Arg.) K.Wurdack & Petra Hoffm. suggested. (Syn .: Cheilosaceae Doweld ) It contains two genera with about seven species:
  • Genus Cheilosa flower : It contains only one species:
    • Cheilosa montana flower : It occurs in Malesia.
  • Genus Neoscortechinia Pax : The six species are distributed from tropical Asia to the Solomon Islands .

literature

• Geoffrey A. Levin, Lynn J. Gillespie: In: Flora of North America Editorial Committee: Flora of North America North of Mexico , Volume 12: Magnoliophyta: Vitaceae to Garryaceae , Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York, 2016, ISBN 978- 0-19-064372-0 . Euphorbiaceae - online with the same text as the printed work .
• Bingtao Li, Huaxing Qiu, Jin-shuang Ma, Hua Zhu, Michael G. Gilbert, Hans-Joachim (Hajo) Esser, Stefan Dressler, Petra Hoffmann, Lynn J. Gillespie, Maria Vorontsova, Gordon D. McPherson: In: Wu Zheng -yi, Peter H. Raven & Deyuan Hong (Eds.): Flora of China , Volume 11 - Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae , Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing and St. Louis, 2008, ISBN 978-1-930723-73 -3 . Euphorbiaceae , p. 163 - online with the same text as the printed work . (Sections Description and Distribution)
• Toru Tokuoka: Molecular phylogenetic analysis of Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto based on plastid and nuclear DNA sequences and ovule and seed character evolution. In: Journal of Plant Research , Volume 120, Issue 4, 2007, pp. 511-522. doi : 10.1007 / s10265-007-0090-3
• Kenneth J. Wurdack, Petra Hoffmann, Mark W. Chase: Molecular phylogenetic analysis of uniovulate Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto) using plastid RBCL and TRNL-F DNA sequences. In: American Journal of Botany , Volume 92, 2005, pp. 1397-1420. doi : 10.3732 / ajb.92.8.1397 (section systematics)
• Anna Laurent : Botanical Art from the Golden Age of Scientific Discovery . University of Chicago Press. Ed .: University of Chicago . University of Chicago Press , Chicago , Illinois , United States 2016, ISBN 978-0-226-32110-3 , XI. EUPHORBIACEAE / SPURGE FAMILY, S.  92-97 (English, 300 pp., Degruyter.com [ONLINE; accessed on August 22, 2020] Retrieved from Walter de Gruyter (online)).

Web links

Commons : Spurge Family (Euphorbiaceae)  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

• The Euphorbiaceae family on the AP website . (Sections systematics and description)

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Euphorbiaceae at Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis
2. ^ ^{A b} The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group: An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. In: Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , Volume 181, Issue 1, 2016, pp. 1-20 . doi : 10.1111 / boj.12385
3. ↑ Kenneth J. Wurdack, Charles C. Davis: Malpighiales phylogenetics: Gaining ground on one of the most recalcitrant clades in the angiosperm tree of life. In: American Journal of Botany , Volume 96, 2009, pp. 1551-1570. on-line. doi : 10.3732 / ajb.0800207
4. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Kenneth J. Wurdack, Petra Hoffmann, Mark W. Chase: Molecular phylogenetic analysis of uniovulate Euphorbiaceae (Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto) using plastid RBCL and TRNL-F DNA sequences. In: American Journal of Botany , Volume 92, 2005, pp. 1397-1420. doi : 10.3732 / ajb.92.8.1397
5. ↑ ^{a b c d e} The Euphorbiaceae family on the AP website . last access 2020-03-14
6. ↑ ^{a b} Euphorbiaceae in the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN), USDA , ARS , National Genetic Resources Program. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Retrieved March 14, 2020.
7. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw dx dy dz ea eb ec ed ee ef eg eh ei ej ek el em en eo ep eq er es et eu ev ew ex ey ez fa fb fc fd fe ff fg fh fi fj fk fl fm fn fo fp fq fr fs ft fu fv fw fx fy fz ga gb gc gd ge gf gg gh gi gj gk gl gm gn go gp gq gr gs gt gu gv gw gx gy gz ha hb hc hd he hf hg hh hi hj hk hl hm hn ho hp hq hr hs ht hu hv hw hx} Rafaël Govaerts, DG Frodin, A. Radcliffe-Smith, 2000: World Checklist and Bibliography of Euphorbiaceae (and Pandaceae) 1-4, pp. 1-1622. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. In: Rafaël Govaerts (ed.): Euphorbiaceae. In: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) - The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved March 13, 2020.
8. ↑ ^{a b c d e} Bingtao Li, Huaxing Qiu, Jin-shuang Ma, Hua Zhu, Michael G. Gilbert, Hans-Joachim (Hajo) Esser, Stefan Dressler, Petra Hoffmann, Lynn J. Gillespie, Maria Vorontsova, Gordon D. McPherson: In: Wu Zheng-yi, Peter H. Raven & Deyuan Hong (Eds.): Flora of China , Volume 11 - Oxalidaceae through Aceraceae , Science Press and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing and St. Louis, 2008, ISBN 978 -1-930723-73-3 . Euphorbiaceae , p. 163 - online with the same text as the printed work .
9. ↑ ^{a b} Kristo Kulju, Raymond Ham, Frans Breteler: Rediscovery and phylogenetic position of the incertae sedis genus Afrotrewia (Euphorbiaceae): Morphological, pollen and molecular evidence. In: Taxon , Volume 57, 2008, pp. 137-143. Abstract.
10. ↑ Paul E. Berry, Ines Cordeiro, Alex C. Wiedenhoeft, Maria Amélia Vitorino-Cruz & Letícia Ribes de Lima: Brasiliocroton, a new crotonoid genus of Euphorbiaceae ss from eastern Brazil. In: Systematic Botany , Volume 30, Issue 2, 2005, pp. 357-365. doi : 10.1600 / 0363644054223585
11. ↑ Brasiliocroton muricatus at KEW Science.
12. ^ Paul E. Berry, AL Hipp, K. Wurdack, B. Van Ee, R. Riina: Molecular phylogenetics of the giant genus Croton (Euphorbiaceae sensu stricto) using ITS and trnL-F DNA sequence data. In: American Journal of Botany , Volume 92, 2005, pp. 1520-1534.
13. ↑ Ki-Ryong Park, Robert K. Jansen: A Phylogeny of Euphorbieae Subtribe Euphorbiinae (Euphorbiaceae) based on Molecular Data. In: Journal of Plant Biology , Volume 50, Issue 6, 2007, pp. 644-649. doi : 10.1007 / BF03030608
14. ↑ MS Binojkumar, NP Balakrishnan: The genus Euphorbia L. (Euphorbiaceae) in India. A taxonomic revision , pp. 1-430. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, 7, 2010.
15. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q} Hans-Joachim Esser: The tribe Hippomaneae (Euphorbiaceae) in Brazil. In: Rodriguésia , Volume 63, Issue 1, 2012, pp. 209-225. doi : 10.1590 / S2175-78602012000100013

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