Polish culture in World War II

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The Polish culture was in the Second World War by the two occupying powers of Poland, the Third Reich and the Soviet Union brutally suppressed, both the Polish population and culture were hostile. Thousands of scientists and artists were killed by a policy of “ cultural genocide ”. Countless cultural souvenirs have been victims of robbery and destruction.

While persecuting and murdering members of the Polish cultural elite , the occupiers looted or destroyed much of Poland's cultural heritage. Most Polish schools have been closed and those that have stayed open have seen significant changes in their curricula .

Still, underground organizations and individuals - especially the Polish Underground State - managed to save many of Poland's most valuable cultural heirlooms and to preserve as many cultural institutions and pieces as possible. The Catholic Church and wealthy individuals contributed to the survival of some artists and their works. Despite severe retaliation by the Nazis and the Soviet Union, Polish underground cultural activities survived World War II , including publications, concerts, theater, education, and scientific research.

background

On September 1, 1939, Hitler's troops invaded Poland and started the Second World War. As part of the Hitler-Stalin Pact , the Red Army of the Soviet Union marched in on September 17th. As a result, Poland was divided between these two powers and remained over zone of occupation for most of the war. By October 1, Germany and the Soviet Union had completely overrun Poland, although the Polish government never officially surrendered and the Polish underground state, subordinate to the Polish government-in-exile , quickly formed. On October 8th, the German Reich annexed the western areas of the former Poland and established the General Government in the remaining occupied areas . The Soviet Union had to because of the German invasion in their own territory (1941) territories from 1939 to give up, but re-annexed it permanently after the middle of 1944 they won back . During the war, Poland lost 20% of its population compared to the pre-war period due to the occupation that marked the end of the Second Polish Republic .

Destruction of Polish culture

German occupation

politics

German policy towards the Polish state and its culture changed in the course of the war. Initially, German officials and officers were not given clear guidelines on how to deal with Polish cultural institutions, but this changed quickly. Immediately after the attack on Poland in September 1939, the German government took the first steps towards the General Plan East (the “small plan”). The basic idea was outlined by the Racial Political Office in Berlin in a document entitled “On dealing with the inhabitants of the formerly Polish areas from a racial point of view”. Slavs who lived east of the German border before the outbreak of war were to be Germanized , enslaved or exterminated, depending on whether they lived directly in the areas annexed by Germany or in the Generalgouvernement.

A large part of German policy towards Polish culture was determined on October 31, 1939 at a meeting between the Governor of the Generalgouvernement, Hans Frank , and Reich Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels in Łódź . Goebbels declared that “the Polish nation is not worth calling a civilized nation” . He and Frank came to an agreement that the possibilities for Poles to experience their culture should be massively restricted: no theaters, cinemas or cabarets; no access to radio or the press and no education. Frank suggested that Poles should be shown films on a regular basis that highlight the achievements of the Third Reich and that they should possibly only be addressed via megaphones . In the weeks that followed, all Polish schools with higher than intermediate professional level were closed, as were all theaters and many other cultural institutions. The only Polish-language newspaper published in occupied Poland also had to close, and Polish intellectuals began to be arrested.

From March 1940, all cultural activities were controlled by the General Government's Department of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda, later renamed the Propaganda Department. Further guidelines issued in spring and early summer reflected the policy outlined by Frank and Goebbels in the previous autumn. One of the department's earliest decrees banned the organization of all, but especially the most "primitive", cultural activities without the department's prior approval.

However, "low quality" plays, including those of an erotic or pornographic character, were excluded - these were to be published in order to appease the population, to show the world the "real" Polish culture and to create the impression that Germany which did not prevent Poles from expressing themselves. German propaganda specialists invited critics from neutral countries to specially organized “Polish” presentations that were deliberately boring or pornographic, and presented them as typical Polish cultural activities. Polish-German cooperation in the cultural field, such as joint public appearances, was strictly forbidden. In August 1940, a mandatory registration system for writers and artists was introduced. In October, the printing of new Polish-language books was banned, existing titles were censored and often confiscated and confiscated.

In 1941 German policy developed further to the point that it demanded the complete annihilation of the Poles , who were viewed by the National Socialists as subhumans . Within 10 to 20 years, the Polish areas under German occupation should be cleared by the Polish population and colonized with German colonialists . This policy loosened somewhat in the last years of the occupation (1943/44) in the face of the military defeat of the Germans and the approaching Eastern Front . The Germans hoped that a milder cultural policy would lessen unrest and weaken Polish resistance. Poland was again allowed to visit those museums that encouraged German propaganda and indoctrination, such as the newly created Chopin Museum, which emphasized the composer's fictional German roots. Restrictions in the areas of education, theater and music have also been relaxed.

Given that the Second Polish Republic was a multicultural state, German politics and propaganda also endeavored to create and promote conflict between ethnic groups by fueling tensions between Poles and Jews, and between Poles and Ukrainians. In Łódź , Jews were forced by the Germans to help destroy a monument to the Polish hero Tadeusz Kościuszko and were filmed in the process. Shortly afterwards, the Germans set a synagogue on fire and filmed Polish viewers, who they portrayed in propaganda publications as "vengeful mobs". This policy of division was also reflected in the Germans' decision to destroy the Polish education system , while at the same time showing a relatively high level of tolerance towards the Ukrainian school system. As Gauleiter Erich Koch explained: "We have to do everything possible so that when a Pole meets a Ukrainian, he wants to kill the Ukrainian and vice versa, the Ukrainian wants to kill the Pole."

Looting

Germans loot Galeria Zachęta in Warsaw (summer 1944)

In 1939, when the occupation government was in place, the National Socialists confiscated Polish state property and large parts of private property. Countless art objects were looted and taken to Germany in accordance with a plan well worked out in advance of the invasion. The looting was monitored by the SS-Ahnenerbe , task forces that were responsible for art, as well as by experts from the main trust agency in the east , who were responsible for more profane objects. Notable items looted by the Nazis include the Krakow high altar, as well as paintings by Raphael , Rembrandt , Leonardo da Vinci , Canaletto and Bacciarelli . Most of the important works of art were "secured" by the National Socialists within six months of September 1939; At the end of 1942, German officials assumed that “over 90%” of the formerly Polish art was in their possession. Some works of art were sent to German museums, such as the planned Führer Museum in Linz , while other works of art became the private property of National Socialist officials. Over 516,000 individual works of art were stolen, including 2,800 works of European painting, 11,000 works by Polish painters, 1,400 sculptures, 75,000 manuscripts, 25,000 maps and 90,000 books (including 20,000 printed before 1800), as well as hundreds of thousands of other items of artistic or historical value . Even exotic animals were stolen from the zoos .

destruction

Portrait of a young man , by Raphael , approx. 1514. Possibly a self-portrait and in this case the most valuable single piece of art that was stolen by the National Socialists in Poland. Formerly in the collection of the Czartoryski Museum in Krakow , its whereabouts are unknown.

Many places of learning and cultural institutions - universities, schools, libraries, museums, theaters and cinemas - have either been closed or marked as “only for Germans”. 25 museums and a large number of other institutions were destroyed in the war. According to one estimate, by the end of the war, 43% of the infrastructure of Polish educational and research institutions and 14% of Polish museums were destroyed. According to another estimate, only 105 of the former 175 museums in Poland survived the war and only 33 of these institutions were able to reopen at the end of the war. Of the 603 pre-war scientific institutions in Poland, around half were completely destroyed and only a few survived the war halfway intact.

Many university professors as well as teachers, lawyers, artists, writers, priests and other members of the Polish intelligentsia were arrested and executed or taken to concentration camps during operations like the AB-Aktion . This special action led to the infamous Krakow special action and the Lviv mass murders . During World War II, Poland lost 39–45% of its doctors and dentists, 26–57% of its lawyers, 15–30% of its teachers, 30–40% of its scientists and university professors, and 18–28% of its clergy. The justification for this policy was clearly expressed by a Gauleiter: "In my district [every Pole who] shows signs of intelligence is shot."

As part of their program to suppress Polish culture, the Germans attempted to destroy Christianity in Poland, with a special focus on the Roman Catholic Church . In some parts of occupied Poland, Poles were prevented or even banned from attending church services. At the same time, church property was confiscated, the use of the Polish language in religious services was banned, organizations in contact with the Catholic Church abolished, and the singing of certain religious songs - or reading passages from the Bible - in public was banned. The worst conditions were found in the Reichsgau Wartheland , which the National Socialists used as an experimental space for their anti-religious politics. The Polish clergy and religious leaders were conspicuously strongly represented in the parts of the intelligentsia that were intended for the annihilation.

In order to prevent the emergence of a new generation of educated Poles, German officials decreed that schooling for Polish children should be limited to a few years of primary schooling. Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler wrote in a memorandum in May 1940: “The sole purpose of this schooling is to learn simple arithmetic, nothing beyond the number 500; how to write your name; and the doctrine that it is divine law to obey the Germans; ... I do not think the ability to read is desirable. " Hans Frank quoted him:" Poles do not need universities or secondary schools; the Polish countries are to be transformed into an intellectual desert. ”The situation was particularly fatal in the former Polish areas beyond the Generalgouvernement, which were annexed by the Third Reich. Specific policies differed from area to area, but in general there was no Polish-language education system at all. German politics there represented a “crash Germanization” of the population. Polish teachers were dismissed and some were invited to participate in “orientation meetings” with the new government, where they were either all arrested or executed on the spot. Some Polish schoolchildren were sent to German schools while others went to special schools where they spent most of their time as unpaid workers; usually in German-run farms. Speaking Polish brought severe punishments. Polish children were expected to start work when they had completed primary education between the ages of 12 and 15. In the eastern areas that did not belong to the General Government ( Bialystok District , Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine ), many elementary schools were closed and most of the educational activities took place in non-Polish languages ​​such as Ukrainian, Belarusian or Lithuanian. In the Bialystok district, for example, 86% of the schools that existed before the war were closed during the first two years of the German occupation - by the end of the following year that number rose to 90%.

Photo of the first portrait of Chopin ( Mieroszewski , 1829). Destroyed in Warsaw in September 1939

The situation of Polish primary schools in the General Government was somewhat better, even though at the end of 1940 only 30% of the schools from the pre-war period were in operation and only 28% of the proportion of Polish children from the pre-war period attended them. A German police memorandum in 1943 described the situation as follows:

“The students sit crammed together without the necessary materials and often without a qualified teaching staff. In addition, Polish schools are closed for at least five of the ten months of the school year due to a lack of coal or other heating material. Of the twenty to thirty spacious school buildings that Kraków had before 1939, the two worst buildings are in use today […] Every day, the pupils have to study in different shifts. Under such circumstances the school day, which normally lasts five hours, is reduced to one hour. "

In the Generalgouvernement the other schools were subjected to the German education system and the number and competence of their Polish employees was continuously reduced. All universities and most secondary schools were closed, if not immediately after the invasion, then until mid-1940. No official Polish educational institution beyond the vocational school remained in operation until the end of 1940, and it offered nothing more than elementary trade and engineering education that the Nazi economy needed. Elementary school was supposed to last seven years, but classes in the last two years of the program met only once a week. There was no money to heat the schools in winter. Classes and schools had to be merged, Polish teachers had to be fired and the resulting savings were used to create schools for children of the German minority or to build barracks for the German troops. No new Polish teachers were trained. The curriculum has been censored; Subjects such as literature, history and geography were eliminated. Old textbooks were confiscated and school libraries were closed. New learning goals for Poles included convincing them that their national fate was hopeless and teaching them to be submissive and respectful to Germans. This was achieved through deliberate measures such as police raids on schools, police investigations into the property of students, mass arrests of students and teachers, and the use of students as forced laborers , who were often brought to Germany as seasonal workers .

Queen Bona's royal box from the 16th century; Robbed and destroyed by the Germans in 1939

The Germans were particularly interested in the destruction of Jewish culture ; practically every synagogue in Poland was destroyed. The sale of Jewish literature was also banned throughout Poland.

Polish literature faced a similar fate in the areas annexed by Germany, as the sale of Polish books was also prohibited there. The public destruction of Polish books was not limited to those confiscated from the libraries, but also included those books confiscated from private households. The most recent Polish titles that had not yet been banned were withdrawn in 1943; even Polish prayer books were confiscated. Shortly after the occupation began, most of the libraries were closed; about 80% of all Krakow libraries were closed immediately, while the rest had to watch as censors decimated their holdings. The occupation forces also destroyed Polish book collections including the Sejm and Senate Library , the Przezdziecki and Zamoyski Library, the Central Military Library and the Rapperswil Collection . In 1941 the last remaining Polish public library in the German-occupied area in Warsaw was closed. During the war, the Warsaw libraries lost around a million volumes, around 30% of their collections. More than 80% of these losses are a direct result of the purges and not caused by military combat operations. It is estimated that a total of 10 million volumes from state libraries and institutions perished during the war.

Polish flags and other national symbols were confiscated. The fight against the Polish language also included the demolition of Polish-language characters and the banishment of the Polish language from public places. People who spoke Polish on the streets were often insulted or physically assaulted. The Germanization of place names prevailed. Many treasures of Polish culture - including monuments, plaques and monuments to national heroes (e.g. Kraków's Adam Mickiewicz Monument ) - were destroyed. All the monuments and plaques in Toruń were torn down. Dozens of monuments were destroyed across Poland. The Nazis planned to demolish entire cities .

Censorship and propaganda

Wehrmacht soldiers remove a Polish national badge in Gdynia , September 1939

The publication of all normal Polish-language books, literary or scientific studies was prohibited. In 1940, several German-controlled printing companies in occupied Poland started their operations and published things like Polish-German dictionaries and anti-Semitic and anti-communist novels. One aim of German propaganda was to rewrite Polish history : studies were published and exhibitions were held claiming that the Polish country was actually German and that famous Poles including Nicolaus Copernicus , Veit Stoss and Chopin from an ethnic point of view Were Germans.

The censorship first hit books that were perceived as "dangerous", including scientific and educational texts, as well as texts thought to promote Polish patriotism; only fiction devoid of anti-German undertones was allowed. Prohibited literature also included maps, atlases, English-language and French-language publications, including dictionaries. Several non-public indexes of banned books have been created and over 1,500 Polish writers have been classified as "dangerous to the German state and German culture". The index of banned authors also included Polish writers such as Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki , Stanisław Wyspiański , Bolesław Prus , Stefan Żeromski , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Władysław Reymont , Julian Tuwim , Kornel Makuszyński , Leopold Staff , Kornel Makuszyński and Maria Orzeszkowa . Just possession of these books was illegal and subject to imprisonment. The door-to-door sale of books was banned and bookstores - they needed a permit to operate - were either cleared out or closed.

Poles were banned from owning radios on the death penalty . The press was reduced from over 2,000 publications to a few dozen, all of which were censored by the Germans. All pre-war newspapers were closed, and the few that published during the occupation were startups under complete control by the Germans. Such utter destruction of the press was unprecedented in contemporary history. The only officially accessible reading was the propaganda press distributed by the German occupation administration. Cinemas, now under the control of the German propaganda machine, had to have their programs determined by films from Nazi Germany, which were initiated by the German newsreel . The few Polish films that were allowed to be shown (around 20% of the program) were edited to remove all references to Polish national symbols as well as Jewish actors and producers. Several propaganda films were shot in Polish, although no more Polish films were shown from 1943 onwards. Since all profits from Polish cinemas officially flowed into German war production, the Polish underground advised against visiting these cinemas; a famous slogan of the underground movement declared: "Tylko świnie siedzą w kinie" ("only pigs visit the films"). The theaters were exposed to similar pressure, since the Germans forbade them to produce "serious" plays. In fact, some pieces of propaganda were created for theatrical stages. Therefore, underground theater productions were also boycotted. In addition, actors were discouraged from appearing in such and warned against being labeled collaborators if they did not follow the advice. Ironically, restrictions on cultural performances in the Jewish ghettos were relaxed as the Germans wanted to distract the ghetto residents and prevent them from realizing their fate to come.

Music was the least constrained cultural activity, possibly because Hans Frank saw himself as a serious music lover. In the course of time he ordered the creation of the orchestra and symphony of the General Government in its capital Krakow. Numerous musical performances were allowed in cafes and churches and the Polish underground decided to boycott only propaganda operas . Visual artists, including painters and sculptors, were forced to register with the German government; but their works were generally tolerated by the underground as long as no propaganda topics were communicated. The closed museums were replaced by occasional art exhibitions, which were often propaganda subjects.

The development of Nazi propaganda in occupied Poland can generally be divided into two main phases: initial efforts aimed at creating a negative image of pre-war Poland, later efforts were intended to promote an anti-Soviet, anti-Semitic and pro-German attitude.

Soviet occupation

Fourth partition of Poland as a result of the Hitler-Stalin Pact

After the Soviet invasion of Poland (from September 17, 1939), which followed the German invasion, which in turn marked the beginning of World War II (September 1, 1939), the Soviet Union annexed the eastern parts of the country ( Kresy ) of the Second Polish Republic , where around 13.3 million people lived on an area of ​​201,015 km². Hitler and Stalin shared the goal of wiping out Poland's political and cultural life so that the region and the idea of ​​Poland would no longer exist.

The Soviet authorities viewed service for the Polish state before the outbreak of war as a “crime against the revolution” and “anti-revolutionary activity” and arrested many members of the Polish intelligentsia, politicians, civil servants and scientists, as well as anyone suspected of being a danger to the depicting Soviet rule. More than a million Polish citizens were deported to Siberia , many were housed in gulag for years or even decades . Others died, including the 20,000 officers who perished in the Katyn massacre .

The annexed areas were quickly "Sovietized" by introducing compulsory collectivization . They continued to confiscate, nationalize and redistribute private and Polish state property. In this context, they ruthlessly broke up political parties and social associations and imprisoned or murdered their leaders as " enemies of the people ". In line with Soviet anti-religious policies , churches and religious organizations were persecuted. On February 10, 1940, the NKVD started a terror campaign against "anti-Soviet elements" in occupied Poland. The Soviet Union had its sights on people who often traveled abroad or had correspondence with other countries, Esperantists , stamp collectors, Red Cross workers, refugees, smugglers, priests and religious, nobles, landowners, wealthy merchants, bankers, industrialists, and hotel and restaurant owners. Like Hitler, Stalin tried to “behead” Polish society.

Soviet-inspired Polish-language caricatures denigrate Polish "enemies of the people" - business people, army officers and aristocrats (published in Lwów in September 1940)

The Soviet authorities tried to remove all traces of Polish history in the region under their control. The name "Poland" was banned. Polish monuments were demolished. All institutions of the dismantled Polish state, including the University of Lwów , were closed and later reopened, mostly under the direction of a Russian director. Soviet communist ideology took precedence over all teaching. Polish literature and linguistics were dissolved by the Soviet authorities and the Polish language was replaced by Russian or Ukrainian. Polish-language books were even burned in primary schools. Polish teachers were not admitted to the school service and many were imprisoned. Classes were held in Belarusian, Ukrainian or Lithuanian, with a Soviet-friendly curriculum. Most scholars believe that “the conditions in the Soviet occupation zone were only slightly less severe than among the Germans”. In September 1939, many Polish Jews fled to the east; after living under Soviet rule for a few months, they wanted to return to the German zone of occupied Poland.

All publications and media were subject to censorship. The Soviet Union tried to recruit left-wing Poles willing to cooperate. Soon after the invasion, the Soviet Ukraine Authors' Community formed a local group in Lwów; there was a Polish-language theater and a radio station. In Minsk and Wilno , the cultural activities of the Poles were less organized. These activities were tightly controlled by the Soviet authorities, who saw to it that these offers presented the new Soviet regime in a positive light and slandered the former Polish government. This Soviet support for cultural offers in the Polish language, motivated by propaganda intentions, nevertheless contradicted the official Russification policy. Initially, the Soviet Union intended to make the Polish language extinct and therefore banned Polish in schools, on street signs, and in other areas of life. However, this policy changed at times - for the first time during the fraudulent elections in October 1939 and later after Germany had conquered France. In the late spring of 1940, Stalin, seeing a conflict with the Third Reich coming, decided that the Poles might now be useful to him. In autumn 1940 the Poles celebrated the 85th anniversary of Adam Mickiewicz's death in Lemberg . Soon, however, Stalin decided to step up the russification policy. However, this was reversed when, after the German invasion of the Soviet Union, there was a need for pro-Soviet propaganda in the Polish language, when Stalin allowed the establishment of Polish forces in the Soviet Union and later decided to found the Communist People's Republic of Poland .

Some Polish authors collaborated with the Soviet Union and wrote pro-Soviet or anti-Polish propaganda. Among them Jerzy Borejsza , Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński , Kazimierz Brandys , Janina Broniewska , January Brzoza , Teodor Bujnicki , Leon Chwistek , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Halina Górska , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stefan Jędrychowski , Stanislaw Jerzy Lec , Tadeusz Łopalewski , Juliusz Kleiner , Jan Kott , Jalu Kurek , Karol Kuryluk , Leopold Lewin , Anatol Mikułko , Jerzy Panski , Leon Pasternak , Julian Przyboś , Jerzy Putrament , Jerzy Rawicz , Adolf Rudnicki , Włodzimierz Slobodník , Włodzimierz Sokorski , Elżbieta Szemplińska , Anatol Stern , Julian Stryjkowski , Lucjan Szenwald , Leopold Tyrmand , Wanda Wasilewska , Stanisław Wasilewski , Adam Ważyk , Aleksander Weintraub and Bruno Winawer .

Other Polish writers rejected the flattery of the new regime and instead published underground, such as For example: Jadwiga Czechowiczówna , Jerzy Hordyński , Jadwiga Gamska-Łempicka , Herminia Naglerowa , Beata Obertyńska , Ostap Ortwin , Tadeusz Peiper , Teodor Parnicki , Juliusz Petry . Some authors, like Władysław Broniewski , joined the anti-Soviet opposition after collaborating with the Soviet Union for a few months. Even Aleksander Wat , originally sympathizer of communism, was the NKVD arrested and after Kazakhstan sent.

Underground culture

Sponsor

The Polish culture persisted in the underground in the form of education, publishing and theater. The Polish underground state created a Ministry of Education and Culture under Stanisław Lorentz . Together with the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare (under Jan Stanisław Jankowski and later Stefan Mateja ) and the Ministry for the Elimination of the Consequences of War (under Antoni Olszewski and Bronisław Domosławski ), it became a promoter of Polish culture in the underground. These offices oversaw efforts to preserve works of art in state and private collections from looting and destruction (especially the huge paintings by Jan Matejko , which were hidden throughout the war). They prepared reports of stolen and destroyed works and supported artists and scientists with the intention of continuing their work and publishing activities, as well as supporting their families. They financed the underground newspaper Bibuła with works by Winston Churchill and Arkady Fiedler and 10,000 copies of a Polish elementary school primer, and commissioned artists to create works of resistance art (which were then disseminated by Operation N and similar activities). In addition, secret art exhibitions, theater performances and concerts were occasionally financed.

Other important promoters of Polish culture were the Roman Catholic Church and Polish nobles, who also supported artists and guarded Polish heritage (Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha and the former politician Janusz Radziwiłł were among the most important ). Some private publishers, including Stefan Kamieński , Zbigniew Mitzner , and the Ossolinski National Library, paid authors for books to be published after the war.

education

In response to the closure and censorship of Polish schools by the Germans, resistance among teachers led almost immediately to the creation of extensive underground educational activities. The best-known example is the Secret Teaching Organization ( Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska, TON ) that was created in October 1939. Other organizations arose locally, which after 1940 were increasingly subordinated to and coordinated by the TON, which worked closely with the Office for Culture and Education of the Underground State, which was created in the autumn of 1941 by the founder of TON Czesław Wycech . Classes took place under the guise of officially permitted activities or in private homes and other locations. In 1942, 1.5 million students attended the underground primary school system. In 1944 the secondary school system covered 100,000 people and university courses were attended by 10,000 students (for comparison: around 30,000 students were enrolled in Poland in 1938/39). Over 90,000 secondary school students attended underground lessons, which were given by almost 6,000 teachers between 1943 and 1944 in the four districts of the General Government (arranged around the cities of Warsaw, Cracow, Radom and Lublin ). All in all, every third child during the time of the General Government received some kind of education through the underground organizations; among adolescents aged for secondary schools, that number grew to around 70%. It is assumed that the coverage of the population with educational offers in some rural regions even improved (for example, because teachers who had fled from the cities or were deported organized classes). Compared with the pre-war lessons, the absence of Polish-Jewish students who were grouped together in ghettos by the Nazis is particularly striking . Nevertheless, there was also underground education there, often with the support of Polish organizations such as TON. Students in the underground schools were often members of the Polish resistance.

Medal for service during Operation Burza of the Polish Home Army

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In Warsaw alone there were over 70 underground schools with 2,000 teachers and 21,000 students. The Warsaw Underground University trained 3,700 students and was able to award 64 diplomas and 7 doctoral degrees. The Warsaw University of Technology trained 3,000 students during the occupation and was able to award 186 engineering degrees and 18 doctoral degrees, as well as habilitation for 16 people . Jagiellonian University in Cracow awarded 568 diplomas, 62 doctoral degrees, employed over 100 professors and lecturers, and served more than 1000 students a year. Across Poland, many other universities and higher education institutions (for music, theater, art and the like) continued their classes throughout the war. Even some scientific studies have been carried out (for example by Władysław Tatarkiewicz , a leading Polish philosopher, and by Zenon Klemensiewicz , a linguist). Almost 1,000 Polish scientists received funds from the underground state that enabled them to continue their research.

The German attitude towards underground education differed depending on whether it took place within the Generalgouvernement or in the annexed areas. The Germans had surely recognized the full extent of the Polish underground education system as early as 1943, but they did not have the personnel to put an end to it, presumably because they used their resources primarily to deal with the armed resistance. Closing schools and colleges in the Generalgouvernement was for the most part not a top priority for Germans. In 1943 a German education report stated that it was difficult to control what was learned in schools, especially in rural areas, because of the lack of staff, transport and the activities of the Polish resistance. Some schools taught prohibited content semi-publicly against the will of the German authorities. In 1944, Hans Frank stated that although Polish teachers were "mortal enemies" of the German Reich, not all of them could be removed immediately. In the annexed areas this was perceived as a much more serious problem than it hindered the Germanization process; Those who were involved in the underground education system in these areas were much more at risk of being deported to a concentration camp.

Press

There were over 1,000 underground newspapers; among the most important were the Biuletyn Informacyjny of Armia Krajowa and the Rzeczpospolita of the Delegatura Rządu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej na Kraj . In addition to posting news (from intercepted radio broadcasts from the West), there were hundreds of underground publications devoted to politics, economics, education and literature ( e.g. Sztuka i Naród ). The highest recorded volume of publications belonged to Biuletyn Informacyjny with 43,000 printed copies; the normal size of larger publications was 1,000 to 5,000 copies. The Polish underground also published brochures and leaflets from imaginary resistance organizations designed to spread disinformation and lower the morale of Germans. Books and other things were also printed, such as patriotic posters or fake posters of the German administration ordering the Germans to leave Poland or asking the Poles to register the cats in their household.

The two most important "publishers" in the underground were the Home Army's Information and Propaganda Office and the Government Delegation for Poland. The Tajne Wojskowe Zakłady Wydawnicze (German: Secret Military Publishing House ) by Jerzy Rutkowski (member of the Home Army) was probably the largest publisher in the underground world.

In addition to Polish titles, the Home Army printed fake German newspapers designed to break down the morale of the German occupation forces (as part of Operation N). The majority of Polish underground printing works were in occupied Warsaw; Until the Warsaw Uprising in the summer of 1944, the Germans discovered over 10 underground printing presses (their operators were mostly executed or sent to concentration camps). The second largest underground publishing center in Poland was Krakow. There, authors and editors were exposed to similar dangers: for example, almost the entire editorial staff of the satirical underground newspaper Na Ucho was imprisoned and the editors-in-chief were executed in Krakow on May 27, 1944 (Na Ucho was the longest-published Polish underground newspaper devoted to satire; 20 issues were published from October 1943). The underground press was supported by a large number of activists; In addition to the crews operating the printing presses, there were a number of underground couriers who distributed the publications. According to some statistics, these couriers were the most arrested group among underground members.

During the German occupation, the professions of Polish journalist or writer were practically wiped out, as they had few opportunities to publish their work. The Underground State Department of Culture funded various initiatives and individuals so that they could continue their work and be helped with their publications.

Novels and anthologies were published by underground printers; over 1,000 works were published during the war. Literary discussions took place and prominent authors who worked in Poland took part. These included, among others: Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Lesław Bartelski , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński , Maria Dabrowska , Tadeusz Gajcy , Zuzanna Ginczanka , Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz , the future Nobel Prize winner Czeslaw Milosz , Zofia Nałkowska , Jan Parandowski , Leopold Staff , Kazimierz Wyka , and Jerzy Zawiejski . Authors wrote about the bad conditions in the POW camps ( Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński , Stefan Flukowski , leon kruczkowski , Andrzej Nowicki and Marian Piechała ), in the ghettos and even in the concentration camps ( Jan Maria Gisges , Halina Gołczowa , Zofia Górska (Romanowiczowa) , Tadeusz Hołuj , Kazimierz Andrzej Jaworski and Marian Kubicki ). Many authors did not experience the war's end, they include Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Wacław Berent , Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, Tadeusz Gajcy, Zuzanna Ginczanka, Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski , Stefan Kiedrzyński , Janusz Korczak , Halina Krahelska , Tadeusz Hollender , Witold Hulewicz , Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski , Włodzimierz Pietrzak , Leon Pomirowski , Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer and Bruno Schulz .

Fine arts and music

Biuletyn Informacyjny of the Polish Underground State of July 15, 1943 - information about the death of General Sikorski and the arrangement of a national day of mourning

With the censorship of Polish theater (and the practical end of the Polish radio and film industry), underground theaters emerged, especially in Warsaw and Krakow, which performed performances in various underground locations. From 1940 the theaters were coordinated by the Secret Theater Council. Four large companies and over 40 smaller groups were active throughout the war, even in the Warsaw Pawiak prison of the GeStaPo and in the Auschwitz concentration camp; Drama schools were also set up underground. Among the actors in the underground, many of whom were working in secular professions, belonged Karol Adwentowicz , Elżbieta Barszczewska , Henryk Borowski , Wojciech Brydziński , Władysław Hańcza , Stefan Jaracz , Tadeusz Kantor , Mieczysław Kotlarczyk , Bohdan Korzeniowski , Jan Kreczmar , Adam Mularczyk , Andrzej Pronaszko , Leon Schiller , Arnold Szyfman , Stanisława Umińska , Edmund Wierciński , Maria Wiercińska , Karol Wojtyła (later Pope John Paul II ), Marian Wyrzykowski , Jerzy Zawiejski and others. Theater was also played in the Jewish ghettos and in the camps for Polish prisoners of war.

Polish music, including orchestras, also went underground. Excellent Polish musicians and directors ( Adam Didur , Zbigniew Drzewiecki , January Ekier , Barbara Kostrzewska , Zygmunt Latoszewski , Jerzy Lefeld , Witold Lutoslawski , Andrzej Panufnik , Piotr Perkowski , Edmund Rudnicki , Eugenia Umińska , Jerzy Waldorff , Kazimierz Wilkomirski , Maria Wiłkomirska , Bolesław Woytowicz , Mira Zimińska ) performed in restaurants, cafes, and in private homes, and with the boldest patriotic ballad singing on the streets while evading German patrols. Patriotic songs like Siekiera, motyka , the most famous song from occupied Warsaw, were also written. Patriotic puppet shows were performed. Jewish musicians (e.g. Władysław Szpilman ) and artists also performed in ghettos and even in concentration camps. Although many of them died, some survived abroad, such as Alexandre Tansman in the United States and Eddie Rosner and Henryk Wars in the Soviet Union.

Photo of civilian SS victims in the Wola massacre during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944

Fine arts also existed underground. Cafes, restaurants, and homes have been turned into galleries or museums; some of them have been closed and their owners, staff and sponsors tortured, imprisoned or even executed. Artists in the Polish underground included Eryk Lipiński , Stanisław Miedza-Tomaszewski , Stanisław Ostoja-Chrostowski , and Konstanty Maria Sopoćko . Some artists worked directly for the underground state, forging money and documents, or creating anti-Nazi art (satirical posters and caricatures) or Polish symbols of patriotism (such as the Kotwica ). These works were reproduced in underground printing houses and those that were to be shown publicly were hung on walls or painted as graffiti . Much of this activity was coordinated under Operation N of the Home Army Information and Propaganda Office. In 1944 three large dolls (6 m high) could be shown as caricatures of Hitler and Mussolini in all public places in Warsaw. Some artists captured life and death in occupied Poland; despite the bans, they used cameras and took photos and even made films. Although it was impossible to run a radio station underground, speeches were recorded underground and fed into German radio stations or loudspeaker systems. Underground stamps were designed and issued. After the Germans also banned Polish sports activities, underground sports clubs were founded. Secret soccer games and even tournaments were also organized in Warsaw, Krakow and Poznan, although these were usually broken up by the Germans. All of these activities found support from the Department of Culture of the Underground State.

Warsaw Uprising

An English language news program describing the daily fighting during the Polish uprising; broadcast by the radio station of the Polish insurgents Błyskawica

During the Warsaw Uprising (August to October 1944), people in the Polish-controlled areas tried to restore their former everyday life in their free country. Cultural life flourished among both soldiers and civilians, with theaters, cinemas, post offices, newspapers, and similar activities available. The tenth secret poetry tournament took place during the uprising, with weapons as prizes (most of the younger generation of Polish poets were also members of the resistance). Under the direction of Antoni Bohdziewicz , the Office for Information and Propaganda of the Home Army produced three newsreels and over 30 km of film material documenting the battle. Eugeniusz Lokajski took 1,000 pictures before his death; Sylwester Braun around 3000, of which 1520 have been preserved, and Jerzy Tomaszewski around another 1000.

Culture in exile

Many Polish artists worked abroad, outside of occupied Europe . Arkady Fiedler , who was stationed in Great Britain, wrote about the 303rd Polish Fighter Squadron . Melchior Wańkowicz wrote about the Polish contribution to the capture of Monte Cassino in Italy. Other writers who have worked abroad include Jan Lechoń , Antoni Słonimski , Kazimierz Wierzyński and Julian Tuwim . There were artists who performed for the Polish armed forces in the west as well as for the Polish armed forces in the east . Henryk Wars and Irena Anders were among the musicians who performed in the cabaret “Polish Parade” for the 2nd Polish Corps . The favorite song of the soldiers who fought under the Allies was " Czerwone maki na Monte Cassino " (The red poppy on Monte Cassino), which was composed in 1944 by Feliks Konarski and Alfred Schütz . Polish theater also existed in exile - in both the East and the West. Various Polish painters, mostly soldiers of the 2nd Polish Corps, continued their work throughout the war. They included Tadeusz Piotr Potworowski , Adam Kossowski , Marian Kratochwil , Bolesław Leitgeber and Stefan Knapp .

Influence on post-war culture

Attempts to destroy Polish culture during the war have instead resulted in strengthening it. Norman Davies wrote in God's Playground : "In 1945, as a price for the countless victims, the survivors' attachment to their native culture was stronger than ever before." The close-knit network of underground education, from elementary schools to universities, also became known for its high quality, which is largely due to the lower number of students compared to teachers. The emerging culture, however, was different from the inter-war Poland culture for a number of reasons. The destruction of the Jewish society of Poland, changes of territory in the post-war period and post-war migrations left Poland without its historical ethnic minorities: the multicultural nation no longer existed.

The experiences of World War II left their mark on a generation of Polish artists known as the " Generation of Columbus ". This term stands for an entire generation of Poles who were born shortly after Poland regained independence in 1918 and whose youth were shaped by the Second World War. In their art they “discovered a new Poland” that was changed once and for all by the atrocities of World War II and the resulting creation of a communist Poland .

Over the years, almost three-quarters of the Polish people have emphasized the importance of World War II for Polish national consciousness. Much of the Polish artwork created after the war revolved around events of the war. Books by Tadeusz Borowski , Adolf Rudnicki , Henryk Grynberg , Miron Białoszewski , Hanna Krall and others, as well as films including those by Andrzej Wajda ( Eine Generation , Der Kanal , Asche und Diamant , Lotna , Eine Liebe in Deutschland , Korczak and Das Massaker von Katyn ), TV series ( four tank soldiers and a dog and seconds decide ), music ( Powstanie Warszawskie ) and comic books reflected that time. The Polish historian Tomasz Szarota wrote in 1996:

“Education and training programs place particular emphasis on the period of World War II and the occupation. Events and people related to the war are present everywhere on television, radio and in the print media. The topic remains an important element in literature and education, in film, theater and the visual arts, not to mention the fact that politicians keep taking advantage of it. Probably no other country celebrates anniversaries associated with the events of the Second World War so often and so solemnly. "

- Thomas Szarota

Interpretations

The British historian Niall Ferguson writes that "the abuse of the Poles was one of the many ways in which the Nazis and the Soviet Union became more and more alike".

See also

swell

  • Anders, Władysław : Bez ostatniego rozdziału . Text, Lublin 1995, ISBN 83-7038-168-5 .
  • Berghahn, Volker R .: Germans and Poles 1871–1945. In: Germany and Eastern Europe : Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences. Rapdi, 1999.
  • Burek, Edward: Special Cracow. In: Encyklopedia Krakowa. PWM, Kraków 2000.
  • Conway John S .: The Nazi Persecution of the Churches : 1933-1945. [O. O.]: Regent College Publishing, 1997, ISBN 1-57383-080-1 .
  • Cornis-Pope, Marcel; Neubauer, John: History of the Literary Cultures of East-Central Europe. [O. O.]: John Benjamin Publishing Company, 2004, ISBN 90-272-3452-3 .
  • Czocher, Anna: Jawne polskie życie kulturalne w okupowanym Krakowie 1939–1945 w świetle wspomnień. In: Pamięć i Sprawiedliwość. [O. Vol.] / 7. [O. O.]: 2005, 227-252.
  • Davies, Norman : Europe: A History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-19-820171-0 .
  • Davies, Norman: God's Playground: A History of Poland. 2nd Edition. Columbia University Press, Columbia 2005, ISBN 0-231-12819-3 .
  • Drozdowski, Marian Marek; Zahorski, Andrzej : Historia Warszawy: Every Świat. [O. O.]: no publisher information , 2004, ISBN 83-8963204-7 .
  • Ferguson, Niall : The War of the World .: Penguin Press, New York 2006.
  • Gehler, Michael; Kaiser, Wolfram : Christian democracy in Europe since 1945. [o. O.]: Routledge, 2004, ISBN 0-7146-8567-4 .
  • Gilbert, Shirli: Music in the Holocaust: Confronting Life in the Nazi Ghettos and Camps. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-19-927797-4 .
  • Grabski, Józef: Zaginiony "Portret młodzieńca" Rafaela ze zbiorów XX. Czartoryskich w Krakowie. Ze studiów nad typologią portretu renesansowego. In: Dudzik, Sebastian; Zuchowskiego, Tadeusz J .: Rafael i jego spadkobiercy: Portret klasyczny w sztuce nowożytnej Europy. Toruń: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Mikolaja Kopernika, 2003. (Sztuka i Kultura; IV), ISBN 978-83-231-1607-3 .
  • Haltof, Marek: Polish National Cinema. [O. O.]: Berghahn Books, 2002, ISBN 1-57181-276-8 .
  • Hempel, Andres: Poland in World War II: An Illustrated Military History. [O. O.] Hippocrene Books, 2003, ISBN 0-7818-1004-3 .
  • Herling-Grudziński, Gustaw : A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp during World War II. New York: Penguin Books, 1996, ISBN 0-14-025184-7 .
  • Hubka, Thomas C .: Resplendent Synagogue: Architecture and Worship in an Eighteenth-century Polish Community. [O. O.]: UPNE, 2003, ISBN 1-58465-216-0 .
  • Kisling, Vernon N .: Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections to Zoological Gardens. [O. O.]: CRC Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8493-2100-X .
  • Klimaszewski, Bolesław: An Outline History of Polish Culture . [O. O.]: Interpress, 1984, ISBN 83-223-2036-1 .
  • Knuth, Rebecca: Libricide: The Regime-Sponsored Destruction of Books and Libraries in the Twentieth Century. [O. O.]: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0-275-98088-X .
  • Korboński, Stefan : Polskie państwo podziemne: przewodnik po Podziemiu z lat 1939–1945. Bromberg: Wydawnictwo Nasza Przyszłość, 1975.
  • Krauski, Josef: Education as Resistance. In: Lowe, Roy (Ed.): Education and the Second World War: Studies in Schooling and Social Change. [O. O.]: Falmer Press, 1992, ISBN 0-7507-0054-8 .
  • Kremer, Lilian S .: Holocaust literature: an encyclopedia of writers and their work. [O. O.]: Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 0-415-92984-9 .
  • Lerski, Jerzy J .; Wróbel, Piotr; Kozicki, Richard J .: Historical Dictionary of Poland: 966-1945. [O. O.]: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1996, ISBN 0-313-26007-9 .
  • Madajczyk, Czesław : Polityka III Rzeszy w okupowanej Polsce : Tom II. [O. O.]: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1970.
  • Madajczyk, Czesław: The Occupation Systems of the Axis Powers: Attempt at a Comparative Analysis. [O. O.]: [o. V.], 1980. (Studia Historiae Oeconomicae; 14).
  • Moczydłowski, Jan: Produkcja banknotów przez Związek Walki Zbrojnej i Armię Krajową. In: Biuletyn Numizmatyczny. 10-12 (1989).
  • Murdoch, Brian O .: Fighting Songs and Warring Words: Popular Lyrics of Two World Wars. [O. O.]: Routledge, 1990.
  • Nawrocka-Dońska, Barbara: Powszedni dzień dramatu. 1st edition. Warsaw: Czytelnik, 1961.
  • Phayer, Michael : The Catholic Church and the Holocaust: 1930-1965. India: India University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-253-21471-8 .
  • Piotrowski, Tadeusz : Poland's Holocaust : Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic; 1918-1947. [O. O.]: McFarland & Company, 1997, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3 , 11-20.
  • Polish Ministry of Information: Concise Statistical Year-Book of Poland . London, 1941.
  • Raack, Richard: Stalin's Drive to the West: 1938-1945. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-8047-2415-6 , 58.
  • Rose, Jonathan: The Holocaust and the book: destruction and preservation. [O. O.]: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001.
  • Salmonowicz, Stanisław : Polskie Państwo Podziemne. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Szkolne i Pedagogiczne, 1994, ISBN 83-02-05500-X .
  • Schabas, William : Genocide in international law: The crimes of crimes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-78790-4 .
  • Sterling, Eric; Roth, John K .: Life in the Ghettos During the Holocaust. [O. O.]: Syracuse University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-8156-0803-9 .
  • Szarota, Tomasz : Okupowanej Warszawy dzień powszedni . [O. O.]: Czytelnik, 1998, ISBN 83-07-01224-4 , 323.
  • Trela-Mazur, Elżbieta: Sowietyzacja oświaty w Małopolsce Wschodniej pod radziecką okupacją 1939-19 . / With the collaboration of Bonusiak, Włodzimierz; Ciesielski, Stanisław J .; Mańkowski, Zygmunt; Ivanov, Mikołaj. Kielce: Wyższa Szkoła Pedagogiczna im. Jana Kochanowskiego, 1997, ISBN 83-7133-100-2 .
  • Zygmunt, Albert: Kaźń profesorów lwowskich — lipiec 1941 — collection of documents . Wrocław: University of Wrocław Press, 1989, ISBN 83-229-0351-0 .

further reading

  • Mężyński, Andrzej: Straty bibliotek w czasie II wojny światowej w granicach Polski z 1945 roku: Wstępny raport o stanie wiedzy. / With the collaboration of Paszkiewicz, Urszula; Bieńkowska, Barbara. Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Reklama, 1994, ISBN 83-902167-0-1 .
  • Ordęga, Adam; Terlecki, Tymon: Straty kultury polskiej: 1939–1944 . Glasgow: Książnica Polska, 1945.
  • Symonowicz, Antoni: Nazi Campaign against Polish Culture. In: Nurowski, Roman (Ed.): 1939–1945 War Losses in Poland . Poznań: Wydawnictwo Zachodnie, 1960. OCLC 47236461 .
  • Pruszynski, Jan P .: Poland: The War Losses, Cultural Heritage, and Cultural Legitimacy. In: Simpson, Elizabeth (Ed.): The Spoils of War: World War II and Its Aftermath; The Loss, Reappearance, and Recovery of Cultural Property. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1997, ISBN 0-8109-4469-3 .

Web links

Commons : Poland in World War II  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Art lost in Poland during World War II  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : World War II posters from Poland  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Rose (2001): no page number .
  2. ↑ Olsak-Glass (1999), original quote: “The prisons, ghettos, internment, transit, labor and extermination camps, roundups, mass deportations, public executions, mobile killing units, death marches, deprivation, hunger, disease, and exposure all testify to the 'inhuman policies of both Hitler and Stalin' and 'were clearly aimed at the total extermination of Polish citizens, both Jews and Christians. Both regimes endorsed a systematic program of genocide. '"
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g Wrobel (1999).
  4. ↑ Schabas [2000]: no page number.
  5. ↑ Raack (1995): 58.
  6. ^ Piotrowski (1997): 295.
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Madajczyk (1970): 127-129.
  8. ↑ Madajczyk (1980): no page number.
  9. ↑ a b c d Redzik (2004)
  10. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Czocher (2005): 227–252.
  11. ↑ a b c d Madajczyk, Czesław (1970): 130
  12. ↑ Madajczyk, Czesław (1970): 137
  13. ↑ Madajczyk, Czesław (1970): 130-132.
  14. ↑ Berghahn (1999): no page number
  15. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 133-134.
  16. ↑ a b c d e f g Madajczyk (1970): 132f.
  17. ^ Davies (2005): 299 .
  18. ↑ a b c Madajczyk (1970): 169 f.
  19. ↑ a b Madajczyk (1970): 171-173.
  20. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 162 f.
  21. ↑ Kiriczuk (2003)
  22. ↑ a b c d e f Knuth (2003): 86-89 .
  23. ↑ a b c d e Madajczyk (1970): 122.
  24. ↑ a b c MSZ (2008).
  25. ↑ a b Likowska (2001)
  26. ↑ Kisling (2001): 122-123 .
  27. ↑ Grabski (2003): 221-261.
  28. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 229th
  29. ↑ a b c d Madajczyk (1970): 123.
  30. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 127.
  31. ↑ Burek (2000)
  32. ↑ Zygmunt (1989): No page number.
  33. ↑ Sieradzki (2003)
  34. ↑ a b c Phayer (2001): 22.
  35. ↑ a b Conway (1997): 325f.
  36. ^ Conway (1997): 299f.
  37. ↑ a b United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (undated)
  38. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Krauski (1992): 128-138 .
  39. ↑ a b c d Bukowska (2003).
  40. ↑ a b Madajczyk (1970): 142-148.
  41. ↑ a b c d e Madajczyk (1970): 149.
  42. ↑ Krauski (1992): 128-138 . Original quote: "Pupils sit crammed together without necessary materials, and often without skilled teaching staff. Moreover, the Polish schools are closed during at least five months out of the ten months of the school year due to lack of coal or other fuel. Of twenty-thirty spacious school buildings which Kraków had before 1939, today the worst two buildings are used ... Every day, pupils have to study in several shifts. Under such circumstances, the school day, which normally lasts five hours, is reduced to one hour "
  43. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 201f.
  44. ↑ a b Madajczyk (1970): 151.
  45. ^ A b Madajczyk (1970): 150.
  46. ↑ (2003): 57 .
  47. ↑ a b c d Salmonowicz (1994): 269-272.
  48. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 124.
  49. ↑ a b c d e f g Polish Ministry of Information (ed.) (1945)
  50. ↑ a b c d e Ostasz (2004).
  51. ↑ a b c Madajczyk (1970): 125.
  52. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 126.
  53. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 199.
  54. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 204.
  55. ^ Drozdowski (2004): 449.
  56. ↑ Madajczyk (1970) 1131.
  57. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 141.
  58. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 179.
  59. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 167.
  60. ↑ Szarota (1988): 323.
  61. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 135.
  62. ↑ a b c Madajczyk (1970): 138.
  63. ^ Polish Ministry of Information (1941): 9f.
  64. ↑ a b Ferguson (2006): 423.
  65. ↑ Herling-Grudziński (1996): 284.
  66. ↑ Anders (1995): 540.
  67. ↑ Lerski et al. (1996): 538 .
  68. ↑ Raack (1995): 65.
  69. ↑ a b c d e Trela-Mazur (1997): 89-125.
  70. ^ Piotrowski (1997): 11.
  71. ↑ a b c d Raack (1995): 63.
  72. ↑ Davies (1996): 1001-1003.
  73. ^ Gehler; Kaiser (2004): 118 .
  74. ^ Ferguson (2006): 419.
  75. ^ Ferguson (2006): 418.
  76. ↑ a b c d e f g h Węglicka (no year).
  77. ↑ a b c d e f g Kołodziejski, Konrad (2003).
  78. ↑ a b c d e Szarek (2007).
  79. ↑ a b Raack (1995): 63f.
  80. ↑ Lukowski; Zawadzki (2006): 228.
  81. ^ Piotrowski (1997): 77-80 .
  82. ^ A b Courtney (2000).
  83. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 235th
  84. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 233.
  85. ↑ a b Madajczyk (1970): 155f.
  86. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 208.
  87. ↑ Czekajowski (2005).
  88. ↑ Korboński (1981): 56.
  89. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 213.
  90. ↑ a b Parker (2003).
  91. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 160f.
  92. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 215; 221.
  93. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 222nd
  94. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 223rd
  95. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 226th
  96. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 225th
  97. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 227th
  98. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 228.
  99. ↑ a b c Madajczyk (1970): 158f.
  100. ↑ a b c Madajczyk (1970): 150f.
  101. ↑ Madajczyk (1970): 158-160.
  102. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 189th
  103. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 190th
  104. ↑ a b Hempel (2003): 54 .
  105. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 185.
  106. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 187.
  107. ↑ a b c Salmonowicz (1994): 196.
  108. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 184th
  109. ↑ a b c Salmonowicz (1994): 236f.
  110. ↑ a b Salmonowicz (1994): 244.
  111. ↑ a b c Salmonowicz (1994): 272-275.
  112. ↑ a b c d Salmonowicz (1994): 245-252.
  113. ^ Kremer (2003): 1183 .
  114. ↑ Sterling; Roth (2005): 283 .
  115. ^ A b Madajczyk (1970): 140.
  116. ↑ a b c d Salmonowicz (1994): 252-256.
  117. ^ Gilbert (2005): VII .
  118. ↑ a b c d e f Salmonowicz (1994): 256-265.
  119. ↑ Stoliński (2004)
  120. ^ Moczydłowski (1989).
  121. ↑ Nawrocka-Donská (1961): no page numbers
  122. ↑ Project InPosterum (2008)
  123. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 240th
  124. ↑ Cholewa-Selo, Anna (2005).
  125. ↑ Murdoch (1990): 195 .
  126. ^ Polska. Teatr. Druga wojna światowa ( Memento of the original from June 7, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / encyklopedia.pwn.pl
  127. ↑ Supruniuk [o. J.]
  128. ^ Davies (2005): 174 . Original quote: "In 1945, as a prize for untold sacrifices, the attachment of the survivors to their native culture was stronger than ever before."
  129. ↑ Salmonowicz (1994): 211; 221.
  130. ↑ Haltof (2002): 223 .
  131. ↑ Cornis-Pope; Neubauer (2004): 146 .
  132. ↑ Klimaszewski (1984): 343 .
  133. ↑ Haltof (2002): 76 .
  134. ↑ a b Ruchniewicz (2007).

Remarks

  1. ^ Tajna Organizacja Nauczycielska in the Polish Wikipedia
  2. ^ Tajne Wojskowe Zakłady Wydawnicze in the Polish language Wikipedia