Tadeusz Kościuszko

Kosciuszko , Kościuszko and Kosciusko are redirects to this article. Further meanings are listed under Kosciusko (disambiguation) .

Tadeusz Kościuszko, painting by Karl Gottlieb Schweikart (after 1802)

Tadeusz Kościuszko during the uprising named after him, painting by Juliusz Kossak (1879)

Andrzej Tadeusz Bonawentura Kościuszko ( listen ^{? / I} ) (born February 4, 1746 in Mereczowszczyzna , Poland-Lithuania , today Belarus ; † October 15, 1817 in Solothurn , Switzerland ) was a Polish military engineer who participated in the Russo-Polish War of 1792 and especially as the leader of the uprising named after him of 1794 against the partition powers Russia and Prussia became a Polish national hero . From 1777 to 1783 Kościuszko also fought on the side of George Washington in the American War of Independence . He represented the ideals of the Enlightenment and supported the worldwide movement for the abolition of slavery . The status of a national hero is attributed to him in addition to Poland in Belarus, the United States and partly in Lithuania .

Life

Youth and education

Kosciuszko came as the youngest child of the Polish gentry associated Brest officials Ludwik Kosciuszko in the village Mereczowszczyzna in Polesia born. Together with his older brother Józef, he attended a Piarist college in Lubieszów from 1755 in what was then the Volhynian Voivodeship , now Lyubeschiw , Ukraine. He then studied from 1765 at the Royal Military College Szkoła Rycerska in Warsaw . In addition to military subjects (including drawing fortifications), mathematics, Polish and European history, geography, physics, chemistry, German and French were taught there. Kościuszko turned out to be a brilliant student, after a year he was made an ensign and attended advanced courses in engineering. As a result, he was instructor and captain promoted. He moved to Paris in 1769 on a royal scholarship . There he studied at what was then the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture , a predecessor institution of the Académie des Beaux-Arts . As a foreigner, he was not allowed to attend the school for military engineers École royale du génie in Mézières , but he was able to continue his military science studies through private lessons from lecturers at this school. The stay in pre-revolutionary France , where he became familiar with the thinking of the Enlightenment , had a lasting impact on his political views.

American War of Independence

Fort Clinton ( West Point ) fortified by Kościuszko. In the background the Kościuszko statue from West Point.

In 1774 Kościuszko returned to Poland, but did not find employment in the severely decimated army of the country that was marked by the division of 1772 . After a stay in Dresden , he went back to Paris in the autumn of 1775 in search of a job. There the writer Pierre de Beaumarchais campaigned for support for the American Revolution . Beaumarchais had founded the front company Roderigue Hortalez & Co. with start-up capital from the French government, which was supposed to smuggle arms and ammunition to America. At the end of June 1776, Kościuszko sailed to America on a ship belonging to Beaumarchais' company, together with a French and a Saxon officer. When Kościuszko arrived in Paris, Silas Deane and Benjamin Franklin , who were to act as American representatives in France a little later, had not yet arrived there, so that Kościuszko, unlike later foreign war volunteers, was unable to obtain a letter of recommendation to Congress. However, he is said to have carried a letter of introduction from Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski to Major General Charles Lee .

Kościuszko arrived in Philadelphia in 1776 and became a colonel and chief engineer of the Continental Army . He fortified Philadelphia and the Delaware River . In 1777 he was subordinated to the "Northern Army" under Horatio Gates . Kościuszko took over the command of the construction of various forts and fortified military camps on the Canadian border since that time . In 1777 he took part in the Battle of Ticonderoga and the Battle of Saratoga . From March 26, 1778 until the summer of 1780 he fortified Washington's West Point on the Hudson River by order of George . Then he was ordered (with a letter from Washington dated August 3, 1780) to the southern theaters of war. Kościuszko's engineering work , in particular the building of flat boats, played an important role in General Nathanael Greene's "Southern Army" , enabling it to evade the troops of British General Charles Cornwallis until reinforcements arrived and eventually push them north where the British were defeated in the Battle of Yorktown .

The United States Congress in 1783 awarded Kościuszko the rank of Brigadier General and US citizenship . In the same year he became a founding member of the Society of the Cincinnati , an order founded by American officers and named after Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus as a model of Republican virtues. After the end of the American Revolutionary War , Kościuszko, which the new government was not yet able to pay out directly, received a credit of $ 12,280 for his services with an annual payout of 6% interest and entitlement to 500 acres of land should he want to settle in the United States .

Leader of Polish troops, Kościuszko uprising

In 1784 Kościuszko returned to the family seat in Siechnowicze in what was then the Podlaskie Voivodeship . After joining the royal army in 1789, he was appointed major general by the Polish King Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski . The Republican movement who in 1788 carried out between 1792 reforms and the adopted May 3, 1791 Constitution greeted Kosciuszko much. At an early stage, he took part on the side of Józef Poniatowski in plans for an intervention against the partitioning powers Russia and Prussia. In 1792 he was finally one of the leaders of the Polish troops against the Russian invasion of Poland, which was directed against the liberal course of the Polish parliament and led to the outbreak of the Russo-Polish War of 1792 . Poland was defeated by the imperial troops and the defeat was followed by the second division of Poland by Russia and Prussia. Then Kościuszko fled to Electoral Saxony . On arrival in Leipzig , a French diplomat presented him with the certificate of honorary citizenship of France, which the French National Assembly had given him in August 1792 together with George Washington, the Swiss pedagogue Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and other personalities.

In 1794 Kościuszko returned and led the Poles' struggle for freedom in the Kościuszko uprising against Russia and Prussia named after him . For this he had himself sworn in as dictator in Krakow under Roman law and, among other things, then led his troops into the battle of Szczekociny . He was wounded in the Battle of Maciejowice and taken prisoner by the Russians.

exile

"Tsar Paul I visits the captured Kościuszko". Engraving by Thomas Gaugain after Aleksander Orłowski (1801)

Kościuszko in the last years of his life

Kościuszko's apartment in Solothurn, now the Kościuszko Museum

Kościuszko was held in Russian captivity for two years. After the death of Tsarina Catherine II , her successor Paul I pardoned him , who showed Kościuszko benevolence without deviating from the Russian claim to power in Poland. Since he was able to obtain the liberation of 12,000 Poles captured in Russia, Kościuszko recognized Paul I as the Polish sovereign for political reasons.

As a result, Kościuszko went into exile, initially in the United States . He stayed there until 1798. During this time he was in close contact with the American " founding father " Thomas Jefferson . Towards the end of his stay he drew up a will with Jefferson's support, in which he assigned his American fortune to Jefferson with the mandate to use the funds for ransom and for the education of slaves , specifically Jefferson's own slaves. One month before his death in 1817, Kościuszko reminded Jefferson in a letter of this purpose - but Jefferson, although he had spoken out against slavery in the past, feared the conflicts that such an action could spark and was no longer willing to to buy one's own slaves or those of others.

In 1798 Kościuszko went to France . He hoped to liberate Poland alongside the French and with Jan Henryk Dąbrowskis and Karol Kniaziewiczs Polish legions . However, this did not fit Napoleon Bonaparte's plans and since the coup d'état of 18th Brumaire VIII Kościuszko had internally turned away from Napoleon. In October 1806, after he had moved into Berlin after the battle of Jena and Auerstedt , Napoleon Kościuszko asked his police minister Joseph Fouché to come to him to help him move on to Poland. Kościuszko did not want to comply with this request without certain guarantees from Napoleon for Poland: Napoleon should declare himself ready to restore Poland and grant a constitution with equal rights for all citizens. Fouché, who was not used to someone making demands on Napoleon, could not persuade Kościuszko to follow him without such guarantees, even with threats. As a result, Fouché had a forged letter allegedly from Kościuszko sent to the newspapers, in which, in pathetic words, Kościuszko's support for Napoleon was declared. Not only Kościuszko but also Napoleon himself condemned this forgery. After Kościuszko subsequently sent a letter to Fouché, in which he demanded a constitutional monarchy for Poland on the model of England, freedom for the peasants and the restoration of Poland in the borders before the three partitions of Poland , Napoleon called him an "idiot" and did not consider him further. With the Duchy of Warsaw , Napoleon finally established a rump Polish state as a protectorate of the First French Empire , which existed until 1815.

After the fall of Napoleon, the Russian Tsar Alexander I. Kościuszko granted an audience on May 3, 1814 at the Russian headquarters in Paris. He is said to have hugged Kościuszko and promised Poland a happy future. However , Kościuszko was not satisfied with Congress Poland as a result of the negotiations at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. After a brief further audience with the Tsar on May 27, 1815, Kościuszko met on May 31 in Vienna with Alexander's Foreign Minister Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , who tried to convince Kościuszko of the solution that had been found. Czartoryski did not succeed in this; Kościuszko declared that "his caring love belongs to the whole vast Polish empire and not just to the piece of land that is now pompously called the Kingdom of Poland". It was particularly important to him that his homeland Lithuania should be reintegrated into the Kingdom of Poland. After the failure of his efforts in this regard, Kościuszko remained in exile.

Since a return to France under Louis XVIII. was out of the question for Kościuszko, he settled in Switzerland . In France he met Peter Josef Zeltner, who was the first Helvetian ambassador to Paris from 1798 to 1800 , and was accommodated by him on his estate in Berville near Fontainebleau . Now he could take up residence with his brother Xaver Zeltner in Solothurn , who shared Kościuszko's enlightened worldview. Zeltner was a member of the liberal opposition in the Solothurn Grand Council from 1810 to 1814. After the restoration of pre-revolutionary conditions, he was imprisoned for months without trial and had only been at large for a few weeks when Kościuszko arrived.

On October 15, 1817 Kościuszko died in Solothurn, presumably of flu, and was buried separately : his entrails were buried in the Zuchwil cemetery, his heart was kept in a specially made urn (this is now in the chapel of the Warsaw Royal Castle ) , and his embalmed body was first buried in the Jesuit church in Solothurn . The body was later transferred to the royal tomb of the Wawel Cathedral in Krakow.

Social positions

Kościuszko was an " Enlightenment man " and firmly convinced of republican and democratic principles. He read Jean-Jacques Rousseau and was in contact with Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , whose views he shared on many points.

Despite a deist attitude and his commitment to a “universal religion of all good people”, Kościuszko was also shaped by his Roman Catholic upbringing. He is said to have prayed like this every morning, and he always appeared respectful of the Catholic Church in public.

Kościuszko always spoke out clearly in favor of tolerance and was open to other religions and peoples. Franz Xaver Zeltner, in whose house in Solothurn Kościuszko spent the last years of his life, said of him that his heart beat "for the whole world". In a letter to General Nathanael Greene in 1786, Kościuszko wrote that “the barriers to our affection for the rest of humanity are narrowed by prejudice and superstition”. Affection should be shown to all respectable people - "let him be Turck or Polander, American or Japon ". Alex Storozynski comes to the conclusion in his biography that Kościuszko, who campaigned “for farmers, Jews, Indians, women and all those who have been discriminated against”, was a “true prince of tolerance”.

Kościuszko as an artist

In his free time Kościuszko worked as a draftsman and composer. However, he carelessly threw away his drawings and watercolors or passed them on to his host families. Several have been preserved, including a well-known portrait of his friend Thomas Jefferson. At the end of the 18th century, two polonaises and a waltz by Kościuszko were published in England , "composed for the Patriotic Army of Poland". In addition, he was also engaged in turning work .

reception

literature

The novel Thaddeus of Warsaw by the Scottish writer Jane Porter was published as early as 1803 . A German translation was published a few years later under the title Thaddäus Constantin . This work is probably the first historical novel in the English language. Porter describes the experiences of a fictional descendant of the Polish king Jan Sobieski , Thaddeus Sobieski , against the background of the Kościuszko uprising .

Numerous other authors have dealt with Kościuszko in literary form, including Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Władysław Stanisław Reymont and Marianna Lugomirska in the form of a novel, and authors such as Apollo Korzeniowski or Władysław Ludwik Anczyc in the form of a drama . A Kosciuszko drama by Christian Dietrich Grabbe has only survived as a fragment.

Posthumous honors and monuments

Kościuszko is considered a hero of Poland as well as Lithuania , Belarus (on whose territory his birthplace Mereczowszczyzna is today) and the United States . Monuments and sites named after him in other countries commemorate Kościuszko. The UNESCO called together with the Sejm , the Polish parliament in 2017 to Tadeusz Kościuszko year out.

Poland

Kościuszko Hill in Krakow (2006).

In honor of Kościuszko, the Kościuszko Hill was raised in Kraków from 1820 to 1823 . Following the example of this hill, Kościuszko Hill was also built in various other places in Poland , including in Olkusz in 1861 . Also in Krakow at the entrance to the Wawel is a Kościuszko monument (an equestrian statue ) designed around 1900 by Leonard Marconi and his son-in-law Antoni Popiel , which was only erected in 1920. The statue was destroyed during the German occupation of Poland in World War II. Today's replica is a gift from the city of Dresden to Krakow in 1960. A monument by the sculptor Mieczysław Lubelski on Plac Wolności (Freedom Square) in Łódź , inaugurated in 1931, was also destroyed during the German occupation of Poland and rebuilt in 1960. Kościuszko monuments can also be found in Warsaw and other Polish cities. Most of the larger cities in Poland have a street or Kościuszko Square named after Kościuszko. The Racławice Panorama in Wroclaw is the only Polish panoramic image of its kind.

In the course of the history of the Air Force of the Republic of Poland , various squadrons were named after Kościuszko, as well as the Polish Dywizjon 303 fighter squadron of the Royal Air Force during World War II.

Lithuania

In Lithuania, the memory of Tadeusz Kościuszko has not been kept up for a long time. The Lithuanian author Albert Cizauskas, for example, complained in an article from 1996 that Kościuszko, as one of Lithuania's “greatest heroes”, is ironically one of its least known and least honored. The Lithuanian National Museum in Vilnius has some exhibits related to the partitions of Poland and the Kościuszko Uprising , including a portrait of Kościuszko and a contemporary silhouette depicting Kościuszko's oath in Kraków's Market Square. One street in Vilnius is named after Kościuszko. On the occasion of the 200th anniversary of Kościuszko's death in 2017, the Lithuanian Parliament Seimas called for commemorative events as part of the “Kościuszko Year”.

Belarus

Reconstructed birth house in Mieračoŭščyna (2016)

Monument to Kosciuszko in Mieračoŭščyna (2018)

The most important place of memory of Kościuszko in Belarus is his reconstructed birth house in Mieračoŭščyna (Polish: Mereczowszczyzna , Lithuanian Meračiauščina ), a former manor just under three kilometers northwest of Kosawa in today's Iwazewitschy Rajon near Brest . It was rebuilt from 2003 to 2004 with the financial support of the Embassy of the United States on the basis of archaeological excavations and historical illustrations on the foundations and opened as a museum in 2004. In the years that followed, the museum was expanded to include reconstructed outbuildings from the estate and various exhibits, although with the exception of the paving in the basement it has no original objects from the time of Kościuszko (as of 2013). In 2005, a Kościuszko memorial was inaugurated in Minsk .

United States

Kosciuszko Park in Milwaukee

The number of sites and monuments dedicated to Kościuszko in the United States is high. Kosciusko County in Indiana , the small town of Kosciusko in the state of Mississippi and Kosciusko Island in Alaska are named after Kościuszko . The house in Philadelphia , in which Kościuszko lived in the winter of 1797/1798, is a national memorial of the USA as the Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial . Other Kościuszko monuments and sites in the United States include:

• Memorial at West Point on the Hudson River .
• Kosciuszko Park and Equestrian Monument in Milwaukee . Further parks named after Kościuszko in several cities, u. a. Chicago and Dublin (Ohio) , equestrian monuments and statues also in various cities.
• Bridge Kosciuszko Bridge over Newtown Creek in New York City .
• Bridge Thaddeus Kosciusko Bridge over the Mohawk River in New York State .
• Numerous street names, u. a. Kosciuszko Street in Brooklyn and other cities.
• Schools named after Kościuszko a. in Hamtramck ( Michigan ) and Winona (Minnesota) .

The small town of Poland near Youngstown in the state of Ohio is named in honor of Kościuszko and Kazimierz Pułaski . Statues of Kościuszko and Pułaski were erected in Peterson Park in Poland.

The Kosciuszko Foundation has been dedicated to understanding between Poles and Americans since 1925.

Switzerland

The two Kościuszko monuments in Solothurn (2017)

The urn with Kościuszko's heart had been in the Rapperswil Poland Museum since 1895 . After the restoration of Poland as the Second Polish Republic , it was transferred to Warsaw together with the museum's collections in 1927 . The Kosciuszko Museum in the house where he died in Solothurn was inaugurated on September 27, 1936. The house owners and their relatives gave the museum memorabilia from the personal belongings of Kościuszko. It was able to take over further objects and documents from the State Archives , the Museum Altes Zeughaus and the Art Museum Solothurn, as well as the Italian heirs of Emilia (Emilie) Morosini-Zeltner. In 1984 the museum was redesigned and in 2006 the collection was expanded to include a pistol that Kościuszko always carried with him.

There are two monuments to Kościuszko in Solothurn:

• On Amthausplatz, which was called Kosciuszkoplatz from 1867 to 1869, there is a sculpture by Schang Hutter, inaugurated in 1967 on the 150th anniversary of Kościuszko's death . According to Paul L. Feser in his book on the Fountain in Solothurn, the slender male bronze figure is intended to "symbolically express man's longing for freedom". The monument was controversial at the time of its construction. In 2014, Hutter said in an interview: “When I made the Kosciuszko fountain in Solothurn with the very slight Kosciuszko, the Poles in Switzerland were terribly upset. They didn't want that at all. They wanted an eagle. But I just had the feeling: That's a person too. And a person is vulnerable ”. The sculpture was part of a fountain; since the fountain was destroyed by a truck in 2005, it has stood on a pillar, which corresponds to Hutter's original concept.
• Another memorial was dedicated in October 2017 on the 200th anniversary of Kościuszko's death in the park between the Reformed Church and the concert hall . It was donated by the Belarusian Association in Switzerland. In addition to the Mayor of Solothurn and the President of the Belarusian Association, diplomatic missions from Belarus, Lithuania and Poland were also present at the inauguration. This statue - in contrast to Schang Hutter's sculpture, executed in a naturalistic way - has also led to controversy. In the run-up to its installation, an internationally acclaimed discussion was held about the planned labeling as "the son of Belarus". Ultimately, a compromise solution was found.

Other

In Australia, the highest mountain on the Australian mainland , Mount Kosciuszko , is named after Tadeusz Kościuszko. The name goes back to the Polish explorer and first climber Paul Edmund de Strzelecki , who is said to have been reminiscent of the shape of the mountain on the Kościuszko Hill in Krakow.

The 1st Infantry Division of the Polish Armed Forces in the Soviet Union during World War II , which was involved in the Battle of Berlin , was named after Tadeusz Kościuszko .

Poland exile in Mexico, 1939-1945 on the run from the Germans, founded in Mexico , the Union Democratica Polaco-Mexicana "Tadeusz Kosciuszko" , a democratic Polish-Mexican society.

On June 2, 2015, an asteroid of the main inner belt discovered by Edwar Bowell in 1984 was named after Tadeusz Kościuszko: (90698) Kościuszko .

literature

• Konstantin K. Falkenstein : Thaddäus Kosciuszko . Brockhaus, Leipzig 1827 (second edition 1834). Influential biography on which various literary representations of Kościuszko are based.
• The Kosciuszko Column on the Hudson . In: The Gazebo . Issue 35, 1854, pp. 409-410 ( full text [ Wikisource ]).
• Tadeusz Korzon: Kościuszko - Biografia z dokumentów wysnuta ( Eng . Biography developed from documents ). Cracow 1894. Still one of the standard works in the Polish language.
• Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343-443 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
• Heiko Haumann and Jerzy Skowronek (eds.): "The last knight and first citizen in Eastern Europe". Kościuszko, the rebellious reform Poland and the solidarity between Poland and Switzerland. Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel / Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-7190-1505-X
• Francis Casimir Kajencki: Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Military Engineer of the American Revolution. Southwest Polonia Press, El Paso, Texas 1998, ISBN 0-9627190-4-8
• James S. Pula: Thaddeus Kosciuszko - The Purest Son of Liberty . Hippocrene Books, New York 1999, ISBN 978-0-7818-0576-6 .
• Barbara Wachowicz: Nazwę Cię Kosciuszko - Szlakiem bitewnym Naczelnika w Ameryce (German. On the battlefields of Kościuszko in America ). Oficyna Wydawnicza RYTM, Warsaw 2008, ISBN 978-83-7399-265-8 .
• Gary B. Nash, Graham Hodges: Friends of Liberty - Thomas Jefferson, Tadeusz Kosciuszko and Agrippa Hull . Basic Books, New York 2008, ISBN 978-0-465-03148-1
• Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince - Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Book, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 . Modern biography including sources that have not been evaluated until then.
• Halina Florkowska-Frančić: Tadeusz Kościuszko. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . March 3, 2009 , accessed December 14, 2019 .

Web links

Commons : Tadeusz Kościuszko  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Remarks

1. ↑ During Kościuszko's lifetime, other spellings of his name were also common, e.g. B. Thaddeus Kosciusko in English-speaking countries. See: Albert C. Cizauskas: The unusual story of Thaddeus Kosciusko ( English ) In: Lituanus. Lithuanian quarterly journal of arts and sciences . 1986. Retrieved February 3, 2017: "A spelling frequently used by his American and English friends"
2. ↑ Francis Casimir Kajencki: Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Military Engineer of the American Revolution . Southwest Polonia Press, El Paso, Texas 1998, ISBN 0-9627190-4-8 , pp. 53-54 .
3. ↑ ^{a b} Francis Casimir Kajencki: Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Military Engineer of the American Revolution . Southwest Polonia Press, El Paso, Texas 1998, ISBN 0-9627190-4-8 , pp. 54 .
4. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343-443 , here p. 355 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
5. ↑ ^{a b c} Francis Casimir Kajencki: Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Military Engineer of the American Revolution . Southwest Polonia Press, El Paso, Texas 1998, ISBN 0-9627190-4-8 , pp. 55 .
6. ↑ So loud display of Kajencki (1998); Tatarinoff (1967) wrote that Kościuszko had attended the École militaire in Paris and went “to the [...] Ecole du génie in Mèziéres”.
7. ↑ Francis Casimir Kajencki: Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Military Engineer of the American Revolution . Southwest Polonia Press, El Paso, Texas 1998, ISBN 0-9627190-4-8 , pp. 55 .
8. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 17-18 .
9. ↑ ^{a b} Francis Casimir Kajencki: Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Military Engineer of the American Revolution . Southwest Polonia Press, El Paso, Texas 1998, ISBN 0-9627190-4-8 , pp. 56 .
10. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343–443 , here pp. 364–365 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
11. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343-443 , here p. 366 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
12. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 105 .
13. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 114 .
14. ^ Stanislaw Herbst: Tadeusz Kościuszko ( English ) In: Britannica . Retrieved August 19, 2020.
15. ↑ Francis Casimir Kajencki: Thaddeus Kosciuszko. Military Engineer of the American Revolution . Southwest Polonia Press, El Paso, Texas 1998, ISBN 0-9627190-4-8 , pp. 188 .
16. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 115 .
17. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343-443 , here p. 378 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
18. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343–443 , here pp. 409–410 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
19. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 236 .
20. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 277 .
21. ^ Gary B. Nash, Graham Russell Gao Hodges: Friends of Liberty. Thomas Jefferson, Tadeusz Kosciuszko, and Agrippa Hull . Basic Books, New York 2012, ISBN 978-0-465-03148-1 , pp. 215-216 .
22. ↑ ^{a b} Hans Sigrist: "I want the freedom of the whole people" . In: freedom fighter, reformer, statesman: Tadeusz Kosciuszko. Festival newspaper 75 years of Kosciuszko-Gesellschaft Solothurn . 2011, p. 4–11 , here p. 8 ( online [PDF]).
23. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343-443 , here p. 419 DOI = 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
24. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 258-259 .
25. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 259-260 .
26. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. 261 .
27. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343-443 , here p. 422 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
28. ↑ ^{a b} Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343-443 , here p. 425 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
29. ^ Peter F. Kopp: Peter Josef Zeltner. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . January 25, 2015 , accessed October 15, 2017 .
30. ↑ Peter F. Kopp: Xaver Zeltner. In: Historical Lexicon of Switzerland . January 25, 2015 , accessed June 5, 2019 .
31. ↑ Peter F. Kopp: Two loyal friends and a traitor . In: «The last knight and first citizen in Eastern Europe» . Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel / Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-7190-1505-X , pp. 292-293 .
32. ^ Adele Tatarinoff: Tadeusz Kościuszko . In: Yearbook for Solothurn History . tape 40 , 1967, p. 343–443 , here pp. 437–439 , doi : 10.5169 / seals-324364 .
33. ↑ Mirosław Frančić: Tadeusz Kościuszko - a person of the Enlightenment . In: «The last knight and first citizen in Eastern Europe» . Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel / Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-7190-1505-X , pp. 40 .
34. ↑ Mirosław Frančić: Tadeusz Kościuszko - a person of the Enlightenment . In: «The last knight and first citizen in Eastern Europe» . Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel / Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-7190-1505-X , pp. 50 .
35. ↑ Mirosław Frančić: Tadeusz Kościuszko - a person of the Enlightenment . In: «The last knight and first citizen in Eastern Europe» . Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel / Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-7190-1505-X , pp. 49 .
36. ↑ ^{a b} Adam Winiarz: Kosciuszko and Pestalozzi . In: «The last knight and first citizen in Eastern Europe» . Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel / Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-7190-1505-X , pp. 276 .
37. ↑ ^{a b} Miecislaus Haiman: Kosciuszko. Leader and Exile . Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America, New York 1946, p. 112 .
38. ↑ ^{a b} Miecislaus Haiman: Kosciuszko. Leader and Exile . Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America, New York 1946, p. 113 .
39. ↑ Alex Storozynski: The Peasant Prince. Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution . Thomas Dunne Books, St. Martin's Press, New York 2009, ISBN 978-0-312-38802-7 , pp. XIII .
40. ↑ ^{a b} Miecislaus Haiman: Kosciuszko. Leader and Exile . Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America, New York 1946, p. 110 .
41. ^ Suzanne Leisi Konopka: General Kościuszko as a composer . In: «The last knight and first citizen in Eastern Europe» . Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel / Frankfurt a. M. 1996, ISBN 3-7190-1505-X , pp. 51 .
42. ↑ Thomas Anessi: England's Future / Poland's Past: History and National Identity In Thaddeus of Warsaw . 1999, p. 3 ( online - MA Thesis, University of South Carolina).
43. ↑ 200th anniversary of the death of Tadeusz Kościuszko with the participation of the President of the Senate of the Republic of Poland . Embassy of the Republic of Poland in Bern. October 3, 2017. Archived from the original on October 14, 2017. Retrieved July 31, 2018.
44. ^ Communiqué of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs regarding the Kościuszko memorial . Embassy of the Republic of Poland in Bern. October 11, 2017. Archived from the original on October 14, 2017. Retrieved October 14, 2017.
45. ↑ International competition “Kosciuszko Bicentenary” under the auspices of UNESCO . Consulate General of the Republic of Poland in Cologne. March 2, 2017. Archived from the original on April 17, 2017. Retrieved on April 16, 2017.
46. ↑ Copy Kościuszki w Olkuszu ( Polish ) Miasto i Gmina Olkusz. March 11, 2016. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
47. ↑ Kosciuszko Monument at the entrance to the Wawel Castle in Krakow ( English ) In: Poland in the Classroom . University of Buffalo, State University of New York. 2000. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013. Retrieved on December 10, 2017.
48. ^ Tadeusz Kosciuszko Gallery - Monument ( English ) In: Poland in the Classroom . University of Buffalo, State University of New York. 2000. Archived from the original on March 4, 2014. Retrieved on December 10, 2017.
49. ↑ Felix Molski: Thaddeus Kosciuszko memorialised worldwide ( English , PDF) Kosciuszko Heritage. 2017. Archived from the original on July 31, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
50. ↑ Simon Worrall: Refugees: Great Britain's Secret Weapon Against the National Socialists . In: National Geographic . November 9, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
51. ↑ Albert Cizauskas: Kosciusko: Soldier, Humanitarian, Lithuanian ( English ) In: Draugas News . March 15, 1996. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
52. ↑ Seimas called for celebrating the Year of Tadeusz Kościuszko in Lithuania and the world ( English ) Seimas. April 25, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
53. ^ Cezary Rudziński: Mereczowszczyzna. W ojczyźnie Tadeusza Kościuszki ( Polish ) In: Otwarty Przewodnik Krajoznawczy . June 3, 2013. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
54. ↑ George A. Krol: Tadeusz Kosciuszko Monument Unveiled in Minsk [Address by the American Ambassador George A. Krol ] ( English ) In: Belarusian Review . 2005. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved on December 10, 2017.
55. ^ Celebrate rich historical heritage of Poland, Ohio ( English ) In: The Vindicator . June 25, 2016. Retrieved August 18, 2020.
56. ↑ ^{a b c} Museum history . Kosciuszko Museum. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
57. ↑ Quoted from: The Kosciuszko Monument in Solothurn . In: freedom fighter, reformer, statesman: Tadeusz Kosciuszko. Festival newspaper 75 years of Kosciuszko-Gesellschaft Solothurn . 2011, p. 15 ( online [PDF]).
58. ↑ Lucien Fluri: Schang Hutter: "Fear is always there in my characters" . In: Solothurner Zeitung . October 11, 2014. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
59. ↑ The Kosciuszko monument in Solothurn . In: freedom fighter, reformer, statesman: Tadeusz Kosciuszko. Festival newspaper 75 years of Kosciuszko-Gesellschaft Solothurn . 2011, p. 15 ( online [PDF]).
60. ↑ Inauguration of the Kosciuszko statue in the city park . City of Solothurn. October 24, 2017. Archived from the original on December 11, 2017. Retrieved on December 10, 2017.
61. ↑ ^{a b} Lizaveta Kasmach: Tadeusz Kosciuszko and The Un-Soviet Heroes of Belarus ( English ) In: Belarus Digest . October 28, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
62. ^ Communiqué of the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs regarding the Kościuszko memorial . Embassy of the Republic of Poland in Bern. October 11, 2017. Retrieved December 10, 2017.
63. ^ Louise Southerden: Walks in Kosciuszko National Park. High and mighty ( English ) Mt Kosciuszko Inc .. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
64. ^ Forgotten Polish liberators from Berlin . Berlin Association of Those Persecuted by the Nazi Regime - Association of Antifascists. April 30, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2017.
65. ↑ Marcus Patka: Chronicle of the cultural and political events in Mexican exile, organized by various organizations (1937–1949) (PDF) In: literaturepochen.at . Retrieved November 13, 2018.
66. ↑ The Minor Planet Circulars (PDF) MPC 94390 of June 2, 2015 (PDF, 4.2 MB; English)