Culture in Poland

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Culture and the preservation of national heritage have a high priority and identity in Poland .

literature

middle Ages

Florian Psalter
Queen Hedwig Psalter

The oldest surviving Polish document is the Dagome-Iudex-Regest from the year 991. Like almost all Polish works of the Middle Ages, it is written in Latin. These include above all the saint stories about the Five Holy Brothers , Adalbert of Prague , Stanislaus of Krakau by Brun von Querfurt and others as well as the chronicles by Gallus Anonymus , Wincenty Kadłubek , Janko z Czarnkowa , Jan Długosz and Jan Łaski as well as various yearbooks by of which the Świętokrzyskie , Annals of the Krakow Cathedral Chapter and the Poznan Annals are the most famous. The Jordanes annals , the oldest yearbooks in Poland, are lost and only known from secondary sources . To the later chronicles include the Wielkopolska Chronicle .

The codifications of noble privileges belong to the oldest political texts (see constitutional history of the aristocratic republic ). The oldest surviving document in partly Polish is the pen book of the Heinrichau monastery and dates from the 13th century. It was found in the monastery library of the monastery.

The oldest religious texts in Polish include the Sermons of the Holy Cross , the oldest surviving documents written entirely in Polish, Queen Hedwig's Psalter (the oldest surviving translation of the Bible into Polish), Queen Sophia's Bible , the Puławy Psalter , the David Psalter , the Cracow Psalter , the first Polish national anthem Bogurodzica as well as various prayers and stories of saints. Gaude Mater Polonia belongs to the mixed Latin-Polish religious songs .

In 1473 the first documents were printed in Cracow, where Poland’s first printing press was established. With the Kraków University founded in 1364, the then Polish capital was the center of Polish literature in the late Middle Ages. Worked here Gregory of Sanok , Paweł Włodkowic , Jakub of Paradyż , Stanisław of Skarbimierz , Paweł of Worczyn , Albert de Brudzewo , Jan von Ludzisko and January Ostroróg .

The lost epic Song of the Maur about the heroic deeds of Piotr Włostowic from the 12th century and the medical poem Antipocras from the 13th century by the Dominican Nikolaus von Polen (also Nicholaus Polonus) (before 1250 - after 1316), which argues against the medicine doctrine of Hippocrates of Kos . Both were written in Latin. In the 14th and 15th centuries, more and more poetry was written in the Polish language, including Master Polikarb's Conversation with Death . In 1488 the world's first brotherhood of poets, Sodalitas Litteraria Vistulana, was founded by the German Conrad Celtis and the Italian Kallimachus at the University of Krakow.

Renaissance

The Babinic Republic

The Polish language prevailed during the Renaissance , although many authors also published in Latin or both languages. The first poet to write only Polish was Mikołaj Rej , who is considered the father of the Polish language. The greatest Polish Renaissance poet, however, was Jan Kochanowski , who achieved world fame with the first Polish drama “The Dispatch of the Greek Envoys” and numerous poems. His play was premiered in Warsaw at the Sejm from 1578 in the presence of the royal couple. Other important Renaissance writers were Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski , Szymon Szymonowic , Andrzej Krzycki , Mikołaj Hussowski , Biernat z Lublina , Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński and Johannes Dantiscus . Piotr Skarga and Łukasz Górnicki distinguished themselves in political poetry, in which they pushed for reforms in the aristocratic republic. The Krakow royal court remained the center of literary life in Poland even during the Renaissance. In 1568 the Babinische Republic was established at the royal court on the Wawel , a humorous litarian society that satirically target life at court in the distorting mirror. While in the Middle Ages it was mainly clergy and nobles who were active in literature, the Renaissance brought forth the first bourgeois poets such as Sebastian Fabian Klonowic , Walenty Roździeński and Franciszek Śmiadecki in Poland. Despite his rural origins, Klemens Janicki was considered the most talented poet of the early Renaissance to write Latin in Europe.

Baroque

Opera in the Warsaw Royal Castle after Giovanni Battista Gisleni

Polish baroque literature can be divided into three sub-periods. The early phase coincides with the last decades of the reign of Sigismund III. Wasa after the transfer of the royal court to Warsaw and is still strongly influenced by the Renaissance. During this time, the first theater and opera was created at the Warsaw Royal Castle . During this time, the following were particularly active: Kasper Miaskowski , Stanisław Grochowski , Sebastian Grabowiecki , Mateusz Bembus , Szymon Zimorowic and Piotr Kochanowski .

The second sub-epoch begins with the accession of Władysław IV. Wasa and ends with the death of John III. Sobieski . Above all, this is the time of the many devastating wars that have been fought on Polish soil. This epoch is true to the memento mori and, in contrast to the desire for harmony of the Polish Renaissance, expresses the unrest of the time. At the same time, this is the epoch of the height of Sarmatism in Polish literature. The love letters of the poet king John III should be emphasized here. Sobieski to Queen Maria Kazimiera and the war memoirs to Jan Chryzostom Pasek . Other important representatives of this era were Wacław Potocki , Jan Andrzej Morsztyn , Daniel Naborowski , Szymon Starowolski , Krzysztof Zawisza , Zbigniew Morsztyn , Maciej Sarbiewski , Benedykt Chmielowski and the brothers Krzysztof Opaliński and Łukasz Opaliński . During this time, the first Polish daily Merkuriusz Polski appeared , which was devoted to political and literary topics.

The third sub-epoch coincides with the reign of the Wettins August the Strong and August III. together, which is also known as the Saxon Night in Polish literary history. During this time, only a few important works were created, as the Wettins hardly promoted the culture at the royal court in Warsaw. The writers of this time include Józef Baka , Jan Damascen Kaliński , Jan Skorski , Jan Stanisław Jabłonowski , Wacław Piotr Rzewuski , Wojciech Stanisław Chrościński , Elżbieta Drużbacka and Jędrzej Kitowicz . In the last two decades of this era writers such as Stanisław Konarski and the anti-king Stanisław Leszczyński had their say, who can be counted as part of the later Enlightenment and called for reforms in the spirit of this era.

enlightenment

National Theater Warsaw

The center of the Polish Enlightenment was Warsaw. No other cultural epoch than the Enlightenment and Classical has left more traces in Warsaw. In the first half of the 18th century, institutions such as the Załuski Library , one of the first public libraries in Europe, and the Collegium Nobilium laid the foundation for the new cultural trend. Basically, the Enlightenment epoch in Polish literature is equated with the reforms in the reign of Stanislaus Poniatowskis in the second half of the 18th century, who invited the leading writers of his time to Thursday lunches. The mouthpiece of the reform movement was the daily Monitor and Pleasant and Useful Games , founded in 1765 and 1770 . The latter was mainly devoted to poetry. In 1765 the National Theater in Warsaw was also founded, where the dramaturges of the Enlightenment performed their plays. In addition to poetry, theater and novels, political writings that supported the king's reform efforts were characteristic of the epoch. Many writers of the Polish Enlightenment were committed to the reforms of the Great Sejm and the Constitution of May 3 , 1791. In particular, Ignacy Krasicki , adam naruszewicz , Wojciech Bogusławski , Franciszek Bohomolec , Franciszek Salezy Jezierski , Franciszek Karpiński , Franciszek Dionizy Kniaźnin , Hugo Kołłątaj , Stanisław Konarski , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , Stanisław Staszic , Stanisław Trembecki and Franciszek Zabłocki should be mentioned here.

romance

National epic Pan Tadeusz

After the last partition of Poland, two opposing poetic directions emerged, the classical and the romantic. The year 1822, when Adam Mickiewicz published his first volume of poetry, is considered the final victory for the latter. Romanticism in Poland thus developed a quarter of a century later than in the rest of Europe, but it was intense and founded the important Polish poetry. Polish romanticism, which reached its zenith between the November uprising in 1830 and the January uprising in 1863, produced a great many poets. Many of the Polish romantic writers came from the Polish East , which today belongs to Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. In addition to Mickiewicz, above all Juliusz Słowacki , Zygmunt Krasiński and Cyprian Kamil Norwid . But deserve to be mentioned also Stanisław Bogusławski , Adam Jerzy Czartoryski , Aleksander Fredro , Klementyna Hoffmanowa , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Wincenty Pol , Henryk Rzewuski , Kornel Ujejski , Feliks Bernatowicz , Ryszard Berwiński , Leszek Dunin-Borkowski , Józef Dunin-Borkowski , Kazimierz Brodziński , Antoni Czajkowski , Michał Czajkowski , Jan Czeczot , Franciszek Salezy Dmochowski , Józef Bohdan Dziekoński , Gustaw Ehrenberg , Stefan Garczyński , Antoni Gorecki , Seweryn Goszczyński , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, Teofil Lenartowicz , Jadwiga Łuszczewska , Antoni Malczewski , Zygmunt Miłkowski , Maurycy Mochnacki , Mieczyslaw Romanowski , Lucjan Siemieński , Wincenty Stroka , Władysław Syrokomla , Maria Wirtemberska , Józef Bohdan Zaleski and Narcyza Żmichowska . One of the leitmotifs of Polish Romanticism was the regaining of independence and the overthrow of the order of the Congress of Vienna on the way of a general Polish uprising against the partitioning powers, possibly in the context of a Europe-wide world war between the partitioning powers. The gaining of independence of Poland during the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw as well as Napoleon's Russian campaign in 1812 were often discussed, for example in Mickiewicz's national epic Pan Tadeusz . Many literary critics see in Polish Romanticism the epoch that most influenced Polish culture and had the greatest influence on other directions.

positivism

"Torches of Nero" as inspiration for "Quo vadis"
"A Christian Dirke" inspired by "Quo vadis"

After the suppression of the January uprising in 1864, the realization arose that statehood would not be achieved in the near future by an uprising against the partitioning powers. The younger generation of Polish writers therefore turned away from Romanticism and looked for other ways of promoting the Polish cause. This epoch, which lasted until the end of the 19th century, is known as the period of positivism . Aleksander Świętochowski's article “We and You”, in which he presented the basic theses of positivism, is seen as the final turning point from romanticism to positivism and at the same time the climax of the ideological conflict between the old and young generation of writers . In particular, the aim was to achieve as far-reaching autonomy as possible, for example in Galicia after the Hungarian-Austrian compromise in 1867, industrialization, education and welfare institutions for the lower classes of the population. Positivism is also to be understood as a resistance movement against Bismarck's Kulturkampf , which, especially in Greater Poland, was also a struggle against the Polish national consciousness. For the writers of this era, the integration of ethnic and national minorities and equal rights for women were also important. For the first time in Polish literary history, women formed a large number of successful female writers. The most important authors of this period came from Congress Poland , the part of the country where the January Uprising took place. Here, Warsaw positivism is often viewed as a separate cultural phenomenon, which differs from overall Polish positivism. Poetry played a minor role in positivism. The writers tried to express their concern primarily in prose, especially in realistic novels and drama.

The most important novelists of positivism are Eliza Orzeszkowa , Bolesław Prus and especially Henryk Sienkiewicz , who was the first Pole and one of the first writers to ever receive the Nobel Prize for Literature . The decisive factor for this was his magnum opus Quo vadis , which was filmed twice before the First World War. Sienkiewicz was inspired by Henryk Siemiradzki's painting “The Torches of Nero”, which Quo vadis in turn inspired his work “A Christian Dirke”. Other important novels of the era were the trilogy With Fire and Sword , Deluge and Pan Wołodyjowski and The Crusaders and Na marne by Henryk Sienkiewicz and Doll and Pharaoh by Bolesław Pruss and An der Memel by Eliza Orzeszkowa. Other important novelists were Maria Konopnicka , Adolf Dygasiński , Ludwika Godlewska , Wiktor Gomulicki , Maria Rodziewiczówna , Antoni Sygietyński , Aleksander Świętochowski and Gabriela Zapolska . Important representatives of positivism in poetry were Adam Asnyk , Maria Ilnicka , Felicjan Faleński , Aleksander Michaux and Wacław Rolicz-Lieder . Michał Bałucki , Józef Bliziński , Edward Lubowski , Józef Narzymski , Zygmunt Sarnecki , Józef Szujski , Aleksander Świętochowski and Kazimierz Zalewski contributed in particular to the development of positivist theater .

Young Poland

Zakopane literary enclave

As a counter-reaction to positivism, a new cultural trend arose around 1890 that went back to Romanticism and called itself Young Poland. The Young Poles rejected positivism as philistineism. While the positivists were particularly influential in Warsaw and Congress Poland, Galicia, especially Krakow and the new artistic and literary stronghold Zakopane , became the center of Young Poles. There they were influenced by the folklore of the Góralen and the Zakopane style . The writers of Young Poland belonged to the generation born in the 1860s and 1870s. Characteristic of this epoch was cultural pessimism and a certain decadence. Many writers of this time experimented with alcohol, especially absinthe , and other drugs, which is why many died young. Young Poland was characterized by a symbolism-based mystification of reality. The most important work is Wyspiański's “Wedding”. Among the most important poets of the Young Poland were Boguslaw Adamowicz , Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński , Mateusz Sabat , Wacław Berent , Stanislaw Brzozowski , Stanisław Korab-Brzozowski , Wincenty Korab-Brzozowski , Zdzisław Dębicki , Jan Kasprowicz Zygmunt Kawecki , January August Kisielewski , Antoni Lange , January Lemański , Bolesław Leśmian , Ignacy Maciejowski , Józef Mączka , Zofia Trzeszczkowska , Tadeusz Miciński , Antoni Mueller , Andrzej Niemojewski , Franciszek Henryk Nowicki , Władysław Orkan , Artur Oppman , Bronisława Ostrowska , Włodzimierz Perzynski , Franciszek Mirandola , Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer , Zenon Przesmycki , Stanisław Przybyszewski , Władysław Reymont , Tadeusz Rittner , Wacław Rolicz songs , Lucjan Rydel , Wacław Sieroszewski , Edward Słoński , Leopold Staff , Ludwik Maria Staff , Wincenty Stroka , Ludwik Szczepański , Maryla Wolska , Wacław Wolski Stanisław Wyrzykowski , Gabriela Zapolska , Stefan Żeromski , Jerzy Żuławski and Stanisław Wyspiański .

Interwar period

PEN club with President Mościcki

In the interwar period, Poland had a number of eminent writers who experimented in different directions and formed various poets ' associations, such as Skamander , Green Ballon . These included Jan Brzechwa , Zofia Charszewska , Józef Czechowicz , Maria Dabrowska , Albin Dziekoński , Bruno Jasieński , Witold Gombrowicz , Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz , Maria Kuncewiczowa , Jan Lechoń , Bolesław Leśmian , Józef Mackiewicz , Kornel Makuszyński , Antoni Marczyński , Czeslaw Milosz , Stanislaw Młodożeniec , Zofia Nałkowska , Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska , Julian Przyboś , Bruno Schulz , Antoni Słonimski , Andrzej Strug , Julian Tuwim , Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz ( Witkacy ) Aleksander Wat , Kazimierz Wierzyński and Stefan Żeromski . Władysław Reymont received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1924 for his novel “The Peasants”. 1920, was in Warsaw Polish writers Bund , 1922, the Cracow avant-garde , 1924, the Polish PEN Club and 1933, the Polish Academy of Literature established.

During the Second World War, the younger generation created the so-called Generation Columbus , also known as Generation 1920. Among their representatives in January Józef Szczepański , Gustaw Herling-Grudziński , Anna Kamieńska , Lech Bądkowski , Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński , Zdzisław Stroinski , Roman Bratny , Witold Zalewski , Tadeusz Różewicz , Tadeusz Borowski , Tadeusz Gajcy , Andrzej Trzebinski , Bohdan Czeszko and Józef Hen , most of whom died very young and addressed this premonition in their poems. All of them were born around 1920 and graduated from high school around 1939, many of them in the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. The name Generation Columbus comes from the novel Columbowie. Rocznik 20 by Roman Bratny and is to be understood in the sense that the generation of poets born around 1920 had to experience experiences during the Second World War that no generation before them had had.

post war period

Krakow Old Theater
Kraków's Słowacki Theater

Post-war Polish literature is very diverse. It ranges from the social realism of Jerzy Andrzejewski to Stanisław Lem's science fiction . Initially the main topic was the processing of the Second World War, later the cultural workers turned to the new reality. A distinction must be made between the writers who were in western countries due to the Second World War (London government in exile, Paris Kultura, forced laborers, displaced persons, members of the Polish armed forces in the West, etc.) and those who found themselves in Soviet-occupied Poland . Under Stalinism, no works critical of the system were possible in Poland. Independent Polish literature could only appear in the West, including Gustaw Herling-Grudziński's “World Without Mercy” about the Soviet gulags. Many important pre-war writers such as Julian Tuwim or Jan Brzechwa began to compose hymns of praise for Stalin; others chose to emigrate from within. The writers of the Stalin era, including Wisława Szymborska , who later won the Nobel Prize for Literature, reached their lowest point in the 1953 decision of the Polish writers in Krakow demanding the execution of the death penalty for the show trial against the bishops of the Krakow Curia. The processing of the Stalinist writers only took place after Stalin's death in the volume “Seduced Thinking” by Nobel Prize winner Czesław Miłosz or “Heimschande” by Jacek Trznadel by writers who had emigrated abroad. It was only during the thaw that the writers who had stayed at home dared to criticize the new reality, for example in the 34 letter to Prime Minister Józef Cyrankiewicz .

Important representatives of the post-war literature Witold Gombrowicz , Slawomir Mrozek , Jerzy Andrzejewski , Miron Białoszewski , Kazimierz Brandys , Marian Brandys , Ernest Bryll , Konstanty Ildefons Gałczyński , Zbigniew Herbert , Marek Hłasko , Paweł Case , Kazimiera Iłłakowiczówna , Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz , Mieczysław Jastrun , Stanislaw Jerzy Lec , Jan Lechoń , Ewa Lipska , Stefan Kisielewski , Zofia Kossak-Szczucka , Leon Kruczkowski , Tadeusz Nowakowski , Jan Parandowski , Sergiusz Piasecki , Jerzy Pilch , Julian Przyboś , Tadeusz Różewicz , Tadeusz Różewicz , Andrzej Szewicz , Janzardward Stefanśski , Janzardwardski , Terleckwardski , Terleckwardski , Szardwardski , Andrzej Szawiński , Janzardśawski , Terleckśski , Janzardwardśski , Janzardwardski , Terleckśński , Terardwardśński , Stefan Chwin , Leszek Kolakowski , Halina Poświatowska , Jerzy Prokopiuk , Tadeusz Różewicz, Antoni Słonimski , Andrzej Stasiuk , January Józef Szczepański , Leopold Tyrmand , Olga Tokarczuk , Jan Twardowski, Dorota Masłowska , Adam Ważyk , Józef Wittlin and Kazimierz Wierzyński and also as Pope John Paul II known Karol Wojtyła.

The three Kraków theaters, the Helena Modrzejewska Old Theater , the Juliusz Słowacki Theater and Tadeusz Kantor's absurd theater Cricot 2, as well as the Warsaw theaters, the Roma Theater , the National Theater and the Great Theater, were among the most important stages in post-war Poland .

So far, Polish writers have received the Nobel Prize for Literature four times: 1905 ( Henryk Sienkiewicz ), 1924 ( Władysław Reymont ), 1980 ( Czesław Miłosz ) and 1996 ( Wisława Szymborska ). If one adds the Polish -born American Isaac Bashevis Singer , who appears in Yiddish and who received the award in 1978, there are five Polish winners in this category.

There are around 330 publishers in Poland and over 18,000 new books are published each year.

music

Szczecin Philharmonic
Open air concert at the Chopin monument

middle Ages

The first surviving Polish compositions date back to the reign of Mieszko II. Lambert at the beginning of the 11th century. The first musician in Poland known by name is the Dominican Wincenty z Kielczy , who lived in the first half of the 13th century and wrote the hymn "Gaude mater Polonia". In contrast, the author of the oldest known Polish song Bogurodzica is unknown. In addition to hymns, medieval Polish music was characterized by dances. Mikołaj Radomski wrote them down at the beginning of the 15th century. Peter von Graudenz was a composer of the first half of the 15th century associated with the Krakow Academy.

Renaissance

During the Renaissance, many Italian musicians came to the Polish royal court. Mikołaj Gomółka was the best-known Polish composer of the 16th century. He wrote compositions for the poems of Jan Kochanowski ( Melodie na Psałterz polski ). Other important Renaissance composers at the Polish royal court were Wacław von Szamotuł , Marcin Leopolita , Mikołaj Zielński and Jakub Reys , who also worked in France. John of Lublin was an important church musician in Krakow, who was mainly associated with the local Holy Spirit Church. In 1540 the male choir Capella Rorantistarum was founded by Sigismund I at Kraków's royal court under the direction of Nicholas from Posen , who worked in the Wawel Cathedral from 1543 to 1794 .

Baroque

In 1628 the first opera outside of Italy was performed in Warsaw: Galatea . The Italian opera composers Luca Marenzio , Giovanni Francesco Anerio and Marco Scacchi worked in Warsaw during the Baroque period. During the relatively short reign of Władysław IV. Wasa from 1634 to 1648, more than ten operas were performed in Warsaw, making Warsaw the most important opera center outside Italy at that time. The world's first female opera composer, Francesca Caccini , wrote her first opera La liberazione di Ruggiero dall'isola d'Alcina for the Polish king when he was still a prince. The Polish baroque composers composed mainly church music; its best-known creators are Adam Jarzębski , Marcin Mielczewski , Bartłomiej Pękiel and Grzegorz Gerwazy Gorczycki .

Classic

In the late Baroque period, the polonaise also emerged as a dance at Polish courts, while the peasant society developed regionally different dances such as the Mazurkas of Krakowiak and Chodzony and the polkas , which are also known in the Czech Republic . The most important polonaise composers in the 18th century were Michał Kleofas Ogiński , Karol Kurpiński , Juliusz Zarębski , Henryk Wieniawski , Mieczysław Karłowicz and Joseph Elsner . Polish opera also developed further in the 18th century. Well-known opera composers were Wojciech Bogusławski and Jan Stefani . Jacek Szczurowski composed the first Polish symphony around 1750.

Frédéric Chopin

19th century

Nevertheless, it was only Frédéric Chopin who was to bring Polish music to perfection in the first half of the 19th century. He is considered one of the greatest Polish composers. In the 19th century, Stanisław Moniuszko developed modern Polish opera, the most famous of which is Halka . At this time Oskar Kolberg began to collect and write down Polish folklore music. The folklore ensembles Mazowsze , Słowianki and Śląsk owe their creation to his works . Karol Szymanowski , who settled in Zakopane , discovered the traditional music of the Gorals in Podhale , which he further developed in the 19th century.

Artur Rubinstein

20th century

Famous composers from the interwar period were Artur Rubinstein , Ignacy Jan Paderewski , Grażyna Bacewicz , Zygmunt Mycielski , Michał Spisak and Tadeusz Szeligowski . The contemporary Polish music of Stanislaw Skrowaczewski , Roman Palester , Andrzej Panufnik , Tadeusz Baird , Boguslaw Schaeffer , Włodzimierz Kotoński , Witold Szalonek , Krzysztof Penderecki , Witold Lutoslawski , Wojciech Kilar , Kazimierz Serocki , Henryk Górecki , Krzysztof Meyer , Paweł Szymański , Krzesimir Dębski , Hanna Kulenty , Eugeniusz Knapik and Jan AP Kaczmarek represented. Jazz musicians in Poland are counted among the best in Europe. In the 1950s, jazz developed into an important music genre in the country. The Jazz Jamboree has been held since 1958, and American musicians such as Miles Davis were already performing during the time of the People's Republic of Poland .

21st century

Due to the globalization of the music scene, contemporary music in Poland hardly differs from music in other parts of the globalized world. This is especially true for pop and rock music, but also for composers of classical music of the 21st century.


Visual arts


theatre

In 2004 Poland had 102 state and municipal subsidized theaters and 380 independent theaters. One of the most important acting and directing schools is the Aleksander Zelwerowicz Theater Academy in Warsaw .

Movie


World heritage sites

There are a total of 13 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Poland :


See also

Web links

Commons : Culture in Poland  - collection of images, videos and audio files
 Wikinews: Category: Culture in Poland  - in the news

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Poland: cultural and educational policy . Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved July 22, 2018.
  2. ↑ Karl Sudhoff : "Antipocras". Polemic pamphlet for mystical medicine in verses by Magister Nicholas of Poland. In: Sudhoff's archive. Volume 9, 1916, pp. 31-52.
  3. ↑ Antoni Jonecko, Gundolf Keil : studies on physician writer Nicholas of Poland. A sketch by the medieval doctor and poet with particular emphasis on his "Antipocras" controversy, his "Experimenta", "Surgery" and his connections to Silesia. In: Würzburg medical history reports. Volume 11, 1993, pp. 205-225.
  4. ^ Brigitte Jäger-Dabek: Poland - A neighborhood customer. Bonn 2006, ISBN 3-89331-747-3 , p. 69.
  5. ^ Brigitte Jäger-Dabek: Poland - A neighborhood customer. Bonn 2006, ISBN 3-89331-747-3 , pp. 70-71.
  6. ↑ www.boersenblatt.net: The Polish Book Market , accessed on May 17, 2018.
  7. ^ Brigitte Jäger-Dabek: Poland - A neighborhood customer. Bonn 2006, ISBN 3-89331-747-3 , pp. 81-82.
  8. ↑ * The number at the beginning of each line indicates the year the site was included in the World Heritage List.
    • Sites of the world cultural heritage are marked with a " K ", sites of the world natural heritage with an " N ".
    • Monuments that belong to both the world cultural and the world natural heritage bear a " K / N ".