History of the United States Newspapers

The history of the newspapers of the United States begins on September 25, 1690, when Richard Pierce and Benjamin Harris first colonial newspaper entitled Publick Occurrences: Both Foreign and Dome stick (about: "Public events from the foreign and domestic") in Boston published. It had a circulation of 100 to 200 copies and it was only available for one day. It was then banned by the British colonial authorities. It wasn't until 14 years later that the Boston News Letter took place(published 1704–1776) the second newspaper founded in the British colonies of North America. Other newspaper publications followed and quickly spread across the country. In the space of 50 years, newspapers were published in several major American cities.

The first American newspaper: Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick (September 25, 1690)

Most American newspapers in the years leading up to the American Revolution represented something the world had never seen before: a press - up to and including the ambitious obligation to overthrow government institutions and agencies. Historians today refer to the 1735 trial of John Peter Zenger for seditious defamation as the beginning of the free press in America. After the War of Independence (1775–1783) the idea of ​​a “free press” found its way into the “ Bill of Rights ”, the first ten amendments to the US Constitution . This resulted in a free press developing in the United States over the next 200 years.

The print media in the USA, which offer a wide range of information options that are both opinion-forming and value-building, play an important role in American society. According to a survey by the Readership Institute, every US citizen spends a little over 28 minutes reading the newspaper per day, and 81.2% of Americans read a newspaper in a 7-day week (as of 2002). Until the early 20th century, the print media in the United States had a monopoly (for the radio and radio stations spread only in the 1920s in the United States, took on 2 November 1929 as the first news cinema in the world, the Embassy on Broadway in New York opened .).

Colonial newspapers 1704–1775

The development of the colonial press coincides with a period that is often viewed as narrowly provincial in American literature and the intellectual climate of which was determined by various factors. On the one hand, Puritanism was still prevalent; on the other hand, the Enlightenment was already experiencing a high point and the American liberal social order was emerging. In the 17th century, many Puritans had emigrated from England to the British colonies in North America, so that at that time Puritanism became the dominant religion there.

These limitations in the colonial perspective had several striking effects on early journalism up to 1750. The lack of news forced the editorial mind to be inventive, even creative. During the long winter months, the European news was completely absent, which meant that intercolonial communication was irregular and unsystematic. Criticism of the government in political editorials meant an official investigation that resulted in the newspaper being forced to shut down in order not to risk defamation trial. In addition, the public had heard enough religious exhortations from the pulpit and read brochures about the fatal consequences of unbiblical doctrine or considerations against sin.

The Boston News Letter

→ Main article : The Boston News Letter

After the ban on Publick Occurrences Both Foreign and Domestick in September 1690 by the British colonial authorities, the Boston News Letter was first published on April 24, 1704 in a limited edition of 300 copies. Subsidized by the British government, it was the first continuous newspaper in the British colonies of North America.

Religion played a central role in the history of colonial Massachusetts . It influenced social and political conditions and it formed the basis for much of the dynamic tension between the government and the press. This fact put a lot of pressure on the style of the Boston News Letter and its publisher, John Campbell. He saw it as his obligation to publish this newspaper. Had it not been for the feeling of duty, the confrontation with poor financial support and other difficulties would have resulted in the paper being abandoned early.

The Boston News Letter for the week April 17 through April 24, 1704

John Campbell, a Boston antiquarian and post office manager, was the editor and first editor of the Boston News Letter . Every week he published a sheet of paper - a single page, with two columns and printed on both sides. It was primarily filled with short messages, documents and essays mainly from British and European newspapers. The London Flying Post and London Gazette were the most widely used news sources. Campbell, through his position as head of the post office, saw his role as the publication of quasi-official reports in the form of a newspaper as a formal, chronological record of news. He did not see himself as an independent editor whose job it was to review government actions or analyze problems or write controversial articles. With the friendship with Governor Dudley and the occasional payment of government subsidies, it was only natural that one-sided reporting should take place in favor of the colonial government. This fact earned the Boston News Letter a low level of appreciation among the population and political opponents of the colonial government, which was reflected in a drop in circulation.

The situation worsened in 1718 when John Campbell was replaced by William Brooker as head of the post office. Campbell's philosophy of running the newspaper like an official gazette had led his successor to believe that the newspaper was part of the post office manager position. Campbell, however, refused to give the newspaper to Brooker, whereupon he refused to use the franking machine for free mailing to subscribers. As a result, some readers were unable to receive the Boston News Letter and the colonial government was deprived of its magazine. Due to the quarrels, William Brooker decided to publish a new newspaper, the Boston Gazette .

In 1722 John Campbell handed over the running of the newspaper to his printer, Bartholomäus Green. This move also changed the focus of reporting from less overseas events to more domestic news. After his death in 1732, the printer John Draper took over the publication and editorial management of the Boston News-Letter . He expanded the issue to four pages and filled it with news from Boston and other cities in the colonies. Despite these changes, the Boston News Letter remained the mouthpiece for the governor and loyalist until it was discontinued in 1776.

Boston Gazette

The Boston Gazette was a weekly newspaper in Boston, Massachusetts. It was first published on December 12, 1719 by William Brooker, in competition with the Boston News Letter . In 1741 the Boston Gazette completely took over the New England Weekly Journal and its staff.

After the revolution, the newspaper lost a large part of its subscribers due to changes in its language and political attitudes. The Boston Gazette fought bitterly against the passage of the United States Constitution and against the Washington government . It sank in popular favor and lost power, whereby the interest in the paper waned. After a long struggle, the Boston Gazette was closed in 1798 for lack of support.

New England Courant

The New-England Courant consisted of a single sheet of paper that was printed on both sides.

The first newsletter was published by James Franklin, Benjamin Franklin's older brother. It consisted of a mangled mass of articles, some six months out of date, taken from London gazettes and other public publications. James Franklin was encouraged by a number of respected friends to distribute a newspaper in a different guise than the one currently being sold. He then published the New England Courant at his own risk in 1721, when the profitability of a third newspaper in Boston was in doubt . These distinguished friends came to be known as the Hellfire Club , a literary circle formed in Boston. Before the New England Courant was published , the newspapers only had a few sentences of editorial comment at the end of an article. James Franklin broke away from this practice and wrote more editorials. Together with his Hellfire Club, he succeeded in publishing a newspaper with "various topics" that addressed a general interest. Although it shocked New England orthodoxy, it turned out to be an extremely entertaining newspaper and established some kind of literary model.

In place of boring provincial assembly announcements, James Franklin's Club wrote essays and satirical letters on the front of the New England Courant , in the style of the London Spectator . With this original method, the New England Courant reached a great number of readers, since at the time there were not even copies of Joseph Addison or Richard Steele in the Harvard library . Jonathan Swift , Alexander Pope , Matthew Prior and also John Dryden were searched in vain. John Milton himself was little known in the stronghold of Puritanism, but James Franklin 's print shop had Shakespeare , Milton, Addison, Steele, Cowley, Butlers Hudibras, and A Tale of a Tub on their bookshelves. Everything was read and used in the editor's office, but the Spectator and its kind became the real model for the new journalism. As a result, the front of the New-England Courant looked like an ordinary Spectator page. After the formal introductory essay on general subjects like zeal, hypocrisy, honor, or contentment, humorous essays by imaginary correspondents filled the rest of the front page. Sometimes a full page of the Spectator was inserted into the New England Courant without attempting to paraphrase .

James' younger brother Benjamin Franklin worked as a typesetter in the printing works of the New England Courant and also sold the newspaper on the streets. Many of James Franklin's friends wrote articles for the paper, and 16-year-old Benjamin wanted to do the same. Any attempt to write a contribution to the New England Courant was blocked by his brother. Under the fictitious name of Silence Dogood, for example, as a middle-aged widow he wrote 14 letters on a wide variety of topics of the time, which were published in the Courant . Benjamin Franklin modeled the style of the letters after Joseph Addison and Richard Steele's Spectator .

The New-England Courant was always dangerously close to the limit of legal reporting and also had an ongoing feud with the Boston postmaster. In 1722, James Franklin was jailed for a month for an article that caused particularly offense. In addition, he was forbidden to publish the newspaper; the paper therefore appeared for a while under Benjamin's name. Benjamin Franklin left the New England Courant due to differences in editorial work with his brother James . James then attempted to hold the Courant, but the constant battle with the Puritan Boston contributed to his giving up the New England Courant after the 255th edition of June 25, 1726 .

The New England Courant was one of the oldest and first truly independent American newspapers. Her style of speaking, with correct syntax and grammar, set the tone of American journalism for the next 100 years or more. At four pence per copy, it was also the most expensive newspaper of the time.

Journalist Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin's recent journalism fulfilled the promises made in the Silence Dogood letters. When Benjamin Franklin settled in Philadelphia in 1729 , the city boasted two poor news papers : Andrew Bradford's American Mercury and Keimer's Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences, and Pennsylvania Gazette . These "Instructions in All Arts and Sciences" consisted of weekly extracts from A to Z from Chambers Universal Dictionary, followed by Defoe's pious courtship published in installments by the editor. When Franklin took over the Universal Instructor ... together with Hugh Meredith in October 1729 , he immediately eliminated this type of publication, at the same time the long newspaper title was shortened to The Pennsylvania Gazette .

Benjamin Franklin 1767

The newspaper soon became Franklin's signature organ, which he freely used for satire, for playing his wits, even for sheer abundance of mischief or fun. In addition, he had an extraordinary ability to describe events clearly and precisely, rather than the rambling stories previously found in the newspapers. The brilliant little articles Franklin wrote for his Pennsylvania Gazette have found an immortal place in American literature and are nonetheless part of colonial journalism. The central force behind Franklin journalism was a sense of the betterment of individuals through the betterment of society. Benjamin Franklin's journalistic writings and moral lessons on the dangers of alcohol and other subjects show a deep and abiding belief in the power of the press to educate the public on current affairs. The themes were often spiced with humor, but sometimes with recourse to dramatic showmanship.

On May 9, 1754, the Pennsylvania Gazette published the first political cartoon, "Join or Die". This caricature was created by Benjamin Franklin and is the oldest known pictorial representation of the colonial union. This woodcut, made by British colonists in America, shows a snake in eight severed pieces, each segment labeled with the initials of the British colonies New England . New England was shown as only one segment instead of the four colonies represented at the time. In addition, Delaware and Georgia have been completely omitted, so that instead of the traditional 13 colonies, only eight segments of the snake are shown. The cartoon appeared along with Franklin's article on the "fragmented state" of the colonies, which also made his point of view on the importance of colonial unity. At the time there was a superstition that a dismembered snake could get life back if the pieces were put back together before sunset.

Franklin's Gazette was published from 1728 to 1815 and was named "the best newspaper in the American colonies" by journalism historians Edwin Emery and Michael Emery. The Pennsylvania Gazette had "the largest circulation, most pages, highest advertising revenues, most subject areas and the liveliest comments from the newspapers in this region ”. In 1821 the Saturday Evening Post , which emerged from the Pennsylvania Gazette , was published.

South Carolina Gazette

Franklin's influence in journalism was not limited to Pennsylvania . He supported young printing journeyman in the creation of newspapers in the other colonies. Thomas Whitemarsh, for example, went to Charlestown (now Charleston ), South Carolina in 1732 to be Franklin's partner and publish the South Carolina Gazette . It was the first successful newspaper in South Carolina. Of course, Whitemarsh filled his front page with essays suggested by Franklin, sometimes reprinted in The Spectator . In 1734, after the death of Whitemarsh, another former printer of Benjamin Franklin, Timothy Lewis, took over the South Carolina Gazette and ran it until his accidental death in 1738. His widow Elizabeth ran both the newspaper and the printing works until hers Son Peter was old enough to continue running the company. The South Carolina Gazette carried printed news from Europe and the colonies, notices of births, deaths, weddings, real estate and auctions, carried through advertisements, including those for runaway slaves. Its last edition was published in December 1775.

Virginia Gazette

In 1727, the English printer William Parks founded the Maryland Gazette in Annapolis , which first printed the laws of the Maryland colony and the resolutions of its legislature. In 1728 Parks succeeded in convincing the Virginia Colony Parliament of the need to publish its resolutions. He then traveled to England in 1729 to purchase a second printing press and, on his return, settled permanently in Williamsburg , the then capital of Virginia. He left his printing press in Annapolis to the supervision of his assistant Edmund Hall.

On August 6, 1736, William Parks published the first edition of the Virginia Gazette . It was the first newspaper in Virginia and the second newspaper to be published in the area south of the Potomac River after the South Carolina Gazette . With a length of four pages, Parks mainly printed messages from all over the world that reached him and his circle of friends by post. Events from Virginia were rarely covered. Occasionally a runaway slave or a stolen horse was worth reporting. In winter, when the sessions of the colonial assembly were suspended for months, there was hardly anything worth reporting. At the time, life in Williamsburg was more cosmopolitan than any of the other colonized cities. The Monitor, a series of essays that filled the front page of the Virginia Gazette for 22 issues , not only reflected the social life of the capital, but also reflected the latest fashion at regular intervals. This series of essays vividly narrated the characters of the city; this kind of social satire was unusual in the colonies. Parks relied on advertisements early on with a call to potential advertisers and was also a pioneer of American newspaper printing in this regard. The Virginia Gazette continued to publish poems and essays by English authors. Benjamin Franklin did some of these for his Philadelphia Pennsylvania Gazette . At Franklin's insistence, Parks set up his own paper mill in 1743 so that he no longer had to import expensive sheets of paper from England. He initially bought tons of rags from Benjamin Franklin to make paper, and later he made frequent calls to the Virginia Gazette to ask for textile donations. At the urging of Governor Thomas Jefferson , the capital of Virginia was moved to Richmond in 1780 , whereupon the Virginia Gazette also moved to Richmond.

Politics in the later newspapers

In 1725 William Bradford published the New York Gazette as the first newspaper in New York City . It was a typical colonial newspaper, supported by the policy of the governor of the colony, and thus published without difficulty. The second inner city newspaper, the New York Weekly Journal , published by John Peter Zenger in 1733 , had a major impact on the history of journalism. New York Colony Governor William Cosby was the most repressive British placeholder in the American colonies. In November 1734, Governor Cosby charged the publisher John Peter Zenger with sedition and insult for publishing reports about himself in the New York Weekly Journal and ordered his arrest. While he was in prison, the newspaper was printed and published by his wife, Anna Zenger. The trial of Zenger began in August 1735. There was no doubt that Zenger had printed the critical article about the governor. For this reason, the judge ordered the jury to find Zenger guilty of seditious libel as defined in common law . But Zenger's attorney, Andrew Hamilton, made an urgent appeal to the jury in "Freedom and Against Arbitration," whereupon the jury ignored the judge's instructions and acquitted Zenger of all charges. This case was an important step in the fight for the freedom to print honest criticism of government policy. At the same time, the ruling deterred British authorities from prosecuting American journalists, even as their criticism of the government intensified in the run-up to the American Revolution.

After 1750, general news became more accessible and the newspapers became increasingly interested in public affairs. The literary first page was no longer necessary, although sometimes used to cover a period with little news. A new kind of violent polemic replaced the older essays. A few of the well-known conventions were retained, however, such as the fictional letter with the fantastic signature or a number of newspapers under a general title, such as the Virginia Centinel or Livingston's Watch Tower . The Virginia Centinel is a fiery appeal to the poor to awaken patriotism against the French enemy, also spread in the Virginia Gazette in 1756 and in the other newspapers of the North. Livingston's watch tower was a continuation of his magazine The Independent Reflector , which was discontinued in 1753. The Watch Tower was a series of essays published in the New York Mercury from November 1754 to November 1755 that dealt with the Anglican episcopate and politics in America. This series already had the keen tongue of the revolutionary writings published 20 years later.

The major restriction on freedom of the press in England in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries was the Stamp Act , which had the effect of increasing newspaper prices to the point where the poorer classes no longer buy newspapers could afford. The Stamp Act was passed by the British Parliament in 1765, and a similar tax was introduced on American newspapers with effect from November 1, 1765. With no American representation in parliament, the American newspapers rebelled against the new tax. From 1765 on there were weekly newspapers in all colonies except Delaware and New Jersey . Boston had four, New York three, and Philadelphia two newspapers in English and one in German. There were two newspapers in Connecticut , Rhode Island , North Carolina, and South Carolina . They all printed letters and essays protesting the law. On November 1, 1765, the day the stamp tax came into effect, all American newspapers appeared without the stamp. The Stamp Act could not be enforced and was soon repealed.

American newspapers from 1770 to 1860

Massachusetts Spy

Isaiah Thomas and a partner founded the Massachusetts Spy in 1770 . It started out as a non-partisan magazine but then became a radical patriotic newspaper of the American Revolution. From its inception to the revolution, it waged a constant struggle against its oppression. The Massachusetts Spy was the first eyewitness account of the battles at Lexington and Concord , making the American Revolutionary War accessible to the American nation. The reprint of the Massachusetts Spy in the other newspapers is said to be "the boldest production ever published in America" ​​and the country as a whole was ready for Tom Paine's Common Sense .

Revolutionary epoch and early national period 1770–1820

The tumultuous years between 1775 and 1783 were a time of great trials for American newspapers. Oppression by the colonial governments and lack of support severely hampered the growth of newspapers. In 1783, after the peace treaty was signed , there were 43 newspapers in the United States, compared to 37 newspapers on the day of the Battle of Lexington (1775). From 1775 to 1783 only a dozen newspapers appeared regularly; the others had delays and difficulties due to a lack of paper, printing supplies and patronage. There was no newspaper in the main cities, Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, that was published continuously throughout the war. The royalist newspapers owned by the colonial troops tried to suppress the other papers. Revolutionary newspapers either moved or were discontinued during the British occupation. Thus there was a migration of newspapers from the cities along the coast to the smaller places inland, because only there could they continue to be published without interruption. The acute shortage of paper and printing utensils could not be remedied, as a result of which the appearance of the newspapers deteriorated and not every news item could be published. The war severely restricted the postal service, which meant that foreign newspapers, an important source of information, rarely reached the colonies. Many of the most skilled authors who had written treatises on colonial rights and duties of government were now employed elsewhere.

During major events, messengers in the service of the patriotic organizations spread the news across the country at great speed. The newspapers needed such support if they were to keep getting the news, although they rarely outperformed word of mouth. Of course, the reporting was still incomplete. The Salem Gazette printed a report on the Battle of Lexington, detailing the burning, looting and atrocities committed by the British and praising the militia's "higher feelings of humanity". The Declaration of Independence was published by Congress in the Philadelphia Evening Post on July 6, 1776 , from which it was then reprinted by most newspapers, but some newspapers did not even mention it or only printed it as an overview up to two weeks later. The newspapers were only able to report on proceedings in the provincial assemblies and in Congress, as well as official notices and proclamations, with prior permission. By and large, only a relatively small amount of material on the progress of the war receives insufficient attention in contemporary newspapers.

The general spirit of the time was reflected in the mottoes, editorials and poems. In the beginning, both editorials and communications contained calls for resistance to oppression, praises of patriotism, and the end of tyranny; as events and general sentiment developed, these grew more vigorously, often somewhat more radically, than among the population. Later the idea of ​​independence took shape and theories of government were discussed. More interesting and literarily valuable than any of these discussions were the poems that were inspired by the dramatic events of the time. Long depictions of battles and heroic deaths were mixed up with obituaries of the deceased heroes. With numerous songs that were supposed to inspire and carry you away, with humor, pathos and satire , an attempt was made to arouse the feelings of the public. Much of the poetry of the Revolution can be found in the columns of the dingy newspapers, from the lively and popular satires and tales of Philip Freneau to the saddest effusions of the most banal schoolmasters.

The Revolutionary newspapers were a powerful force working towards unifying sentiment, awakening an awareness of a common interest and fate among the different colonies, and a determination to bring the war to a successful conclusion. They were more persistent than the people themselves and they bore no small part in the burden of supporting and awakening the often discouraged and indifferent public spirit. Many of the newspapers kept alive by the war or created during the war have failed to adapt to the new conditions of peace.

A dozen of the surviving newspapers held up in the new era, most notably the Boston Gazette , which quickly lost its influence and was discontinued in the following decade. Other surviving papers included the Courant Connecticut in Hartford, the Providence Gazette , The Pennsylvania Packet of Philadelphia, as well as the Massachusetts Spy , the Boston Independent Chronicle , the New York Journal , the Newport Mercury , the Maryland Gazette of Annapolis, the Pennsylvania Gazette and the Pennsylvania Journal . Virtually all newspapers were four pages long, with three or four columns each, and were published weekly. In 1783, Benjamin Towne founded the Pennsylvania Evening Post and Daily Advertiser , the first daily newspaper. Although most newspapers continued to appear weekly, the daily newspapers also grew in popularity. In the same year, the New York Journal was published twice a week. There was a remarkable expansion of newspapers into new areas. In Vermont , the first newspaper was founded in 1781, followed by another in 1783. In Maine , two newspapers were founded in 1785. The following year, the first newspaper appeared west of the Allegheny Mountains in Pittsburgh , and after the wave of immigration to the West was in Lexington ( Kentucky published another newspaper) 1787th

The conditions for the newspapers had hardly changed during the recent conflict. The sources of news had remained the same, the means of communication and mail had improved only slightly. The distribution of newspapers depended on the favor of the postman, and money from one state was of dubious value in another. As a result, print runs rarely reached 1,000 copies. The subscriber's payment behavior left a lot to be desired and advertisements were not placed in sufficient quantities. In the case of defamation, newspapers were subject to the law of the respective state in accordance with the old civil law. That made them dependent, as in 1785, when a special tax on paper or advertisements was briefly imposed in Massachusetts. Public opinion grew strongly against any permitted restrictions, but newspapers generally practiced freedom of expression.

With independence, the consciousness of a great fate awoke. The collective spirit, awakened by the war, though tarnished by local differences, became more intense, and the main concern of the newspapers was to create a nation out of a loose confederation. Business representatives were the next following target audience. In an effort to provide everything for everyone, the newspapers carried a little of anything that appeared to be of "interest, instruction, or entertainment". Political intelligentsia took first place; News in the modern sense was of secondary importance. A new idea, as important as a fire, a murder, or a miracle, was a momentary affair. There were always a few points of local interest, usually placed in the column under “Miscellaneous”. Correspondents who wrote reports and comments against paper reporting, often when in doubt as to use, were a fertile source of news, but the main source of income was the newspapers, which were available for exchange in each office and carried free by the post office, as well the copies of the foreign newspapers.

Party newspapers

After the War of Independence from 1775 to 1783, freedom of the press was enshrined in the constitution. The " First Amendment " forbids Congress from enacting a law "which restricts the right to free speech and free press". The newspapers exercised this right intensively with columns and political reporting. Thus, at the end of the 18th century, newspapers became an important engine for the formation of the political system in the United States.

The editor usually reflected the feeling of a group or faction. Now he began to act as an independent force. He followed the flow of events and expressed clear opinions. However, the main discussions were not yet contributed by the editors, but by the “leading elite of the country”. The growing importance of the newspaper was evident in the discussions before the Federal Assembly and in particular in the national debates about the adoption of the constitution drafted in 1787 but not yet ratified by all member states of the USA, in which the newspaper largely supplanted the brochure. Alexander Hamilton , James Madison, and John Jay chose to have their Federalist Papers published in the Independent Journal and Daily Advertiser , where they were reprinted in virtually every newspaper in America long before they were published in a book. When the first congress was constituted on March 4, 1789, the need for a newspaper that represented the interests of the congress was aroused. Under the influence of Hamilton, John Fenno published the first edition of the Gazette of the United States on April 15, 1789 in New York . It served the government as a public mouthpiece for the administrative bodies. The seat of government became the journalistic center of the country, and so long as the main news was party politics, the government organs and the opposition were the main sources for the country's newspapers.

In the troubled years after the revolution, American newspapers remained filled with argument and anger - now they were directed not against the British but against the political opponent. Each of the two parties, the Federalists and the Republicans , had their newspapers to communicate with their constituents. These partisan papers had little sympathy for the representatives of the other side. The colonial newspapers were usually federalist. There was equilibrium in Pennsylvania, with Republican newspapers predominating in the west and south. Though the federalists were strongly supported by newspapers such as Russell's Columbian Centinel in Boston, Isaiah Thomass Massachusetts Spy , the Connecticut Courant, and in 1793 Noah Webster's Daily Minerva (later renamed Commercial Advertiser ) and in New York the Gazette of the United States , stood she at the center of the conflict. According to Thomas Jefferson, they were pure Tory newspapers and spread the teachings of monarchy, aristocracy and the marginalization of people. At the urging of Republican leaders James Madison and Thomas Jefferson, the poet and printer Philip Freneau founded the National Gazette , one of the Democratic-Republican party newspapers, to increase the influence of anti-federalist papers in the United States. The first edition was published on October 31, 1791 and appeared twice a week. Like all other newspapers of the era, the National Gazette published virulent editorials, poems, and skits of all kinds that generated nationwide reactions. The anti-federalist articles were often written under pseudonyms by many prominent Republicans, including Madison and Jefferson. The National Gazette became the fiercest critic of the administration of John Adams , Hamilton, and Washington, and was an ardent advocate of the French Revolution.

Of the Republican newspapers, the Aurora General Advertiser was also central. It was first published in Philadelphia on October 2, 1790 by Benjamin Franklin Bache, a grandson of Benjamin Franklin, and became the most critical newspaper of its time. In a sharp tone she attacked the anti-democratic policies of John Adams daily . Adams was in as much trouble with no other newspaper as he did with Aurora . Adam's wife often wrote letters to her sister and others denouncing what she believed was slander and continued to be spread by Aurora . Jefferson credited the Aurora General Advertiser with averting a catastrophic war with France , laying the groundwork for his own election. Like Freneau, Bache and Duane were drawn into a daily back and forth with the federal editors, especially Fenno Cobbett.

In late 1793, the financially tight Noah Webster accepted an offer from Alexander Hamilton to come to New York for $ 1,500 to build a federal newspaper. In December he founded the first New York daily newspaper American Minerva (later The Commercial Advertiser ), of which he was editor-in-chief until 1803. For decades, Webster had been one of the most prolific writers in the new nation. He wrote textbooks, political essays, an infectious disease report and newspaper articles for his federalist party. A modern bibliography required 655 pages to publish his works. On the side, Webster also published The Herald (later The New York Spectator ), a newspaper intended for the country and published twice a week. As a partisan newspaper, it was torn up by the Republican Jefferson. He described Webster as "an incurable lunatic" and a "deceptive news dealer". The federalist Cobbett, in turn, called Jefferson a "traitor to the cause of federalism".

The first partisan newspapers were full of abuse. Newspaper editors on both sides waged bitter arguments. One historian describes the exuberant masters of quirkiness among federal editors as William Cobbett , editor of the Porcupine Gazette , and John Ward Fenno of the United States Gazette in Philadelphia; Noah Webster of American Minerva in New York; and Benjamin Russell of the Columbian Centinel , Thomas Paine of the Federal Orrery, and John Russell of the Boston Gazette in Boston. The spokesman for all of them was Cobbett, whose control of the abusive epithet and abuse can be judged from the following expressions he used on his political enemies. Among other things, he insulted the Jacobins as “a baboon's tool” and “blood-drinking cannibals”. The opposition editors could not be compared to the federalists in either wealth or prestige. As a rule, it was editors whose moral characters affected not only their private affairs, but also their work. Men of this kind naturally feared a government whose operations were shaped with sufficient firmness and sufficient wisdom to respect themselves to exclude the ignorant and opponents from a large area in their administration.

That violent decade saw development, both in the quality and in the power of newspapers. The coverage was expanded to new areas of local affairs and intense rivalries among the numerous competitors aroused, causing a rush for the fastest-spreading reports. This became the dominant feature in American journalism. A new type of editor developed. As a man of literary ability, or a politician or a lawyer with a gift for polemical writings, he began to replace article writers with his reporting on paper. Much of the best articles and disgusting quirks were produced by editors who were born and trained abroad such as Bache, Cobbett, Cooper, Gales, Cheetham, Callender, Lyon, and Holt. Of the more than 150 newspapers that appeared in the country towards the end of the decade, at least 20 were published in opposition to the government by foreigners. The power of these anti-government editors impressed John Adams, who wrote in 1801: “Had we been blessed with common sense, we would not have been defeated by Philip Freneau , Duane, Callender, Cooper and Lyon or their great patrons and protectors. A group of foreign liars, encouraged by a few ambitious local colleagues, have puzzled the country's upbringing, talents, assets and prosperity ”.

The most obvious example of this federal lack of common sense was the passages in the Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798, which were designed to protect the government from the slander and abuse of the editors. The result was government condemnations and a storm of outraged public opinion, weakening the power of the federalists and instilling renewed confidence in the Republican press. This led to the Republicans taking over government in 1800. The Republican Party has been particularly effective in building a network of newspapers in major cities to get their message across and to speak in their favor in an editorial. Fisher Ames , one of the leading federalists, reprimanded the newspapers for choosing Jefferson, calling it “too strong an opponent for any government… The Jacobins owe their triumph to the relentless use of this machine, not so much by skillful use as by repetition. "

First and foremost, the newspapers continued to be an organ of the parties, the tone remained strongly partisan, although it gradually gained equilibrium and achieved literary excellence and professional dignity. The typical weekly newspaper had a paying subscriber base of 500 copies. The growth of the postal system, with free transport of newspapers locally and nationwide, allowed the emergence of powerful newspapers that faithfully reflected and shaped Party views.

Dissemination of the newspapers

The number and geographical distribution of newspapers increased. The first daily newspaper appeared in Philadelphia in 1784 and in New York in 1785 and in Boston in 1796. In 1800 there were between 150 and 200 newspapers; In 1810 there were already 376 sheets and over the next two decades the number of new publications rose in the same proportion. With astonishing swiftness the press followed the sparse population in the west, penetrated Ohio and reached the forests further north. By 1835 newspapers had reached the Mississippi River and beyond that they had spread from Texas to St. Louis , Ohio, Indiana , Illinois , Michigan , and Wisconsin . These pioneer newspapers were poorly written, poorly printed, and partial. They were distributed weekly in the provinces and not only served a local purpose. The newspapers carried government releases on politics and trade, good news and bad news, the weather, and articles on crops that have helped immeasurably bind the dispersed population within a nation. Each congressman wrote regularly in his own local newspaper, and other correspondents were asked to publish articles in a similar manner. In some cases the editors established extensive and reliable guidelines for the news, but most of them exchanged news from Washington, Philadelphia, and New York.

The Growth of the U.S. Newspaper Market from 1840 to 1860

The Detroit Free Press appeared for the first time in 1831 and is still the largest daily newspaper in Detroit to this day . In 1860 alone, 27 daily newspapers were printed in German in order to lure the German settlers into the country so that their community would be strengthened.

The growth of the newspapers meant an unprecedented development in the large editorial workforce. Although the number of editors in later journalism was far exceeded, the scope, complexity, and quality of modern metropolitan journalism in all its aspects clearly began between 1840 and 1860.

The press in the two-party system 1820–1890

Due to the political and journalistic situation, the government organs became a characteristic feature of the epoch. Fennos Gazette served the federal President George Washington and John Adams, but the first major example of this type was the National Intelligencer , founded in October 1800 by Samuel Harrison Smith, the government of Thomas Jefferson and the successive presidents of the Republican Democratic Party to support. From March 1829, following the election of Democrat Andrew Jackson as President, Republicans were exiled to the opposition and the United States Telegraph , published by Duff Green, became the official government gazette until December 1830, when a new newspaper The Globe was published was replaced. It was under the editorial management of Francis Preston Blair , one of the most capable of all antebellum political editors, who together with John P. Rives published the paper according to the old rules until the government paper became obsolete by the changing norms and conditions in journalism. In 1841, The Globe was replaced by the National Intelligencer , which in turn was replaced by the Madisonian , who represented the concerns of the followers of James Madison . After the Democrat James K. Polk came to power on March 4, 1845, Thomas Ritchie, who had many years of experience at the Richmond Enquirer , was tasked with agreeing on government policy on the remnants of the Globe and the Washington Union To reconcile Democratic factions. The dominant influence of political journalism was shared and reinforced by political editors such as MM Noah and James Watson Webb of the New York Courier and Enquirer , Solomon Southwick of the Albany Register, and Edwin Croswell of the Argus . Edwin Croswell was assisted by Martin Van Buren and other editors in founding the Albany "Regency", whose mouthpiece was the Argus . The Richmond "Junta", which had its mouthpiece in the Enquirer, as well as the "Regency" and the "Kitchen Cabinet" headed by the publisher of the Globe , formed one of the most powerful political and journalistic cliques in US history. Her decline in the late 1830s came at the time of great political and journalistic changes, although imitators followed, her style was less prominent or influential. National newspapers were overtaken by the influence of the teletype and railroad, causing the Washington press to abandon its claim to be the main source of political news. At the same time politics lost its predominant importance. The public had many other interests and, through a new kind of journalism, was getting used to making greater and different demands on the journalistic resources of their newspapers.

The organs of government represent just one aspect of a trend in which political newspapers generally gained editorial individuality and both newspapers and their editors acquired greater personal and editorial influence. The beginnings of the era of personal journalism date back to the early 19th century. By effectively developing the well-established use of anonymous current affairs letters in the Richmond Enquirer , coupled with an editorial discussion system, Thomas Ritchie was soon able to expand his newspaper's reputation and influence well beyond the borders of Virginia in 1820. Washington Barrow and the Nashville Banner , Amos Kendall and the Argus of Western America , GW Kendall and the New Orleans Picayune , John M. Francis and the Troy Times, and Charles Hammond and the Cincinnati Gazette , to name a few, illustrate the rise, the individual strength and importance of the individual editors from 1830 and the later decades. A notable person among these political editors was John M. Daniel, who became editor of the Richmond Examiner shortly before 1850 and soon made it the leading newspaper in the South. Daniel's contributions to the Richmond Examiner are perhaps the best examples of brilliant literary invectives and pungency in American journalism just before and during the Civil War.

In 1801, inspired by Alexander Hamilton, William Coleman founded the New York Evening Post . He was a man of great determination, well educated, and noble ideals. The Evening Post at various times reflected the editor's goodnesses, exemplified the improvement in tone, and illustrated the growing value of editorial writing, as did a dozen other newspapers in the early decades of the century. In the 1830s, editors and publishers tried, through joint resolutions, to achieve a level of editorial self-restraint that few publishers had acquired until now. Under the influence of Thomas Ritchie, an energetic and ruthless political editor, the cornerstones of American journalism were laid down at the first meeting of the Virginia journalists, which were also decided by the other states: “Turn away from the notorious practice of increasing the sanctity of private life hurting, posting personal insults and verbal abuse in the press and continuing to use indecent language; Be careful in dealing with all newspaper disputes with decency and moderation. ”Thomas Ritchie found the language of the newspapers to be the reason why American journalism was not as highly regarded by the public as it was in England and France. The editorial section of the newspaper took on its modern form. Signing of editorials with a pseudonym was phased out, but unsigned editorial comments and editorials were not an integral part of newspapers until 1814. It was Nathan Hale who made it a feature of the newly founded Boston Daily Advertiser . From that time on they grew in importance and until the following period of personal journalism they were the most important part of the major newspapers.

Some of these changes in American journalism are illustrated in the works of James Gordon Bennett , though few are his. In more than ten years of unsuccessful attempt as a political journalist, he became familiar with increasing corporate value in news gathering, which was already the American method. He despised the journalism of the time, the seriousness of the tone, the phlegmatic dignity, the party affiliations and the sense of responsibility. He believed it was foolish for journalists to believe that they could best achieve their own ends by serving the politicians. As the Washington correspondent for the New York Enquirer , he wrote chatty chatter, full of meaningless and amusing details, to which he added sharp characterizations and clever allusions. Bennett felt that there was no way the public would buy a serious paper, but that their vast indiscriminate curiosity could be satisfied with gossip rather than discussion. The desire and passion of the public could be attained by feeling rather than fact. The success of the so-called "Penny Press", an important introduction to the American press landscape, which began with the publication of the New York Sun on September 3, 1833, was based on the development of his idea . The New York Sun had a volume of four pages and was aimed at a wider audience in terms of content and concept, with a particular focus on crime reporting. The paratactic and elliptical style with often deliberately exaggerated, often sensational formulations is characteristic of large parts of the tabloid press to this day . Most newspapers these days were sold by subscription and cost six US cents, too much for the less well off. Its editor, Benjamin Day, sold his Sun for a penny on the streets of New York. At this selling price the newspaper had to have a large circulation of its circulation, which could only be achieved by selling his newspapers on the street, in the shops and in the factories.

The New York Herald , published by James Gordon Bennett Sr. , also an affordable mass newspaper, was the first newspaper to practice the form of news gathering that has now become widely used. The newspaper used not only official documents and indirectly researched reports as sources of information, but also the observational on-site report and the interview. In addition to numerous local journalists who, for example, also reported regularly from Wall Street, the New York Herald employed a staff of six permanent correspondents in Europe and others in important cities in the United States from 1838 onwards. This included the first reporter in Washington, DC to report regularly from the US Congress. Bennett's Herald can thus be regarded as the first modern newspaper as we understand it today. This type of journalism was not based on making the public aware of political or party principles, but rather served as a guide to good, solid, practical reason applicable to business in everyday life. The delivery of news, however, was a commodity, the processing of which was just a business transaction, ignoring the social responsibility of the press, “the essential importance of our profession”, extolled by the older journalists and the still powerful six-cent newspapers. The New York Sun , like the New York Herald , enjoyed immediate success, and by changing their journalistic practice, they also had a great impact on the public. In a period of widespread unrest and changes in many specialized forms of journalism, there was no room for discussion of religion, education, agriculture and trade. Workers' associations challenged the fairness of the existing economic systems and thus raised a new labor problem. The socialist ideas of Cabet and Fourier spread. The Unitarianism and Transcendentalism created new spiritual values, temperance, prohibition and the political status of women were discussed. “ Abolitionism ” has become a common catchphrase and a nightmare for politicians. The subject of controversy, most critically related to journalism, was the abolition of slavery. The abolitionist press began with the publication of the Emancipator in 1820 and had its main representative in William Lloyd Garrison's Liberator , which was first published on January 1, 1831 and was published by Garrison for 35 years. He firmly and passionately defended the principles of the opponents of slavery, the so-called abolitionists. He forced the newspapers to deal with the issue of slavery, and a struggle for freedom of the press ensued, more bitter than the controversy over the " Alien and Sedition Acts " at the time. Many abolitionist newspapers have been banned from being transported by the post. Their distribution and spread was forcibly prevented in the south of the country. In Boston, New York, Baltimore, Cincinnati , Alton and elsewhere, publishers have been attacked and their offices destroyed. In the south, rewards were offered for the capture of Horace Greeley and Garrison, and in some cases editors such as Elijah Parish Lovejoy lost their lives at the hands of the mob on November 7, 1837 in Alton .

Industrial revolution

Not only did the industrial revolution transform every aspect of American life and society, but the newspapers were particularly hard hit. Both the number of newspapers and their paid circulation continued to grow. In 1850, 2526 American newspapers were cataloged. The high-speed printing process was able to print 10,000 copies per hour, which led to significant cost reductions. At this time, the first illustrated weekly newspapers were published in order to liven up the reports with woodcuts, etchings or sketches by correspondents. The invention of photography made it possible for newspapers to report promptly and backed up by photos. There was an unprecedented demand for timely coverage during the Civil War. American journalism developed a dynamic, hard-hitting force in national life. Reporters were the darlings of the audience and the idols of the youth everywhere. Many descriptions of the battles of the Civil War revolved around the intrepid adventurers and are available today for historical reading.

In the post-war years, newspaper growth continued unabated. At the 1880 census there were already 11,314 different newspapers. In 1890 the first circulation figures of one million copies per issue were recorded. With a wider education system, more Americans could read. Newspaper publishers recognized a new, more profitable market with inexpensive newspapers for a large readership and increased advertising volume. In just a few years the press developed from a medium for a small upper class to a medium for the masses. It was during this time that the kind of editor was formed who would be exemplary for the future generations of journalists in America.

Associated Press and the Impact of Telegraphy

This idea of ​​the news and newspapers for their own sake, the unprecedented aggressiveness in news-gathering, and the stark methods used to popularize the cheap newspapers, aroused the antagonism of the older newspapers. This created competition that could not be ignored. The systems of rapid news gathering and distribution emerged. Sporadic attempts to cooperate in obtaining news have already been made. In 1848, the editors of the Journal of Commerce, Courier, Enquirer, Tribune, Herald, Sun, and Express founded the first news agency, the New York Associated Press , whose members could share the news. This idea gave rise to other local and national news agencies over time. European news, which now took half the time to travel to the United States thanks to steamers, became an important feature. In the 1840s, newspapers sent their correspondents abroad, and this method was to become more prevalent in the next ten years.

In 1844, the transmission of written messages by electrical means over lines had proven successful. The first press telegram from Congress was sent by a newspaper journalist in the same year to his newspaper Baltimore Patriot via a Morse code telegraph . During the Mexican-American War , the Morse Code was used successfully and led to far-reaching changes in journalism. The development of telegraphy in the USA was an essential prerequisite for the establishment of the first news agencies. These publishing companies centralized the news system, processed the currently incoming information according to the requirements of the media and sold the processed material to the media. The greatest effect on journalism in the country was the decentralization of the press, making the inland newspapers in cities like Chicago, Louisville, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and New Orleans independent from those in Washington and New York. The change in postal laws in 1845 favored the local distribution of newspapers. The national circulation of most of the major Eastern newspapers was so limited that only one or two, like the New York Tribune , could retain something of their national character through their weekly editions. Even Niles' Weekly Register , which was a very useful tool for disseminating Washington political information, was soon shut down by the numerous and powerful provincial press.

Major publishers of American newspapers

The period of restless change in the 1830s produced a few important editors. They possessed the strength and ability to get themselves and their newspapers to be heard in an unprecedented manner, and they shaped the period of personal journalism between 1840 and 1860. These few men not only reflected the spirit of the time, but had a great influence on the shaping and direction of public opinion. As a result, the scope, character and influence of newspapers was enormously expanded and enriched during this time. This fact made them relatively free from the worst subjugations under political control.

Of course, the excellent quality of this personal journalism was the leading article . Rescued from the swamp of sluggishness into which he had fallen in his pathetic and unimaginative party duties, the editorial was revived, strengthened, and endowed with a vitality that made it the center around which all the other features of the newspaper clustered. It was prepared individually by the editorial staff, but the editorials were to be regarded as the editor's statement. "Greeley Says" was the usual preface to quotes from the Tribune , and indeed many editorials were signed. James Gordon Bennett, Samuel Bowles (1826–1878), Horace Greeley and Henry J. Raymond were the outstanding personalities of the time. Most importantly, Bennett withdrew his newspaper from party control. His great influence resulted from the fact that he was a genius at capturing and presenting news. Bennett did not discuss his editorials because he did not have great moral, social, or political ideals and his actions were always lawless and unpredictable, which was hardly considered characteristic of that era. Bowles, Greeley, and Raymond were in favor of a full presentation and liberal discussion of any questions that aroused public concern. From a completely independent position, they followed all movements at home and abroad that were of interest at home and abroad. They were upright and independent editors who were in various degrees gifted at dealing philosophically and practically with the quality of diplomacy. Your newspapers were powerful influencers at a critical time in the nation's history.

The news area has been greatly expanded, the style has been improved, and interviews have given the dialogues and direct quotations lightness and freshness. Reporting on companies, markets and finances saw a significant improvement. The literary department of some newspapers was headed by employees who can easily compete with today's standards. A foreign information service was developed that prepared the news material in an excellent manner and thus reached the highest level in American journalism to date. A popular special feature of the newspapers was the travel reports of the publishers and their editors. Olmsted, Greeley, Bennett, Bayard Taylor, and many others observed life and conditions domestically and abroad. They wrote reports so entertaining for this purpose that those of Olmsted and Taylor, for example, are still sources of entertainment or information.

Horace Greeley - New York Tribune

In 1841, Horace Greeley founded the influential New York Tribune , a daily newspaper devoted to reforms and economic progress. It displayed the best of the new semi-independent personal journalism, based on political beginnings and inspired with an ardor for the job that was a noble mark of the time. Greeley's ambition was to make the Tribune not only a good newspaper for his party, but also the first newspaper in America. He achieved this by combining a certain idealistic character with a practical appeal which no other newspaper possessed. His accurate judgment put him in a position to win competent employees for the tribune . Right from the start, the employees represented extensive interests and preferences in the world of thought as well as in the world of action. Excellent quality in skills and organization was the result of his élan. They also included George M. Snow, George William Curtis, Charles Anderson Dana , George Ripley , William H. Fry, Margaret Fuller , Edmund Quincy, and Charles T. Congdon. It is easy to see how with such a group of writers the idea of ​​the literary newspaper, which had existed since the beginning of the century, would progress to its greatest perfection.

Horace-Greeley, American newspaper publisher

The great strength of the New York Tribune was undoubtedly its selfless sympathy for all the ideals and sentiments that moved public opinion in the 1840s and 1850s. "We cannot afford," wrote Greeley, "to reject any unexamined idea that proposes to improve the moral, intellectual and social condition of mankind." He was also of the opinion that an open ear for the complaints of injustice and Sorry to be the right course for an editor, although they can never reimburse a advocacy and primarily angered the newspaper's supporters. In accordance with these principles, Greeley endorsed all proposals for improving the condition of working people through industrial education, through improved cultivation methods, or even through radical means such as the socialist Fourier Association. He strongly advocated the protective tariff because he believed it was for the benefit of the worker. With equal vigor he led the discussion on women's rights, with particular emphasis on the equality of the economic status of women. There were also numerous minor issues on which the New York Tribune showed its spirit of liberalism , such as reform of the temperance movement , Ireland's aspirations for independence, the death penalty and the liberation of Hungary . The New York Tribune set new standards in American journalism with its serious reporting, especially because of its extensive news and features.

The most important question of the time was the abolition of slavery . Greeley's views were closely tied to the politics of his Whig party. The New York Tribune was considered the leading journal for the Whig Party in New York City. His aversion to slavery was based on moral and economic reasons. As a leading abolitionist , he advocated the abolition of slavery in the southern United States before and during the American Civil War . He was a critical supporter of Abraham Lincoln's policies , but repeatedly attacked the president in journalistic terms because of what he saw as being too hesitant to proceed with the slave issue. Between 1850 and 1854 Horace Greeley exerted a significant influence as editor on public opinion in the northern United States. The edition of the Tribune was around 60,000 copies in 1850 and was already 112,000 copies per week in 1854. Even this number of copies was not only decisive for the influence of the Tribune , but also the distribution in the rural regions where several readers shared a copy. For the people of the Adirondack Mountains, the Tribune was a political Bible, so the Democrats in that region were in the minority. The paper was attractive to solid and thoughtful people and was also read in Ohio, Wisconsin, and Illinois. On the eve of the Civil War, 300,000 copies of the New York Tribune were distributed nationwide. The work of Greeley and his team broadened the horizons of American journalism during these years.

Henry Jarvis Raymond - New York Times

Henry Jarvis Raymond began his journalistic career in 1841 with the New York Tribune and gained further experience working as a journalist with James Watson Webb's respectable, old-fashioned political courier and enquirer . Raymond believed that what was needed was a type of newspaper that would stand somewhere between the moralist and reformer Greeley and the cynical, immoral newsman Bennett. He was able to interest friends in his project, which enabled him to raise $ 100,000 in start-up capital for his company. This sum is indicative of the development of American journalism. Greeley had started the Tribune ten years earlier with capital of $ 10,000, and Bennett had no money at all to start the Herald . On this solid financial basis, Raymond founded the company Raymond, Jones & Company together with George Jones, which published the New York Daily Times on September 18, 1851 , which was renamed The New York Times after it was taken over by Adolph Ochs in 1896 . It was a successful newspaper from the start. He perfected his intelligence gathering by bringing in his familiar acquaintances to tap into the sources of information. Most importantly, it set a new standard for foreign services. The American public has never had a more general and intelligent interest in European affairs than in the middle years of the 19th century. The leading newspapers directed all their efforts to maintaining and improving their foreign intelligence service. Raymond used a short vacation in Europe to work on establishing a system of trustworthy correspondence. The journalists who wrote from the news centers in Europe were people with broad political knowledge, experience and social consistency. They had the time and the ability to do their job thoroughly, carefully, intelligently, and without the superficial sensationalism, in irresponsible rush and with imprecise foreshortenings that only appeared with the laying of the telephone cables in the Atlantic.

Henry Jarvis Raymond, American newspaper editor

Raymond had announced the idea of ​​his journalism in the New York Times , marking a further step forward over the party principles of his predecessors. He believed that a newspaper could at one time take on the role of a partisan newspaper, at another time it could serve as an organ of bipartisan, independent thought, and still be viewed by the masses of readers under the constant guidance of principles of good public order . An active pursuit of political preference prevented him from realizing this ideal. Although he only professed conservatism in those cases where conservatism was necessary for the public good and radicalism in all cases where radical reforms appeared necessary, his inclination to oppose the tribune and his temperament clearly led him to the conservative side . He was naturally inclined to accept the established order and make the most of it. Changes, if they did occur, should not be made by radical agitation and revolution, but by careful and gradual development. Such ideas as Raymond used in journalism appealed to the moderate people, mirrored the opinion of a large and influential class somewhere between advanced thinkers, theorists, and the masses of people ruled by passions of applause or protest rather than reason were.

It was primarily the tone of the New York Times that set it apart from other newspapers of its time. In its first edition, Raymond announced his intention to write in moderate and matter-of-fact language and to get passionate as rarely as possible: “There are few things in this world to be angry about, and these are the very things that not improved by anger. ”His style was gentle, honest, and decisive, and achieved his goals through ease, clarity, and moderation rather than through mighty ardor and abuse. His editorials were generally cautious, impersonal, and perfectly formed. With ample self-respect and politeness, he avoided vulgar abuse of individuals, unfair criticism, or narrow-minded and personal views. He had the level and type of intelligence that enabled him to observe two principles of modern journalism - the application of social ethics in editorial behavior and the maintenance of a general mood.

Raymond's contribution to journalism was not the introduction of revolutionary innovations in every editorial department, but a general improvement and refinement of the tone, a weighing of its parts, sensitizing, discreet and cultured for popular taste. Using the English Times as a model, he tried to implement the English standards of trustworthiness, stability, integration and exclusivity in his newspaper. The New York Times was considered the best in American journalism for its thorough and comprehensive coverage .

Mass markets, sensational and investigative journalism from 1890

Muckraker

As Muckraker (Engl. For manure scratches, dirt Fink, Nestbeschmutzer) were described in the early 20th century, American journalists and writers who as fathers of investigative journalism, as investigative journalism called, may apply. The publication is preceded by a lengthy, precise and comprehensive research. Muckrakers published truthful reports covering a wide variety of social issues including political corruption, white-collar crime, child labor, slum and prison conditions, unsanitary conditions in food processing plants, fraudulent claims made by off-patent drug manufacturers, blackmail in the workplace, and similar issues. These social grievances have been denounced in books and articles for popular magazines and newspapers such as Cosmopolitan , The Independent, and Colliers Weekly and eagerly read by the growing middle class in the United States.

An example of contemporary investigative journalism is Ralph Nader's book Unsafe at Any Speed , published in 1965. In this book, Nader, a consumer protection attorney, mentions the design flaws of many American automobiles, especially General Motors . In particular, Nader criticized the lack of protection for passengers in overturning convertibles. The book resulted in hearings in Congress and a number of bills designed to improve the safety of motor vehicles. This publication was a pioneering work in investigative journalism, an openly polemical book backed by extensive references and material from industry insiders. This style was often imitated.

Another example of investigative journalism is the exposure of the Watergate affair by American journalists Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein of the Washington Post . The Muckraker Seymour Hersh became world famous in 1969 when he reported on the My Lai massacre in 1968, in which American soldiers killed over 500 residents in a Vietnamese village. In 2004, Hersh caused a stir again when he published the torture scandal surrounding the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq in the American media.

Early investigative journalism

Originally the term Muckraker was used in a derogatory sense, but soon a positive connotation developed in public opinion. He is closely associated with a number of important journalists and writers who worked as Muckraker from the 1890s to the 1920s, a time roughly coinciding with the Progressive Era in the United States.

• Nellie Bly (1864-1922) - With her publication of Ten Days in a Madhouse , Bly exposed the scandalous treatment of inmates in a psychiatric hospital to which she was admitted. As a result, their revelations led to dramatic changes in the institutions' financial resources, checks, admissions and care.
• Thomas W. Lawson (1857-1925) - In his book Frenzied Finance (dt. Finanzwahnsinn) he criticized the machinations of Amalgamated and manipulations in the development of the Amalgamated Copper Company, which he co-founded.
• Fremont Older (1856–1935) - He was best known for campaigning against corruption and for his efforts in the Thomas Mooney case , wrongly convicted of a crime he did not commit and serving 22 years in prison for it before he was pardoned in 1939.
• Lincoln Steffens (1866-1936) - He was an editor at McClure's Magazine, where he was part of a famous Muckraker trio with Ida Tarbell and Ray Stannard Baker . He specialized in corruption cases involving politicians and government employees. In 1904 his articles were published in The Shame of the Cities attempting to expose public corruption in many large cities in the United States. Its aim was to provoke a public outcry and thus promote administrative reform.
• Charles Edward Russell (1860–1941) - He was a writer and editor for the Minneapolis Journal , the Detroit Tribune , the New York World , for William Randolph Hearst's Cosmopolitan and the New York Herald , as well as for the New York American and Chicago American . His articles covered social changes in America at the beginning of the 20th century, such as the Chicago slaughterhouses , tenements, prisons, and the problems of farmers. Russell's accounts of the corrupt practices and inhumane conditions in the Union Stock Yards were the inspiration for Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle , which caused national turmoil and led to appropriate reforms.
• Ida Minerva Tarbell (1857-1944) - She was best known for her book The History of the Standard Oil Company (1904), published in 19 sequels in McClure's Magazine. This book paved the way for investigative journalism and inspired many other journalists to report on the monopoly of large companies in the various industries in the absence of a strong antitrust case law in the 19th century.
• Burton J. Hendrick (1870-1949) - He was a muckraker for McClure's Magazine. In 1906 he wrote an article on life insurance and disclosed their practices.
• Westbrook Pegler (1894–1969) - He was an outspoken, controversial reporter of investigative journalism. He won the Pulitzer Prize in 1940 for reporting on the extortion of protection money in the unions .
• IF Stone (1907-1989) - Isidor Feinstein Stone published his own political newspaper, IF Stone's Weekly , on January 17, 1953 . From its inception, IF Stone's Weekly (from 1953 to 1967 and as IF Stone's Bi-Weekly from 1967 to 1971) had a far greater impact on the public than just its 5,300 subscribers. Stone was the only author to mix wit, erudition and political commentary in his articles. With no access to inside information, he was forced to rely on official documents for his sources. By taking sides on unpopular causes, he quickly built a reputation for indicting the government with their own evidence. In the 1950s, the Weekly covered topics from McCarthyism, defense spending, the Soviet Union , the Supreme Court, and civil rights. Stone criticized the American engagement in Vietnam in long discussions since 1954 . In 1963, he described the efforts to promote South Vietnam as a failure.
• George Seldes (1890–1995) - George Seldes was the inventor of modern investigative reporting; he interviewed Lenin , Trotsky , Freud , Einstein, and Paul von Hindenburg . His journalistic success has never blinded him to serious shortcomings in the American press. In 1928, when his articles for the Chicago Tribune on the final stages of the Mexican Revolution were published only after the US State Department had agreed to assess the situation, he declared his work with the mainstream media to be over. Seldes wrote a number of influential books, such as Freedom of the Press (1935) and Lords of the Press (1938), in which he attacks the press barons who twist the news to serve their own economic interests. In 1940 he founded a weekly newspaper that allowed investigative reporting and criticism of the pioneering work of the press. He revealed facts that no other publication would report, such as lucrative agreements with Hitler and Mussolini , even after the start of World War II . He reported on the links between smoking and cancer. The fact that most Americans had not heard about the dangers of smoking for decades before the 1964 Surgeon General's Report is evidence of the power of the tobacco industry and other major advertisers.

Contemporary investigative journalism

Investigative journalism experienced its heyday in the 1970s when journalists from major newspapers uncovered a number of political scandals. These contemporary Muckrakers include:

• Wayne Barrett - Barrett is an investigative journalist and senior editor for Village Voice . He wrote a research biography of Rudolph Giuliani as Mayor of New York City.
• Richard Behar - Behar is an investigative journalist and a two-time Jack Anderson Award winner. He has been described by the journalist Anderson as "one of the fiercest watchdogs in American investigative journalism". From 1982 to 2004, Behar served on the staff of Forbes , Fortune Magazine and Time . In 2005, Behar launched the Klebnikov project to find out about the Moscow murder of Forbes editor Paul Klebnikov .
• Barbara Ehrenreich - Ehrenreich is an investigative journalist and author of non-fiction books. In her book Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By In America (2001) she describes the experiences she made in the self-test to explore the everyday life of the “working poor” for a few months. With this investigative publication Ehrenreich wanted to draw attention to social problems in American society.
• Juan Gonzalez - Gonzalez is an investigative reporter and columnist for the New York Daily News . He wrote a book on Rudy Giuliani and George W. Bush dealing with the handling and aftermath of September 11, 2001 . He was the first reporter to inform the public through his in-depth coverage in the New York Daily News of the health effects of September 11, 2001 at Ground Zero .
• Amy Goodman - Goodman is an American journalist, book author, and television presenter. She became famous for the daily program Democracy Now! Presented by Pacifica Radio WBAI . . Amy Goodman is particularly committed to democracy and human rights, as well as media independence.
• John Howard Griffin (1920–1980) - Griffin was an American author. He became famous through his book Black Like Me (1961): As a white man, Griffin had artificially darkened his skin in order to experience racial discrimination as a black person.
• Malcolm Johnson (1904-1976) - Johnson was an investigative journalist who in the 1940s and 1950s in the New York Sun , published his 24-part series on organized crime in the New York Harbor, which won the 1949 Pulitzer Prize for local reporting .
• Jonathan Kwitny (1941–1998) - Kwitny wrote numerous articles for the investigative The Wall Street Journal . His coverage of the corrupt machinations of several people who worked for President Ronald Reagan resulted in the sacking of Richard V. Allen (National Security Adviser) and J. Lynn Helms (Federal Aviation Administrator) as a result of his investigations.
• Joshua Micah Marshall - Marshall is an investigative journalist with the New York Times Magazine and founded the Talking Points Memo (TPM), one of the most popular and respected sites in the blogosphere. In 2007, Marshall exposed a national scandal that led to the dismissal of US attorneys from the Bush administration and earned him the Polk Award for Legal Reporting . His persistent investigative coverage had also attracted interest from the traditional media and led to the resignation of Justice Minister Alberto Gonzales . He also helped solve the Duke Cunningham affair (bribery and tax evasion of a congressman).
• Mark Crispin Miller - Miller writes in his book Fooled Again that the 2000 and 2004 US presidential elections were stolen. His claim that the results of both elections were changed and controlled by a small minority was substantiated by an extensively researched documentation. In his book, he claims that the American people can no longer assume that their votes will be judged correctly and that the installation of electronic voting machines in the individual states is a fundamental flaw in the US electoral system.
• Allan Nairn - Nairn is an American investigative journalist best known for his arrest by the Indonesian military during a report on East Timor . His written work focuses on US foreign policy in countries such as Haiti , Indonesia and East Timor. His later reports helped move the US Congress to end military aid to Indonesia in 1993.
• Jack Newfield (1938–2004) - Newfield was a columnist for the New York Post and wrote several articles on abuse of power by government officials and business people. He wrote several books, for example his assessment of New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani in The Full Rudy , for which he received the 2003 American Book Award .
• Greg Palast - Palast is a representative of investigative journalism. He became known in 2000 when he reported tampering with the Florida voter register. He wrote several articles on corporate power and often works with trade unions and consumer organizations. In 2002 he wrote the book The Best Democracy Money Can Buy , which deals with globalization, corruption in the US and manipulation during the 2000 presidential election.
• Geraldo Rivera - Geraldo Rivera was a reporter for Eyewitness News in New York City . In 1972 he garnered international attention and won a Peabody Award for his report on the neglect and abuse of mentally disabled patients at Staten Island's Willowbrook State School. Its revelations led to radical reforms.
• Hunter S. Thompson (1937-2005) - Thompson was an American journalist and author credited with inventing gonzo journalism . In the late 1960s he was one of the first authors of the new Rolling Stone magazine . Thompson's eccentric and extravagant lifestyle and writing style was one of the reasons for Rolling Stone's success . During this time Thompson created his very personal form, what he called gonzo journalism.
• Gary Webb (1955-2004) - Webb was an American investigative journalist and a Pulitzer Prize winner. He became known in 1996 through a series of articles published in the San Jose Mercury News under the title Dark Alliance , in which he described in detail and with numerous documents and testimony the connections of the CIA to the organized drug trade. As a result of the sharp criticism of the well-documented series of articles by major US newspapers, he quit his job at the San Jose Mercury News and was never able to gain a foothold in his career.

Sensational journalism (Yellow Press)

The term Yellow Journalism or Yellow Press originated in the American Gilded Age of the late 19th century, during the distribution battles between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal between 1895 and 1898. Yellow journalism is a derogatory term for a journalism of sensationalism and scandalization, chauvinism or other unethical or unprofessional practices by the media, organizations or individual journalists. The Yellow Press magazines are also known colloquially as the “ rainbow press ”.

Pulitzer versus Hearst

The Yellow Kid

Both Pulitzer's New York World and Hearst's New York Journal have been accused by critics of sensationally displaying news in order to increase their circulation, despite both newspapers doing serious reporting. Color printing was first used in the production of newspapers in 1885 when a comic strip by the cartoonist Richard Outcault appeared in the world, the main character of which, a young boy, wore a long yellow shirt. The series was named after him, The Yellow Kid . After the comic book market grew in popularity, Pulitzer and Hearst newspapers also published the Yellow Kid series during their war of circulation. In early 1897, Ervin Wardman, editor of the slow New York Herald, coined the term Yellow Journalism , which is still used today for sensational journalism .

In 1878 Joseph Pulitzer bought the St. Louis Westliche Post , a German newspaper, and the St. Louis Dispatch . He merged the two newspapers and renamed them St. Louis Post-Dispatch . It was the dominant daily newspaper in St. Louis. In 1883 Joseph Pulitzer bought New York World . To make the New York World entertaining, he filled his newspaper with pictures, games, competitions and crime reports. He attracted new readers with lurid headlines. Pulitzer sold its subscribers the New York World for two cents per issue, for which they were offered between 8 and 12 pages of information. The only other two-cent newspaper in town never exceeded the usual four-page size.

Joseph Pulitzer, American newspaper publisher

While many sensational reports have been published in the New York World , they have not been the dominant part of the coverage. Pulitzer believed that newspapers, as public institutions, had a duty to improve society, and he put New York World at the service of social reform.

Just two years after Pulitzer bought New York World , his newspaper had the highest circulation of any newspaper in New York, supported in part by his strong ties to the Democratic Party. The success of New York World prompted other editors to criticize Pulitzer's paper. They tore up his crime and scandal reports while his reputable reporting was ignored. These were trends that influenced the popular perception of yellow journalism. Charles Dana, editor of the New York Sun , attacked New York World , accusing Pulitzer of a lack of judgment and perseverance.

William Randolph Hearst was impressed with Pulitzer's approach. He received the San Francisco Examiner from his father, George Hearst, in 1887 . Hearst read during his studies at Harvard University , the New York World , the same and decided with the San Francisco Examiner to make. Under his leadership, the San Francisco Examiner devoted 24 percent of its newspaper volume to crime. The Examiner featured his accounts of adultery and "nudity," according to 19th century morality, on the front page. Hearst's exaggerated reporting of crimes could also rouse the authorities. For example, he attacked the police with his publication about a "gang of murderers" that they were forcing reporters to do their work for them. Despite this crime coverage , the San Francisco Examiner increased the scope of its international news and sent its reporters out to expose urban corruption and inefficiency. For example, Examiner reporter Winifred Black was admitted to a San Francisco hospital; In doing so, she found that women of the needy social class were treated with "gross cruelty". After the complaint was published in the San Francisco Examiner , all hospital staff were fired.

Tabloids in New York City

Spurred on by his success with his San Francisco Examiner , Hearst was looking for a New York newspaper. In 1895 he bought the New York Journal , a penny newspaper that Pulitzer's brother Albert had sold to Cincinnati a year earlier.

After department store advertising was discovered in the 1890s, the cosmopolitan newspapers saw a basis for increasing their circulation. Hearst followed Pulitzer's earlier strategy and kept the newspaper price at one cent, compared to New York World , which was two cents. He offered the same scope of information as the rival newspapers. The concept took hold and the circulation of the New York Journal rose to 150,000 copies. On the back of his rival's success, Pulitzer also lowered the price of New York World to one cent in hopes of bankrupting his young competitor, who was subsidized by his family's fortunes. In return, in 1896, Hearst hired Pulitzer from the New York World staff by simply offering more money. Pulitzer was an extremely difficult person to deal with, so many employees were willing to leave New York World .

Although the competition between New York World and the New York Journal was fierce, both newspapers were on the same basis. Both were democratic, both had a positive attitude to the labor market and to immigrants, in sharp contrast to the publisher Whitelaw Reid of the New York Tribune , who sought to blame the moral deficiencies in the poverty. Both newspapers invested enormous resources in their Sunday publications, which, presented like weekly magazines, provided information beyond the usual scope of daily journalism.

Samuel D. Warren and Louis Brandeis published in the Harvard Law Review in 1890 , as a critical reaction to the latest technological developments such as photography and sensational journalism, the article "The Right to Privacy", which established the concept of privacy in the United States and continues to this day shapes. However, despite its recognized importance, the concept of individual privacy has proven difficult to manipulate.

Spanish-American War 1898

Pulitzer and Hearst fueled the nation's mood against Spain and influenced their attitude to the Spanish-American War with sensational reports or simply with lies. However, the vast majority of Americans did not live in New York City, and the decision-makers who lived there relied more on reputable newspapers like the Times , The Sun, or the Post , rather than the Hearst and Pulitzer Yellow Press. Politically and militarily, the USA felt in a position to dispute Spain's colony of Cuba . A welcome occasion was the explosion of the battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor , which Hearst and Pulitzer in particular declared a reason for war. The battle cry published in the Hearst press was: "Remember the Maine, to hell with Spain", although at the time Spanish guilt for the disaster was not even up for discussion. Hearst sent the painter Frederic Remington to Cuba to illustrate the anticipated outbreak of war between Spain and the United States. Remington found everything calm and peaceful on his arrival in Havana and communicated this to Hearst by telegram. Hearst then instructed his correspondent Remington to stay in Havana and bring pictures so that he, Hearst, could bring the war ("You furnish the pictures. I'll furnish the war." WR Hearst).

The outbreak of the Cuban Revolution and the atrocities committed by the Spaniards as an occupying power in Cuba were only made public through the Hearst press in the United States of America. This conflict, initially unnoticed, was used by the tabloids of New York City, which was in the development and experimental stage, to set the agenda in the circulation warfare. Hearst and Pulitzer saw the potential for big headlines and sensational news, which led to good sales figures, since people of the time had never seen such images in a public medium. Hearst initially sold 77,000 copies of his New York Journal, but in a short period of time, sales rose to over a million copies. Hearst and Pulitzer published stories in their newspapers of Cuban rebels who fought against the Spanish occupation. These reports aroused sympathy for rebels and had a strong influence on the opinion of the readers. Hearst made no secret of the fact that he believed only war was the right solution to the problem. With the explosion of the battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor, a war could no longer be prevented. In order to be able to publish better sensational news than Pulitzer, Hearst spared no effort, for example he recruited Pulitzer's best journalists and illustrators.

Hearst expanded his company in the years that followed, using the fortune he had made from doing good business during the Spanish-American War and conquering the newspaper markets of San Francisco and New York City . He founded the Chicago American in 1900 , the Chicago Examiner and the Boston American in 1902, and the Los Angeles Examiner in 1904 . This expansion of his empire should also support him in his greatest goal of becoming President of the United States.

Development of journalism after the war

As a member of the Democratic Party, Hearst supported the presidential election of the Democrats against the Republican William McKinley in 1900 with his newspapers . When President McKinley was shot on September 6, 1901 by anarchist Leon Czolgosz while visiting the Pan-American Exposition , the World's Fair in Buffalo , New York, the public was outraged when columnist Ambrose Bierce and editor Arthur Brisbane in the Republican Press, Hearst accused of driving Leon Czolgosz to the act. With this release, Hearst lost personal prestige and destroyed his presidential ambitions. In 1902 and 1904 he won the House of Representatives elections as a member of the Democratic Party. However, his $ 2 million presidential election campaign and newspaper management left him little time for congressional duties. Despite everything, Hearst still found time to stand for election as New York City Mayor in 1905 and attempted to be elected governor in 1906. After he failed in the elections, Hearst withdrew from politics and devoted himself only to his newspaper empire.

After the Spanish-American War, Pulitzer's New York World distanced itself from this type of journalism and pursued relentless, well-researched, investigative journalism. This brought him and his newspaper into great trouble when he uncovered the bribery scandal surrounding the Panama Canal in 1909 , in which the USA made the payment of 40 million US dollars under US President Theodore Roosevelt to the "French Panama Canal Company". Pulitzer was then sued by Roosevelt and financier JP Morgan . Pulitzer emerged victorious from the defamation process, which he celebrated as the victory of free journalism and made it even more popular. The World was a widely respected publication before Pulitzer's death in 1911 and remained a leading progressive newspaper until it was closed in 1931.

Reputation and validity of the newspapers

The derogatory term infotainment has been coined more recently and refers to mostly innocuous news programs that avoid serious subjects but mix “soft” journalism and entertainment rather than emphasizing more substantial news. Infotainment encompasses celebrity sex scandals, dramatized crime reports, and similar trivialities, which borders on the yellow press scam.

Corporate media is another derogatory term used when media companies with subsidiaries that operate in different industries apply their business interests in contradiction to the public interest. For example, such media can avoid incisive reporting about influential corporations or limit the information of the public about planned state regulation of the media industry. Some agreements between politics, business and the media world bring to light allegations of illegal or unethical practices, of fraud and violations of antitrust law.

While bland infotainment and unethical corporate media practices can be viewed as “yellow” in the sense of “cowardly”, the term tabloid journalism traditionally refers to news organizations in which a combination of sensationalism, greed for profit, propaganda, journalistic bias or chauvinism dominates , whereby factual reporting would strengthen public trust in journalism. If one can make gradations of the bias of journalists, then the yellow journalism is to be seen as less subtle and crude in content and execution than the media bias (bias of the media).

A current perceived gap is therefore more likely to lead to segmentation, depending on how “news” is defined. The public still associates “news” with “journalism”. Today, however, the general definition of news no longer belongs to the realm of journalists but, more broadly, to the domain of television and internet media. The spread of web media has, in a sense, reaffirmed journalistic ethics. Messages that adapt to the readership are more likely to be considered authoritative. The companies attract the general audience with “pseudo-news” that anyone can mix in their favor with topic-based entertainment and with their “news” to counter a downward trend in the sales market.

Newspaper chains and consortia 1920–1960

Newspapers in the United States saw a dramatic decline in the first half of the 20th century. Of the 20 daily newspapers in New York City, eight remained in 1940. In the same year, there were 25 cities in the United States with populations greater than 100,000 that had only one daily newspaper. In addition, a growing number of the surviving newspapers were not owned by local citizens but in the hands of large national newspaper chains. In the first decades of the century, more and more publishers began to merge with the competition. The amalgamation of the various newspapers under one publishing roof was a special feature of the press landscape in the USA. This press concentration has not yet been completed.

Frank Andrew Munsey

→ Main article : Frank Andrew Munsey

In 1914, the Ocean merged with the Record-Herald in Chicago and was renamed The Herald , which in turn was merged with the Examiner in 1918 , leaving only two morning papers in Chicago. In 1916, New York City newspaper publisher Frank Andrew Munsey consolidated the New York Press with the venerable New York Sun , published by Charles A. Dana from 1868 to 1897.

Frank Andrew Munsey (1854–1925), American newspaper editor

In 1920 Munsey bought Bennett's old Herald and the Evening Telegram associated with it and merged the two sheets. In 1924 Munsey sold the Herald to the owners of Greeley's old tribune , from which the Herald Tribune was created. Frank Munsey, known as the "great hangman of newspapers," bought the Globe and the Mail to shut down both newspapers in the ensuing consolidation. Perhaps the most mourned newspaper in New York City at that time was the fall of the world , sold by the Pulitzer heirs to Scripps-Howard in 1931. The Morning World had disappeared; the Evening World was merged with the Evening Telegram, a Scripps-Howard newspaper he had selected from Munsey's newspaper collection. The World-Telegram was created from the merger of these sheets .

Scripps-Howard

Edward Willis Scripps' trust in free enterprise and democracy enabled him to create the first newspaper chain in the United States, making a significant contribution to the new journalism of his time. In 1894, Scripps and McRae formed the first major US newspaper chain, the Scripps-McRae League of Newspapers. By 1914, the Scripps-McRae League, which began with the Cleveland Penny Press and the Cincinnati Post , had grown to 23 newspapers that Scripps acquired with the financial support of his sister Ellen .

Unsatisfied with the telegraphic messages from the Associated Press , Scripps organized the Scripps-McRae Press Association in 1897, which became the United Press Association in 1907 and the United Press International after 1958 . In 1922 EW Scripps changed his interests and his son formed the Scripps-Howard newspaper chain with Roy W. Howard, which later became the EW Scripps Company. In addition to the newspapers, it also owns various media holdings.

Hearst media group

William Randolph Hearst, American publisher and media tycoon (about 1905)

Hearst built his media empire around the San Francisco Examiner . As part of his political ambitions, Hearst also opened newspapers in other cities, including Chicago, Los Angeles, and Boston. From the mid-1920s, Hearst was the editor of a national media chain of 28 newspapers, including the Los Angeles Examiner , the Boston American , Chicago Examiner , the Detroit Times , the Seattle Post-Intelligencer , the Washington Times , the Washington Herald, and his Flagship, the San Francisco Examiner . In 1924 he opened the New York Daily Mirror , a tabloid outspoken in imitation of the New York Daily News . His empire also included Cosmopolitan and Harper's Bazaar magazines, Universal News and International News Service, King Features Syndicate, Cosmopolitan Productions, and several properties. Through his influence, Hearst supported the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt in his 1932 presidential nomination. However, he broke with Roosevelt in 1935 because Roosevelt did not want to pay an allowance to the Veterans Fund. Thereafter, the Hearst chain became the bitter enemy of the New Deal , a bundle of economic and social reforms in the United States. Since other newspaper chains were just as hostile to Roosevelt, he only had the support of 10% of national newspapers when he ran for the second presidency in 1936. The name Hearst has been synonymous with the type of aggressive, power-addicted media mogul. Hearst used his papers without hesitation for his political ambitions, in the style of a Mogul he ruled his media empire from Castle San Simeon, a huge country estate on the west coast, where he resided.

Frank Gannett

In 1906 Frank Gannett founded the company with the purchase of the local newspaper Elmira Gazette in the US state of New York. He bought the Gazette for US $ 20,000 and the loss-making competitor Star at the same time. Gannett's goal was to create local newspaper monopolies. By his death in 1957, Gannett had collected 21 newspapers, mostly regional newspapers from New York State. His successor Paul Miller expanded to larger cities, even as far as Honolulu and Guam . In 1995 Multimedia Inc. was acquired. With this purchase, Gannett had ten additional local and regional newspapers, five TV stations and two radio stations. Multimedia Inc. also operated cable networks in five US states, which were sold to Cox Communications in 1999. In 2000 Gannett acquired the newspaper chain Central Newspapers Inc. and 21 newspapers from the Canadian company Thompson. Gannett owns 85 daily newspapers in the United States, including USA Today , The Cincinnati Enquirer , The Des Moines Register , Army Times and Navy Times , making it the largest newspaper chain in the United States with a total daily circulation of approximately 7.2 million copies. Gannett also publishes 800 US magazines.

Samuel I. Newhouse

The Advance Publications was founded by Samuel I Newhouse. He had already managed a daily newspaper early on, in 1922 he bought his first own paper, the Staten Island Advance , and in 1950 he owned various local newspapers from New York to Alabama . In 1959, Newhouse bought Condé Nast magazine publisher - supposedly as a present for his wife on their wedding anniversary. Samuel I. Newhouse died in 1979, and passed on to his sons not only the company but also a brilliant process with the tax office regarding the taxation of the inheritance, which lasted until 1990, but then ended in favor of the Newhouses.

Television and Internet competition from 1970

New printing technology and the introduction of computers in the editorial offices enabled newspapers to save production costs while still maintaining the quality and appearance of the newspaper. It wasn't until USA Today was introduced in 1982 that the traditional newspaper layout changed fundamentally. According to the ideas of the founder Allen Neuharth , the newspaper should orient itself to the changed consumer behavior of television viewers with little time and prepare news with simple, concise and concise texts, but also with the help of optical means, so that everyone understands it. At first, other newspaper publishers made fun of the colored photos and the modern layout. The short articles dismissed them as trivial. But the newspaper's success taught them better, and many publishers soon followed suit, copying the style and layout of USA Today .

Today's newspapers in America face not only competition from television, but also a variety of other targeted and specialized media, including personal "web services", local cable television, interactive television, specialty publications, catalogs and "direct mail" providers. This is why newspapers are increasingly placing their trust in the new technology. On the Internet, electronic newspaper copies can be sent to pocket computers, so-called “hand-helds”, and printed out on your own computer.

Competition television

The end of the roughly two centuries period in which the newspaper was the dominant news source in America came with the arrival of television after World War II. The average US citizen watches television more than seven hours a day, which dramatically reduces the time available to read the newspaper. In 1940 the United States had one newspaper for every two adults, and by 1990 one newspaper was distributed among three adults. According to surveys, the percentage of the US adult population who read a newspaper every day fell from 85% in 1946 to 73% in 1965 and to 55% in 1985. Satellite technology made it possible for US television networks, especially cable networks, to reach a worldwide audience. Interactive media , stimulated by the advancement of digital technology and the merging of computers, telephones, and cable television, are the dominant trend in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

US Newspapers Online

For a long time, speed and topicality were the strengths of newspapers. The news agencies built their reputation on being the first to deliver the important news readers would normally find in their local paper. The immediacy of television deprived the print media of that advantage. Today the Internet has its own advantages in terms of speed and timeliness. Over 71% of Internet users, or 53% of all US adults, get their messages online. 65% of online news consumers don't have a particular news website they visit all the time. More than 100 US newspapers and magazines are represented on the Internet. Newspapers have now taken on a pioneering role again, presenting breaking news on their websites and expanding their brand identity with innovations such as online afternoon editions. In 2008, the number of US citizens browsing the top 50 news sites increased by 24%. Despite the growth, the revenues on the Internet have hardly increased.

Web technology has helped to strengthen the traditional oversight role of journalists. You now have more efficient sources of information. The ability to search documents, compile background information and historical context, and identify binding sources have expanded the journalistic tools. It has also led to a fundamentally new culture characterized by interactivity, fewer rules, and fewer restrictions.

General restlessness

After 1950, the newspaper readership grew more slowly than the US population. After the number of readers began to decline in 1990, the number of newspapers also went down, especially the afternoon papers collapsed in the face of the television news. However, advertising sales had remained strong and they were still profitable. In 2002, newspaper advertising revenues were $ 44 billion. According to Morton Research, a market research firm, in 2003 the top 13 publicly traded companies earned an average return on newspaper sales of 19%.

The newspapers in the United States have been in a serious crisis for several years. In the past five years, the circulation of daily newspapers sold has fallen by five percent. In 1998, a total of 62 million US citizens read a daily newspaper. Of US citizens aged 18–35, only 28% read a newspaper regularly. The reasons are the greater use of electronic media by the younger generation, the shortage of time and less commitment to local media due to the greater mobility of the population.

Another problem is the dwindling advertising market. Although newspapers are still the main advertising medium, competition from electronic media is growing. The classifieds market is the main source of income for many of the strongly localized daily newspapers. This category has recently been endangered by competition from the Internet, since according to current estimates, 20% of the spending on classified ads will be shifted from advertisers to the Internet in the near future.

Mergers such as those carried out by Hearst, Pulitzer, Munseys and Scripps at the turn of the century show tendencies toward concentration that worried media experts even then. Nevertheless, the process of concentration has since accelerated more than the most critical observers of the American press scene of the twenties could have imagined. The number of daily newspapers has continuously decreased from 1745 in 1980 to 1489 in 1998.

In 2006, American daily newspapers experienced the sharpest decline in circulation in recent history. This continues a trend that has been going on for decades and complements the woes of a mature industry already struggling with layoffs and the potential sale of some of its flagships. In addition, kiosk sales of magazines fell by more than four percent to over 48.7 million copies. According to Time Magazine, the biggest drop was in domestic weeklies. Analysts pointed to increased use of the Internet and found that in 2006 more people read the New York Times online than on paper. With the increasing level of education, the number of newspaper readers also increases. This positive development was found by selecting people in each age group.

The circulation of US newspapers fell by 10.6% between April and September 2009 compared to the same period last year. According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations , the specialist institute of the US Newspaper Publishers Association, the total circulation of the 379 largest US newspapers at the end of September 2009 was only 30.4 million copies on weekdays. USA Today's circulation fell 17.1% to 1.9 million copies in one year. Other major US newspapers also suffered severe setbacks: the New York Times lost 7.3% year-on-year up to September 2009 and now has a daily circulation of 928,000 copies during the week. The Los Angeles Times lost 11% of its circulation and The Washington Post lost 6.4% of its circulation. The readership is also showing signs of a further long-term slump due to the generation change, with the proportion of newspaper readers falling by around 30% with each generation.

The problems of the US press do not stop at the major US newspapers. As a result of the financial crisis , advertising revenues have plummeted. Added to this is the success of the online offshoots. Including your online editions, many newspapers reach more readers than ever before. However, the losses in the newspaper business have so far not been offset by the additional income on the Internet. According to studies, publishers have lost around 20% of their advertising revenue. This already dramatic development is now exacerbated by the global economic crisis. A number of newspaper houses have therefore filed for bankruptcy protection in the past few months, such as the Tribune Corporation, publisher of the Chicago Tribune , the Los Angeles Times and the Hartford Courant , or the publishing house Philadelphia Newspapers, which publishes the Philadelphia Inquirer .

The US media crisis has given many newspapers the fatal blow. Long before the banking and financial fiasco came to a head in autumn 2008, the American newspaper industry was already deep in crisis. A total of 19 of the 50 largest US newspapers were already in the red. Many of them have become the plaything of hedge funds , private equity investors, and speculators. In total, over 15,000 jobs have been cut in American newspapers since 2008. According to analyzes in business newspapers, this development is irreversible. Newspaper publishers will never find their way back to their former size, that is, to their former profits. In order to be able to continue operating their business profitably, they have to reorient themselves.

Foreign language US newspapers

Although a large number of daily newspapers were available in the big cities, many immigrants felt that their points of view and interests were not represented. One solution to this problem was the publication of newspapers in the language of the respective groups of immigrants. The first foreign language newspaper in the United States was a German newspaper published in German Town, near Philadelphia, with the assistance of Ben Franklin. A French daily newspaper, the Courrier Francais , was published in Philadelphia from 1794 to 1798. Early Spanish newspapers appeared in New Orleans in 1808 and in Texas in 1813. The first Native American newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix , was printed in Georgia in 1828. In 1897 the first Jewish newspaper, Daily Forward , appeared in New York , printed in Yiddish , and was also published as local editions in eleven other cities until 1923. Welsh, Italian, Polish and Hungarian newspapers were also published in North America. The wave of immigration to American cities in the first decades of the 20th century increased the demand for foreign language newspapers. According to the statistics of media historians Edwin Emery and Michael Emery, 160 foreign-language daily newspapers were on the market in the United States in 1914 and rose to a total of 1,323 copies by 1917.

Spanish and Asian US newspapers

In 2003, the Latino Print Network estimated the total circulation of all Hispanics newspapers in the United States at 16.2 million copies. 46 Spanish publications published mostly weekly newspapers with a total circulation of 3.6 million US dollars. From 1990 to 2000, the number of Spanish newspapers in the US market rose from 355 to 652.

In 1976, The Miami Herald began adding a Spanish language page called El Herald to its edition. This site was reborn as the El Nuevo Herald in 1987 and published as a daily supplement to the Miami Herald . In 1998 the El Nuevo Herald became independent from the Miami Herald and by 2003 had an average daily circulation of 90,300 copies. The El Diario La Prensa in 1963 by the merger of El Diario de Nueva York (founded 1947) and La Prensa (founded in 1913 by Rafael Viera) as Roy O. Chalk both blades bought. In 1981 the Gannett Company bought the sheet for $ 10 million. The El Diario La Prensa is the largest and oldest Spanish-language daily newspaper in New York City and in the United States, it currently has 294,769 daily readers (as of 1999).

In 2003 the newspaper publishers Tribune Co., Belo Corp. and Knight Ridder launched Spanish-language daily newspapers on the US market. In 2002, Hispanics newspapers and magazines had sales of $ 13 billion. By comparison, Knight Ridder's 2002 operating revenue, which owns 32 newspapers, was $ 2.8 billion. Although its readership remained limited, New York City already had two Spanish-language daily newspapers with a total circulation of around 100,000, as well as daily newspapers from Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic . Compared to the population size of New York City (as of 1998), the Hispanic newspaper share was minimal. Twenty-seven percent of New York City's residents were of Spanish origin, with the Bronx (1.3 million residents) making up 48% of them. Louis Sito demanded from Raymond A. Jansen that the Newsday be published daily instead of weekly. On November 16, 1998, the Hoy started with a circulation of 25,000 copies, until 2003 91,000 Hoy copies were sold daily in the New York subway area alone. Dallas-Fort Worth has 1.3 million Hispanic newspaper readers, 22% of the population in the area, and by 2006 this market was estimated to have grown to an estimated 38%. The Dallas Morning News developed the Al Día newspaper for Latino audiences , which appears Monday through Saturday and debuted in September 2003 with a workforce of 50, an initial circulation of 40,000 and a newspaper stand price of 25 US cents. The Diario La Estrella began in 1994 as a dual-insert language of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram and only grew into a Spanish stand-alone newspaper, which is distributed twice a week with a total circulation of 75,000 free of charge via kiosks and selective home delivery.

With the notable exception of the Viet Mercury , a weekly US newspaper published in Vietnamese by Knight Ridder, US media companies have generally shunned the Asian market, although daily newspapers in Chinese, Korean or Vietnamese are in New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles and other US cities are thriving. The World Journal is a daily newspaper in Chinese and serves the Chinese Abroad in North America. The biggest competitors are Sing Tao and Korea Times , each owned by international media groups in Taiwan , Hong Kong and Seoul .

Web links

• Shedden, David. Journalism History Bibliography (2005)
• National Digital Newspaper Program (NDNP) lists all papers; many online for 1880-1922
• United States Newspaper Program - created to locate, catalog, and preserve American newspapers on microfilm

Individual evidence

1. ^ Stephen L. Vaughn, Encyclopedia of American Journalism (2007), 225
2. ↑ ^{a b} Hedgepeth Williams, Julie K. Newspapers in the Eighteenth Century , in: Blanchard, Margareth The history of the mass media , Chicago, 1998, page 451
3. ^ Eighteenth-Century American Newspapers in the Library of Congress , accessed February 16, 2010
4. ^ Collier Encyclopedia, History of Newspapers - Mitchell Stephens , accessed March 19, 2010
5. ↑ John Peter Zenger Trial ( Memento of the original from August 28, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved February 17, 2010  
6. ↑ US history: Bill of Rights (10 Amendments)
7. ↑ Consumers, Media, and US Newspapers (Results from the Impact Study) ( Memento of the original from September 2, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF; 111 kB) Readership Institute, Media Management Center at Northwestern University  
8. ↑ WDR3 "lernzeit" 2006
9. ↑ Chapter VII: §1 Literature in the Colonial Newspapers, Section 1 accessed on February 18, 2010 (All the individual references given in Chapter VII: Colonial Newspapers and Magazines 1704–1775 refer to The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 volumes (1907–1921). VOLUME XV. Colonial and Revolutionary Literature; Early National Literature, Part I, by Elizabeth Christine Cook)
10. ↑ Chapter VII: §1 Literature in the Colonial Newspapers, Section 2, accessed on February 18, 2010
11. ^ ^{A b c} John Campbell and the Boston News-Letter.Retrieved February 24, 2010
12. ↑ America's First Newspaper.Retrieved February 24, 2010
13. ↑ Isaiah Thomas. The History of Printing in America, With a Biography of Printers, and an Account of Newspapers. From the press of Isaiah Thomas, 1874
14. ↑ Chapter VII: § 2 The New England Courant, Section 3, accessed on February 22, 2010
15. ^ Isaiah Thomas, History of printing in America. In Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society, Vol. V, p. 110
16. ↑ Chapter VII: § 2 The New England Courant, Section 4, accessed on February 27, 2010
17. ↑ Silence Dogood in the Museum of Hoaxes. Retrieved March 3, 2010
18. ^ The New England Courant, accessed March 2, 2010
19. ↑ Chapter VII: § 2 The New England Courant, Section 5, accessed on March 1, 2010
20. ↑ Chapter VII: § 4 Franklin as Journalist, Section 10 accessed on March 1, 2010
21. ^ Pennsylvania Gazette, Philadelphia Library of Congress, accessed March 8, 2010
22. ↑ Chapter VII: § 4 Franklin as Journalist, Section 12 accessed on March 1, 2010
23. ^ Grabo, Norman S. The Journalist as Man of Letters , Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective. Ed. YES Leo Lemay. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1993
24. ^ Arner, Robert D. Politics and Temperance in Boston and Philadelphia: Benjamin Franklin's Journalistic Writings on Drinking and Drunkenness Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective. Ed. YES Leo Lemay. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1993
25. ↑ Chapter VII: § 4 Franklin as Journalist, Section 13 accessed on March 1, 2010
26. ↑ Join or The United States Library of Congress, accessed March 9, 2010
27. ↑ Margolin, Victor. Rebellion, Reform, and Revolution: American Graphic Design for Social Change, Design Issues Vol. 5, No. 1, 1988
28. ^ The First Political Cartoons Archiving Early America, accessed March 10, 2010
29. ^ Smith, Jeffery A. Infamous Practices': Risk-Taking in Franklin's Early Journalism Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective. Ed. YES Leo Lemay. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1993
30. ↑ Chapter VII: Section 6 The South Carolina Gazette, Section 15, accessed March 12, 2010
31. ↑ Lawrence C. Wroth: A History of Printing in Colonial Maryland: 1686–1776 , Typothetae of Baltimore 1922, p. 60
32. ↑ Chapter VII: Section 7 The Virginia Gazette, Section 16, accessed March 12, 2010
33. ↑ Chapter VII: Section 7 The Virginia Gazette, Section 17, accessed March 13, 2010
34. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} History of Newspapers - Mitchell Stephens , accessed March 19, 2010.
35. ↑ Chapter VII: Section 8 Politics in the Later Newspapers, Section 18, accessed on March 17, 2010
36. ^ William Livingston, T he Independent reflector, or, Weekly essays on sundry important subjects, page 205, accessed March 18, 2010
37. ↑ Chapter VII: Section 10 The Massachusetts Spy, Section 22, accessed March 22, 2010
38. ↑ Isaiah Thomas , accessed March 21, 2010.
39. ↑ Chapter XXI: § 1 Revolutionary Newspapers, Section 1 accessed on March 23, 2010 (All the individual references cited from Chapter XXI: Newspapers 1775-1860, refer to The Cambridge History of English and American Literature in 18 Volumes (1907-1921). VOLUME XVI.Early National Literature, Part II; Later National Literature, Part I, by Frank W. Scott)
40. ↑ Chapter XXI: § 1 Revolutionary Newspapers, Section 2, accessed March 23, 2010
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42. ↑ Chapter XXI: § 1 Revolutionary Newspapers, Section 4, accessed on March 23, 2010
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44. ↑ Chapter XXI: § 2 The Pennsylvania Packet — the first daily Newspaper, Section 6, accessed March 25, 2010
45. ↑ Chapter XXI: § 3 Development after the War, Section 7 accessed on March 26, 2010
46. ↑ Hedgepeth Williams, Julie K., Thus, newspapers created a permanent and prominent place for politics as a topic in the US media , Chicago, 1998, p. 453
47. ^ Studies of Time Issues: Introduction to the German (Austrian) edition of the Federalist Papers , accessed on April 26, 2010.
48. ↑ Chapter XXI: § 5 Reporters Admitted to the Debates in Congress, Section 9, accessed on March 28, 2010
49. ↑ Lora, Ronald (1999), The Conservative Press in Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century America , Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 103-111, ISBN 0-313-31043-2
50. ↑ Chapter XXI: § 6. Partisan Bitterness; Administration body; The Gazette of the United States; The National Gazette, Section 11, accessed March 29, 2010
51. ↑ Burns, Eric. Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism, Public Affairs 2006, p. 281, ISBN 1-58648-428-1
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53. ↑ encyclopedia.com ( Memento of the original of June 10, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved March 30, 2010  
54. ^ Charles Warren, Jacobin and junto; or, Early American politics as viewed in the diary of Dr. Nathaniel Ames, 1758-1822 , Harvard University Press; First Edition (January 1, 1931), pages 90–91
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