Jewish parasite

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National Socialist propaganda poster from the Generalgouvernement , 1941, with the inscription: "Żydzi - wszy - tyfus plamisty" ( German  "Jews - Lice - Typhus " ).

“Jewish parasite” has been a demonstrable anti-Jewish stereotype since the Enlightenment . Behind this stands the idea that the Jews of the Diaspora are incapable of forming their own state and would therefore parasitically attack and exploit states and peoples - which are biologically imagined as organisms or “ national bodies ” . The stereotype often arises in connection with the accusation of usury and the separation of “creating”, ie productive, and “collecting”, non-productive ( financial ) capital (see “ high finance ”). The stereotype is closely linked to the conspiracy theory of " world Jewry ". In the time of National Socialism it served to legitimize the persecution of Jews up to and including the Holocaust .

With a different orientation, the motif was also taken up by some representatives of Zionism . They saw a "parasitic" way of life in other cultures as an inevitable consequence of the diaspora and compared it with the construction of a Jewish state as an ideal.

From the reconnaissance to the pre-march

Herder. Portrait of Gerhard von Kügelgen (1806)

The earliest evidence of the idea of ​​a "Jewish parasite" can be found in the 18th century. As the German-Israeli historian Alexander Bein suspects, precursors could be found in the medieval notion of the “ usury Jew ” who would suck the blood of the people, and the legend of ritual murder , according to which Jews would use the blood of Christian children for ritual purposes. In addition - for example in the anti-Jewish writings of Martin Luther - the idea that Jews are only guests in Europe, but Christians are their hosts, from which the idea of host people infested by parasites later developed. The French enlightener Voltaire (1694–1778) explicitly denied Jews the ability to achieve their own cultural achievements and permanent statehood: as evidence, he cited the construction of the first temple , for which Solomon and Hiram of Tire had to hire craftsmen from Lebanon, and the double exile (once the Babylonian exile after 597 BC and then the diaspora after the expulsion by the Romans in 135 AD). The entire Torah is parasitically borrowed from ancient oriental sources.

The German theologian and philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), an important representative of the Weimar Classicism , wrote in the third part of his ideas on the philosophy of human history in 1791 :

“The people of God, to whom Heaven itself once gave its fatherland, was thousands of years ago, yes, almost since its origin, a parasitic plant on the tribes of other nations; A race of cunning negotiators almost all over the world who, despite all oppression, nowhere longs for their own honor and accommodation, nowhere for a fatherland. "

A very similar passage can be found in the fourth part. Since Herder, an excellent expert on the Old Testament and ancient Judaism, is considered a philosopher with the Enlightenment, the interpretation of these passages is controversial: According to the anti-Semitism researcher Léon Poliakov , Herder " anticipated the statements of the racists of future generations". The German literary scholar Klaus L. Berghahn believes that Herder's sympathy was only for ancient Judaism: on the other hand, he was hostile to the Jews of his time. The Polish German scholar Emil Adler, on the other hand, considers it possible - also in view of the positive statements about Judaism a few pages before or after - that Herder only wanted to set an " apologetic counterweight": He also included critical and enlightening formulations in other parts of the ideas Contrasted conservative-orthodox ideas and thus weakened them in order not to endanger his position as general superintendent of the Lutheran Church in Weimar . The Germanist Arndt Kremer points out that such linguistic images were “not yet instrumentalized per se for anti-Semitic purposes” in the 18th century. He contrasts them with Herder's argument, according to which the alleged misconduct of Judaism can be explained by the anti-Jewish legislation of his time , which he describes as “ barbaric ”: “No national anti-Semite would argue that way later”.

In 1804, the reviewer of an anti-Jewish work by the German Enlightenment writer Friedrich Buchholz (1768–1843) took up the metaphor of the Jew as a “parasitic plant that continually clings to a noble bush and feeds on the sap” in the New General German Library . In 1834 the metaphor was directed against Jewish emancipation in an article in the magazine Der Canonische Wächter : The Jews would "parasitically surround them as a true plague of the peoples". In his polemic against the emancipation of the Jews, the Protestant pastor Robert Haas expressed which parasitic plant was actually meant:

"According to this, the Jews are a veritable mistletoe plant on the tree of the state, and only to the extent that the latter ensures that every impurity is swept away from it and every weeping plant removed, the tree will flourish more splendidly and bear beneficial fruit."

Left anti-Semitism in the 19th century

Fourier. Lithograph by Charles Baugniet (1848)

The idea of ​​a - in the figurative sense - social parasitism has long been found in socialism . It was taken over from the physiocracy of the 18th century, which urban merchants and factory owners, in contrast to the supposedly only productive farmers, called "classe stérile". The French early socialist Charles Fourier (1772–1837), for example, referred to the majority of all servants, women and children as “domestic parasites”, to which he added the “social parasites”, namely traders and seafarers. Fourier also counted the Jews among these “anti-productive” population classes. His pupil Alphonse Toussenel (1803–1885) defined in his work Les Juifs, rois de l'époque: histoire de la féodalité financière , published in 1846, “the despised name of the Jew” as “every money dealer, every unproductive parasite that comes from the substance and the work of others lives. Jew, usurer, money dealer are synonyms for me ”.

The early socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) exaggerated Fourier's anti-Semitism and charged him with further stereotypes. He accused the Jews of having crucified Jesus Christ , of having founded the Roman Catholic Church , which Proudhon rejected , and of striving for world domination and of being a "race of people " incapable of assimilation . In doing so, he relied on the religious philosopher Ernest Renan (1823-1893), who held the view that the Hebrew language was incapable of abstract concepts and thus metaphysics . Overall, the Jews appeared to Proudhon as symbols of the capitalism he criticized . In 1860 he wrote:

“The Jew remains a Jew, a parasite race, the enemy of work, who indulges in all the practices of anarchic and lying trade, stock market speculation and usury. All trade is in the hands of the Jews; rather than kings or emperors they are the sovereigns of the time. "

From this he drew the conclusion in 1847 that the Jews would either have to be expelled to Asia or destroyed.

In 1890, the French socialist Albert Regnard (1836–1903) saw parallels between the antinomies of the capitalist and the proletarian on the one hand and the Jew and the Aryan on the other. The Russian anarchist Michail Bakunin (1814–1876) called the Jews in 1871 "an exploitative sect , a leech people , a single-eating parasite". They would either be commanded by Karl Marx or by the Rothschilds , who were equally despised by Bakunin . According to the political scientist Klaus von Beyme, this shows that Bakunin's anti-Semitism was not motivated by race , but by anti-capitalist motivation.

While the British Chartist movement generally supported the Jewish demand for equality, the situation was different with regard to its economic role. Jews were denounced by Chartists as a parasite and embodiment of exploitation who would team up with other enemies of the working class .

Right anti-Semitism in the 19th and early 20th centuries

In the right-wing political spectrum, the stereotype of the “Jewish parasite” was much more widespread than in the rest of the political spectrum. The political right used the stereotype with a racist rather than an anti-capitalist thrust; although both motifs occur. Each time it had the function of dressing one's own anti-Semitic suspicions in a scientific and thus apparently objective terminology. The German-speaking journalist Osman Bey wrote in his conspiracy-theoretical work The Conquest of the World by the Jews in 1873 that Jews were "largely unproductive parasites".

When more and more Jews from Eastern Europe fled to Germany and Austria in the 1880s , the portrayal of Jewish parasites and disease carriers became the topos of anti-Semitic literature. The German economist Albert Schäffle developed the concept of the “social parasite” in his social Darwinist work Construction and Life of the Social Body in 1881, which makes use of the labor and capabilities of its “host” without contributing anything itself. As a particularly dangerous part of this social parasitism , he called the "proliferating" Jews active in the credit system. The meaning of the metaphor changed with the idea of ​​a “people's body” which the Jewish parasite could penetrate in order to harm it. While it was originally given meanings from botany (as with Herder), it was increasingly associated with zoology or infectious diseases : Now one had to think of "Jewish parasites" as leeches, lice, viruses or even vampires that had to be fought ruthlessly .

Adolf Stoecker. Photography (ca.1890)

The court preacher Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909) - founder of the Christian Social Workers' Party - wanted in a debate in the Prussian House of Representatives in 1880 to allow Jews only a “parasitic existence” in Christian Europe and compared them to “leeches”. In the period that followed, he even envisaged racial warfare and the use of force. The librarian and folk song researcher Otto Böckel (1859–1923), who sat for the German Reform Party in the Reichstag from 1887 to 1903 , publicly stigmatized Jewish traders as “Jewish parasites” who had “eaten their way into Germany”. His group colleagues Friedrich Bindewald (1862–1940) and Hermann Ahlwardt (1846–1914) called Jews in 1895 a “parasitic people” and equated them with “ cholera bacilli ”.

The German economist Eugen Dühring (1833–1921) wrote in 1881 in his work Die Judenfrage as a question of race, morality and culture that Jewish parasites would feel particularly comfortable in an “already corrupt national body”. The power of this "inner Carthage " would have to break the modern peoples. In the posthumously published 6th edition from 1930 he sharpened this statement and called for war against the Jews:

"It should be noted, however, that the law of war , especially a war against anti-Aryan, yes anti-human attacks by foreign parasites, must be different from that of peace."

Theodor Lessing referred to a saying by Dühring, according to which Nordic people are obliged to "exterminate the parasitic races, just as one has to exterminate threatening poisonous snakes and wild predators."

Similarly, the German orientalist Paul de Lagarde (1827–1891) called for a “surgical intervention” in 1887 to remove the “mass of pus” that would have accumulated in Europe as a result of the infestation with Jewish parasites: “With trichinae and bacilli is not negotiated, trichinae and bacilli are not educated either, they are destroyed as quickly and as thoroughly as possible. ”Whether Lagarde was thinking of the physical extermination of the Jews is controversial in research. According to Alexander Bein, these are all still biological comparisons and metaphors : Lagarde has not yet spoken the word about the extermination of the Jews, he has spoken out in graphic language for the expropriation of the Jews. Such natural history metaphors were used in the 19th century without any anti-Semitic intent, for example by the ancient historian Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903), who described the ancient Jews as the “ferment of decomposition”, the formation of larger state units across ethnic boundaries made possible. The Austrian political scientist Michael Ley, on the other hand, assumes that Lagarde sought to exterminate the Jews; For him it was "a necessary step on the road to salvation of the German people" in the sense of anti-Semitic redemption.

Oswald Spengler (undated photograph)

The transformation of the imagery in a real-naturalistic understanding of these terms took place after leg until the 20th century, than about the German cultural philosopher Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) in his major work The Decline of the West naturalistic terms such as "growth", " Wilting ”or“ putrefaction ”to describe states, peoples and cultures. He described Judaism as a “corrosive element” that has a destructive effect “wherever it intervenes”. Jews are incapable of adapting to Western culture and are a foreign body in Europe. The repeated use of the term host people with reference to the nations in which Jews live suggests the idea that they are parasites, although Spengler does not use the term itself used. In his Handbuch der Judenfrage, first published in 1907, the publicist Theodor Fritsch (1852–1933) painted the stereotype of the “Jewish parasite” who would endanger his “host people” if they were not expelled. By subordinating the supposed parasitic Jews to mimicry in another biologistic metaphor , he contributed to the fact that the hatred of Jews was subsequently directed against assimilated Jews in particular .

Artur Dinter. Photograph by Christian Beitz (before 1935)

A variant of the anti-Semitic parasitology was offered by the völkisch writer Artur Dinter , who developed the so-called impregnation theory in his 1917 novel The Sin Against the Blood : According to this, Jews are also "pests on the German national body" insofar as non-Jewish women who are once pregnant by a Jew were no longer able to “give birth to children of their own race” even with a non-Jewish partner. This theory was later taken up and further developed by the National Socialists and played an important role in the discussions that preceded the Nuremberg Race Laws in 1935 .

The stereotype was also spread in other countries. In France, for example, the journalist Édouard Drumont (1844–1917) claimed in his conspiracy-theoretical work La France Juive , published in 1886, that the “Jewish parasite” spreads infectious diseases among the Aryan, “noble races”, against which he was immune because “the chronic plague inherent in him “protect [him] from any acute infection. Unlike them, Jews are not capable of creative work. Therefore they could only survive as parasites, namely as bankers and usurers who would weaken the French further and further. As a solution, Drumont suggested an Aryanization of Jewish property.

In 1937, the anti-Semitic writer Louis-Ferdinand Céline (1864–1961) took up the allegations of the early socialists in his Bagatelles pour un massacre , published in Germany in 1938 under the title The Jewish Conspiracy in France , and denounced “the Jew” as “the most intransigent , voracious, most corrosive parasites ”. He expanded the metaphor by equating it with a cuckoo ; a breeding parasite that does not build nests itself, but hatches its young from other birds, raises them and lets their young die.

The stereotype was also widespread in the Russian Empire and served to justify acts of violence against Jews. During the expulsion of the Jews from Moscow in 1891, Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonoszew , a close advisor to Tsar Alexander III. , to an English guest:

“The Jew is a parasite. Remove it from the living organism in and on which it lives and put this parasite on a rock - and it will die. "

Around 1900 the journalist Pawel Alexandrowitsch Kruschewan (1860–1909), a member of the black hundreds , regularly hounded the Jews in the magazine Bessarabetz , calling them "bloodsuckers, fraudsters, parasites and exploiters of the Christian population". Against this background, an unsolved murder case, which he presented as a Jewish ritual murder, led to a pogrom in Chișinău in March 1903 in which around 46 Jews were killed.

Zionism

The description of Jews as parasites can also be found in Zionism since the beginning of the 20th century . Aharon David Gordon (1856–1922), an organizer of the Second Aliyah from Shitomir , Ukraine , wrote:

“We are a parasitic people. We have no roots in the ground, there is no ground under our feet. And we are parasites not only in an economic sense, but also in spirit, in thought, in poetry, in literature, in our virtues, our ideals, our higher human aspirations. Every strange movement sweeps us with it, every wind in the world carries us. We ourselves are almost non-existent, which is why we are of course nothing in the eyes of other peoples. "

However, it is not the Jews themselves to blame, but the exile in which they are forced to live. This polemic was fed by the idea that just by moving to Israel the Jews could develop their own culture and identity. According to the Israeli political scientist Zeev Sternhell, hatred of diaspora culture was something of a "methodological necessity for Zionism". Gordon called parasites all those who could not stand on their own two feet and live from the work of their own hands. He saw this inaction widespread among the yishuv , the Jewish population in Palestine . In order to form the Jewish nation, one must "wage war" against and against every other form of parasitism.

In a similar way, Zionists and "Halutzim", the pioneers of Jewish resettlement, mystified the soil and the manual labor with which it was tilled: Hugo Herrmann (1887–1940) described in a travelogue the almost redeeming zeal for work of the previous "air people, parasites, Traders and hagglers ”after entering Eretz Israel . The co-founder of the World Zionist Organization Max Nordau (1849–1923) formulated the ideal of the “muscular Jew”, although he did not resort to the parasite metaphor, but according to the Austrian historian Gabriele Anderl, his statements and those of other Zionist theorists can “from today's point of view also as an internalization of the anti-Semitic caricature of the Jew as an unproductive parasite ”.

In Israel today, charges of parasitism are sometimes made against ultra-Orthodox Jews who are exempt from military service.

National Socialism

Caricature from Stürmer , September 1944: A monstrous vermin , marked with a Star of David , crawls across the earth. The text "You shall eat the peoples of the earth" was supposed to represent a passage from the Old Testament .

The Nazis replaced the Marxist basic contradiction between bourgeoisie and proletariat by between "workers" and "parasite". The identification of Jews with parasites, pests, germs, vermin, etc. is very common here. It served the dehumanization and ultimately the extermination of Jewish people. Alexander Bein sees the discourse of the “Jewish parasite”, which understood its biologistic terminology not metaphorically but literally, as one of the semantic causes of the Holocaust.

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) took up the stereotype repeatedly in his program Mein Kampf in 1924/25 . For example, he polemicized against the notion, which is widespread in anti-Semitic literature, that the Jews were nomads , which he himself called them in a speech on August 13, 1920. Now he denied that this designation was correct:

“[The Jew] is and remains the eternal parasite, a parasite that, like a harmful bacillus, spreads more and more and only invites a favorable breeding ground. The effect of its existence, however, is also similar to that of parasites: wherever it occurs, the host population dies after a shorter or longer period of time. "

In this argumentation, any possibility of naturalization for Jews was excluded, because this would only penetrate the supposed parasite deeper into the national body. The anti-Semitic weekly magazine Der Stürmer used this stereotype in 1927 to deny the Jews their right to live. The Jews were equated with locusts :

“Through their blood, the Jewish people are forced not to live from honest, creative work, but from deceit and usury. It is known as a people of idleness and deceivers. The Jewish people are the largest parasitic people in the world. It's not worth it to exist. "

Also in 1927, a National Socialist poster advertising an event with Gregor Strasser gave the cynical answer to the frequent objection that Jews are also human beings: "The flea is also an animal, even if not a pleasant one". The equation with an insect that transmits diseases was heightened in the text of the poster by describing Jews as vampires , that is, not just a nuisance but a deadly danger. In the same year, the National Socialist journalist Arno Schickedanz (1892-1945) developed the stereotype in his work Social Parasitism in Völkerleben . It was quoted approvingly by the ideologist of the NSDAP , Alfred Rosenberg (1892–1946), in 1930 in his Myth of the 20th Century . In it he turned to look deliberately national weaknesses the Jews, supposedly to "strictly scientific" basis, in order to be able to bottle up through this "wound" in the body politic of the "host", such as the sack cancer the anus of the bag cancer use to in to penetrate it and eat it up from within. At the same time, he identified the intruder with Ahasver, the Eternal Jew , doomed to homelessness just waiting for his enemies to show themselves weak. He can therefore never shed his parasitic behavior:

“When the power of a Nordic spiritual flight begins to weaken somewhere, then the earthly heavy being of Ahasver sucks itself on the flagging muscles; wherever any wound is torn open on the body of a nation, the Jewish demon always eats its way into the sick place and uses the weak hours of the greats of this world as a parasite. His senses are not to fight for rule as a hero, but to make the world ' interest- bearing' guides the fantastically strong parasite. Don't argue, but creep; not serving values, but exploiting devaluation, is his law, according to which he entered and which he can never escape - as long as he exists. "

Reich Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945) made a similar statement in a speech on April 6, 1933: The Jews were “a completely alien race” with “pronounced parasitic properties”. In a radio broadcast in January 1938, the National Socialist Walter Frank raised the conflict with the "parasite" Judaism to a religious level: It could not be understood without classifying it in the world historical process, "in which God and Satan, creation and decomposition in eternal wrestling. ”In a speech in the Reichstag on April 26, 1942, Hitler himself painted the globally disastrous consequences of the alleged striving of the Jews for world domination:

“What then remains is the animal in the human being and a Jewish layer that, when brought to the lead, as a parasite ultimately destroys its own breeding ground. The young, awakening Europe has now declared war on this process of, as Mommsen says, the decomposition of the peoples carried out by the Jews. "

On May 16, 1942, in a conversation at the table, he used the stereotype as a counter-argument against bourgeois protests against the deportation of Jews from Germany : As a parasite, Jews could live “in contrast to Germans in Lapland as well as in the tropics ”, and crocodile tears even existed no occasion.

The National Socialist discourse of the “Jewish parasite” was supplemented by equating Jews with pathogens , rats or vermin , as can be seen in Fritz Hippler's propaganda film The Eternal Jude from 1940. In doing so, he followed up on the anti-Jewish writings of Martin Luther (1483–1546), who insulted the Jews as the “ pestilence ” of Christians. This accusation had been taken up in the 20th century by anti-Semites such as the Thule Society and also by Hitler himself, who considered the imminent eradication of “this plague” (supposedly Jewish Bolshevism ) as worthy of thanks during the war against the Soviet Union Performance credited. In May 1943 he took up the stereotype again in a conversation with Goebbels and varied it with another pest: this time he equated the Jews with potato beetles , which one could ask why they existed at all. He himself gave the answer in the social Darwinian sense: Nature is ruled by the “law of struggle”. Parasitic phenomena would "accelerate this fight and intensify the selection process between the strong and the weak". But peoples with a high level of civilization would regularly underestimate this danger due to a weak instinct: "So the modern peoples have no choice but to exterminate the Jews".

Title page of a Wehrmacht training booklet , 1944

By equating them with parasites, pests and diseases, the Jews were systematically denied that they were human. The Nazi propaganda was able to tie in with the medieval image of the Jew as a well poisoner . However, as knowledge about medicine and hygiene became more widespread in the 20th century, these equations gained in importance. The only solution that remained in this logic was the physical destruction of the alleged pests, the Holocaust. This consequence was repeatedly addressed openly in the National Socialist training literature. For example, it was said in the “Training Basics for Reich Topics of the NSDAP for the year 1941/42” that a body infected by bacteria must overcome these parasites, or it will be overcome by them. Then he must take care to prevent a renewed infection in the future. So be it also in the life of nations:

“In such disputes and processes, humanitarian principles cannot be applied at all, just as little as in the disinfection of a body or a contaminated room. A completely new way of thinking must take hold here. Only such thinking can really lead to the final decision that must be made in our time in order to secure the existence of the great creative race and its great task in the world. "

With the propaganda of "Jews as world parasites", members of the Wehrmacht were indoctrinated hundreds of thousands of times by their Nazi command officers until the last months of the Second World War . As recently as 1944, posters were stuck up in the Generalgouvernement that showed rats in front of a Star of David with the inscription: "Żydzi powracają wraz z bolszewizmen" (German: "The Jews return with Bolshevism"). This was intended to mobilize anti-Semitic resentment among the Polish population against the advancing Red Army and to prevent further resistance against the German occupation .

Anti-Semitism after 1945

The stereotype of the Jewish parasite can also be demonstrated in anti-Semitism after 1945 . In 1947 the Berliner Illustrierte scornfully interpreted the abbreviation “DP” ( Displaced Persons , meaning the people liberated from the concentration camps and the forced labor camps ) as “Germany's parasites”.

A linguistic analysis of letters to the Central Council of Jews in Germany and the Israeli embassy in Berlin from 2002 to 2012 showed the unbroken liveliness of the stereotype of the Jewish parasite in the present. When neo-Nazis these metaphors are widely used to refer to Jews and foreigners. According to Bernhard Pörksen , animal metaphors such as these are used in an attempt to “create disgust and reduce the inhibition of destruction”. According to the analysis by Albert Scherr and Barbara Schäuble from 2007, the anti-Semitic “parasite, pollution and blood topos” becomes the stereotype “Jewish parasite” can be assigned, also taken up in media discourses and by contemporary young people in stories and arguments.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Eurasism gained influence in Russia , which claims that a genetic unity of the peoples of Eurasia must be established, as they are threatened by chimeric, parasitic influences - namely by the Khazars , a medieval Turkic people of Jewish faith.

The stereotype can also be found in anti-Semitism, which is widespread in Islamic countries in connection with the Middle East conflict . After the Iranian revolution in 1979, wealthy Jews in the country were accused of "bloodsuckers" exploiting their Muslim workers and transferring the profits from arms purchases to Israel. They were then persecuted and expropriated. The Iranian TV series Zahra's Blue Eyes , which was first broadcast in 2004, is about Jewish organ harvesting from Palestinian children. The Jewish organ recipients are portrayed as incapable of living without the body parts of their victims, which Klaus Holz and Michael Kiefer interpret as picking up on the parasite stereotype. Jews simply cannot survive without the host people, just as parasites need a host. At the International Holocaust Caricature Competition organized by the Iranian newspaper Hamshahri , a drawing was submitted in which Jews were depicted as worms that have attacked an apple.

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Jürgen Bernatzky: The National Socialist Anti-Semitism as reflected in the political poster. In: Günther Bernd Ginzel (Ed.): Antisemitism. Manifestations of hostility towards Jews yesterday and today. Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, Bielefeld 1991, p. 393 f.
  2. ↑ Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, pp. 121 and 128, note 37; online (PDF).
  3. ↑ Jacob Katz : From prejudice to destruction. Anti-Semitism 1700–1933 . Union, Berlin 1990, pp. 46-49; Harvey Mitchell: Voltaire's Jews and Modern Jewish Identity. Rethinking the Enlightenment . Routledge, London / New York 2008, pp. 61 and 100.
  4. ^ Johann Gottfried Herder: Ideas for the philosophy of the history of mankind. Third part. Twelfth book. III. Hebrews . Johann Friedrich Hartknoch, Riga and Leipzig 1787, p. 98 ( onlinehttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A10897893_00102~SZ%3D~ double-sided%3D~LT%3Donline~PUR%3D ); Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, p. 128; online (PDF).
  5. ^ Johann Gottfried Herder: Ideas for the philosophy of the history of mankind. Fourth part. Sixteenth book. V. Foreign peoples in Europe . Johann Friedrich Hartknoch, Riga and Leipzig 1791, p. 41 ( onlinehttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A10897894_00045~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3Donline~PUR%3D ); quoted by Emil Adler: Johann Gottfried Herder and Judaism . In: Kurt Müller-Vollmer (Ed.): Herder Today. Contributions From the International Herder Conference, Nov. 5-8, 1987, Stanford, California . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1990, ISBN 978-3-11-085671-2 , p. 383 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  6. ↑ Klaus L. Berghahn : Herder, Johann Gottfried . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 353 ff. (Accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  7. ↑ Quoted from Emil Adler: Johann Gottfried Herder and Judaism . In: Kurt Müller-Vollmer (Ed.): Herder Today. Contributions From the International Herder Conference, Nov. 5-8, 1987, Stanford, California . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1990, ISBN 978-3-11-085671-2 , p. 385 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  8. ↑ Klaus L. Berghahn: Herder, Johann Gottfried . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 354 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  9. ^ Emil Adler: Johann Gottfried Herder and Judaism . In: Kurt Müller-Vollmer (Ed.): Herder Today. Contributions From the International Herder Conference, Nov. 5-8, 1987, Stanford, California . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1990, ISBN 978-3-11-085671-2 , pp. 395-401 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  10. ^ Arndt Kremer: German Jews - German language. Jewish and anti-Jewish language concepts and conflicts 1893–1933 . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-019603-0 , p. 45 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  11. ↑ Renate Best: Jews and images of Jews in the social construction of a German nation (1781–1804) . In: Heinz-Gerhard Haupt and Dieter Langewiesche (eds.): Nation and religion in German history . Campus, Frankfurt am Main 2001, p. 204 f.
  12. ↑ Karl Neimes: Alexander Müller (1784-1844). Canon law positions of a "Protestant Catholic" . LIT Verlag, Münster 2010, p. 124.
  13. ↑ Quoted from Peter Haberkorn: The long way to equal rights. The emancipation of the Jews in the Duchy of Nassau, 1806–1866. A documentation . Commission for the History of the Jews in Hesse, Frankfurt am Main 2004, p. 104.
  14. ↑ Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, p. 127; online (PDF).
  15. ↑ Jonathan Beecher: Charles Fourier. The Visionary and His World . University of California Press, Berkeley / Los Angeles / London 1990, pp. 199, 203 f .; Dominique Trimbur: Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 658 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  16. ↑ "J'appelle [...] de ce nom méprisé de juif, tout trafiquant d'espèces, tout parasite improductif, vivant de la substance et du travail d'autrui. Juif, usurier, trafiquant sont pour moi synonymes ”. Micha Brumlik : Anti-Semitism in early socialism and anarchism . In: Ludger Heid and Arnold Paucker (eds.): Jews and German workers' movement until 1933. Social utopias and religious-cultural traditions . Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1992; P. 38; Christian Ebhardt: Interest politics and corruption. Personal networks and corruption debates using the example of the railway industry in Great Britain and France (1830–1870). Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, Göttingen 2015, p. 123.
  17. ↑ “Le Juif est resté Juif, race parasite, ennemie du travail, adonnée à toutes les pratiques du trafic anarchique et menteur, de la speculation agioteuse et de la banque usuraire.” Quoted from Pierre Haubtmann: Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Sa vie et sa pensée, 1809-1849 . Part 1, Bauchenese, Paris 1982, p. 759.
  18. ↑ Dominique Trimbur: Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph . In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , pp. 657 f. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  19. ↑ Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, p. 129; online (PDF).
  20. ↑ Cornelia Schmitz-Berning: Vocabulary of National Socialism. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-092864-8 , p. 461 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  21. ↑ Klaus von Beyme: Socialism. Theories of Socialism, Anarchism and Communism in the Age of Ideologies 1789–1945 . Springer, Wiesbaden 2013, p. 121 f.
  22. ^ William Brustein and Louisa Roberts: The Socialism of Fools ?: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism. Cambridge University Press. New York 2015, p. 144.
  23. ↑ Cornelia Schmitz-Berning: Vocabulary of National Socialism . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-092864-8 , p. 461 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  24. ↑ Christian Hartmann , Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 1, p. 216.
  25. ↑ Sarah Jansen: "Pest". History of a scientific and political construct 1840–1920 . Campus, Frankfurt am Main / New York 2003, p. 269.
  26. ^ Arndt Kremer: Rat man: animal metaphors as risky language means of stigmatization . In: Karen Patrick Knutsen, Sigmund Kvam et al. (Ed.): Narrative of Risk: Interdisciplinary Contributions . Waxmann, Münster 2012, p. 379 f .; Andreas Musolff: Metaphorical parasites and "parasitic" metaphors: semantic interactions between political and scientific vocabulary . In: Matthias Junge (Ed.): Metaphors and Society. The importance of orientation through metaphors . VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2011, p. 110.
  27. ^ John CG Röhl : Wilhelm II. The Emperor's Youth 1859-1888. CH Beck, Munich 1993, p. 412; Werner Bergmann: Stoecker, Adolf , In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 799 (accessed from De Gruyter Online).
  28. ↑ Johannes Leicht: Heinrich Claß 1868–1953. The political biography of an Pan-German . Ferdinand Schöningh, Paderborn, 2012, ISBN 978-3-657-77379-4 , p. 61.
  29. ↑ Dieter Gosewinkel : Naturalization and Exclusion. The nationalization of citizenship from the German Confederation to the Federal Republic of Germany . 2nd edition, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2003, p. 282.
  30. ↑ Quoted from Alexander Bein: “The Jewish Parasite”. In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, p. 144; online (PDF).
  31. ↑ Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, pp. 129, 144 f .; online (PDF); Approving lecture by Christoph Gradmann: The smallest, but most dangerous enemies of mankind. Bacteriology, Language and Politics in the German Empire . In: Stefanie Samida (Ed.): Staged Science. To popularize knowledge in the 19th century . transcipt, Bielefeld 2011, p. 77; also Magnus Brechtken: "Madagascar for the Jews": Anti-Semitic idea and political practice 1885–1945 . Oldenbourg, Munich 1998, ISBN 978-3-486-59441-6 , p. 17 (accessed via De Gruyter Online), does not believe that Lagarde's request should be taken literally.
  32. ↑ Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, p. 124; online (PDF).
  33. ↑ Michael Ley: Holocaust as human sacrifice. From Christianity to the political religion of National Socialism . LIT, Münster 2002, p. 84.
  34. ↑ Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, p. 130; online (PDF). Ulrich Wyrwa : Spengler, Oswald. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 785 (accessed from De Gruyter Online).
  35. ↑ Oswald Spengler: The fall of the occident. Vol. 1: World historical perspectives. CH Beck, Munich 1922, pp. 148, 391, 393.
  36. ↑ Christian Hartmann, Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 2, p. 1290.
  37. ^ Arndt Kremer: German Jews - German language: Jewish and anti-Jewish language concepts and conflicts 1893–1933 . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-019603-0 , p. 122 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  38. ↑ The quotations from the Völkischer Beobachter of July 19, 1922, quoted from Burkhard Asmuss : Republic without a chance? Acceptance and legitimation of the Weimar Republic in the German daily press between 1918 and 1923. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1994, ISBN 978-3-11-087540-9 , p. 393 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  39. ↑ Myriam Spörri: Pure and Mixed Blood. On the cultural history of blood group research, 1900–1933. transcript, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-8394-1864-2 , pp. 83 ff. (accessed via De Gruyter Online). Cornelia Essner: Introduction to the Nuremberg Laws. 1000dokumente.de ; accessed on September 3, 2018.
  40. ^ Bjoern Weigel: Drumont, Édouard. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 2: People . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-598-44159-2 , p. 785 (accessed from De Gruyter Online).
  41. ↑ Robert S. Wistrich : demonizing the Other. Antisemitism, Racism and Xenophobia. Routledge, London / New York 2013, p. 188.
  42. ^ "Son parasite le plus intraitable, le plus vorace, le plus dissolvant: le Juif!" Sandrine Sanos: "Marianne and the Jew". Far-right intellectuals and antisemitism in 1930s France . Rutgers University, Camden 2004, p. 302; Pierre-André Taguieff and Annick Durafour: Céline, la race, le Juif. Fayard, Paris 2017, available on Google Books .
  43. ↑ "The Jew is a parasite. Remove him from the living organism in which and on which he exists and put the parasite on a rock - and he will die. " Simon Dubnow : History of the Jews in Russia and Poland from the earliest time until the present day [1915]. Reprint, Avotaynu, Bergenfield, NJ 2000, p. 414.
  44. ↑ Wolfgang Benz: Pogrom in Kischinew (1903). In: the same (ed.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Vol. 4: Events, Decrees, Controversies . De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-598-24076-8 , p. 283 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  45. ↑ “We are a parasitic people. We have no roots in the soil; there is no ground beneath our feet. And we are parasites not only in an economic sense but in spirit, in thought, in poetry, in literature, and in our virtues, our ideals, our higher human aspirations. Every alien movement sweeps us along, every wind in the world carries us. We in ourselves are almost nonexistent, so of course we are nothing in the eyes of other peoples either ”. Zeev Sternhell : The Founding Myths of Israel. Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State . Princeton University Press, Berkeley, CA 1999, ISBN 978-1-4008-2236-2 , p. 48 (accessed via De Gruyter Online); see. Boaz Neumann: Land and Desire in Early Zionism . Brandeis University Press, Waltham MA 2011, p. 144.
  46. ^ Zeev Sternhell: The Founding Myths of Israel. Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State . Princeton University Press, Berkeley, CA 1999, ISBN 978-1-4008-2236-2 , pp. 48 f. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  47. ^ Zeev Sternhell: The Founding Myths of Israel. Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State . Princeton University Press, Berkeley, CA 1999, ISBN 978-1-4008-2236-2 , pp. 48 f. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  48. ↑ Nicolas Berg: Luftmenschen. To the story of a metaphor . 2nd edition, Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, Göttingen 2014, p. 92 f .; similar to Boaz Neumann: Land and Desire in Early Zionism . Brandeis University Press, Waltham MA 2011, p. 128.
  49. ^ Gabriele Anderl: Generation Conflicts. The Zionist emigration from Austria to Palestine in the interwar period . In: Frank Stern and Barbara Eichinger (eds.): Vienna and the Jewish experience 1900–1938. Acculturation - Anti-Semitism - Zionism . Böhlau, Vienna / Cologne / Weimar 2009, p. 80; on “Muscle Jews” see Monica Rüthers : From Exclusion to National Pride. "Womanish" Jews and "Muscle Jews" . In: Heiko Haumann (ed.): The dream of Israel. The origins of modern Zionism. Beltz Athenaeum, Weinheim 1998, pp. 319–329.
  50. ↑ Jeremy Sharon, 'Parasites' comment on haredim evokes outrage , jpost.com , April 24, 2013; Israel: Challenge to the ultra-orthodox , religion.orf.at , May 3, 2013; Hundreds of thousands resist military service. , israelheute.com, March 3, 2014; accessed on November 4, 2018.
  51. ^ Daniel Roos: Julius Streicher and "Der Stürmer" 1923-1945. Schöningh, Paderborn 2014, p. 419 and others.
  52. ^ Zeev Sternhell: The Founding Myths of Israel. Nationalism, Socialism, and the Making of the Jewish State . Princeton University Press, Berkeley, CA 1999, ISBN 978-1-4008-2236-2 , p. 8 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  53. ↑ Monika Urban: Of rats, blowflies and grasshoppers. Anti-Jewish animal symbolizations and the post-fascist limits of what can be said. Herbert von Halem Verlag, Cologne 2014, p. 191.
  54. ↑ Alexander Bein: "The Jewish Parasite". In: Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte , 13 (1965), issue 2, pp. 146–149; online (PDF).
  55. ↑ Christian Hartmann, Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 1, p. 788 f.
  56. ↑ Adolf Hitler: Mein Kampf. Eher-Verlag, Munich 1942, p. 334, quoted by Cornelia Schmitz-Berning: Vokabular des Nationalozialismus . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007 ISBN 978-3-11-092864-8 , p. 461 f. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  57. ↑ Cornelia Schmitz-Berning: Vocabulary of National Socialism. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-092864-8 , p. 462 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  58. ↑ Monika Urban: Of rats, blowflies and grasshoppers. Anti-Jewish animal symbolizations and the post-fascist limits of what can be said. Herbert von Halem Verlag, Cologne 2014, p. 191.
  59. ↑ Jürgen Bernatzky: The National Socialist Anti-Semitism as reflected in the political poster. In: Günther Bernd Ginzel (Ed.): Antisemitism. Manifestations of hostility towards Jews yesterday and today. Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, Bielefeld 1991, p. 393.
  60. ↑ Cornelia Schmitz-Berning: Vocabulary of National Socialism . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-092864-8 , p. 462 f. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  61. ↑ Cornelia Schmitz-Berning: Vocabulary of National Socialism . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-092864-8 , p. 463 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  62. ↑ Saul Friedländer : The Years of Destruction. The Third Reich and the Jews. First volume. 1933-1939 . CH Beck, Munich 1998, p. 337.
  63. ↑ Saul Friedländer: The Years of Destruction. The Third Reich and the Jews. Second volume. 1939-1945 . CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 364.
  64. ↑ Magnus Brechtken: "Madagascar for the Jews": Anti-Semitic idea and political practice 1885-1945 . Oldenbourg, Munich 1998, ISBN 978-3-486-59441-6 , p. 281 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  65. ↑ Christian Hartmann, Thomas Vordermayer, Othmar Plöckinger, Roman Töppel (eds.): Hitler, Mein Kampf. A critical edition . Institute for Contemporary History Munich - Berlin, Munich 2016, vol. 1, p. 473.
  66. ↑ Joseph Goebbels: Diaries. Vol. 5: 1943-1945 . Edited by Ralf Georg Reuth , Piper, Munich 1992, p. 1933; quoted by Christian T. Barth: Goebbels and the Jews . Schöningh, Paderborn 2003, p. 237.
  67. ^ Philippe Burrin : Nazi Antisemitism. Animalization and Demonization. In: Robert S. Wistrich (Ed.): Demonizing the Other. Antisemitism, Racism and Xenophobia. Routledge, London / New York 2013, p. 226.
  68. ↑ Martin Weißmann: Organized dehumanization. On the production, function and substitutability of social and psychological dehumanization in genocides. In: Alexander Gruber, Stefan Kühl (eds.): Sociological analyzes of the Holocaust. Beyond the debate about “completely normal men” and “completely normal Germans”. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 2015, p. 95 f.
  69. ↑ Quoted from Cornelia Schmitz-Berning: Vokabular des Nationalozialismus . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2007, ISBN 978-3-11-092864-8 , p. 462 f. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  70. ↑ Saul Friedländer: The Third Reich and the Jews, Volume 2: The Years of Destruction 1939–1945. CH Beck, Munich 2006, p. 799.
  71. ↑ Jürgen Bernatzky: The National Socialist Anti-Semitism as reflected in the political poster. In: Günther Bernd Ginzel (Ed.): Antisemitism. Manifestations of hostility towards Jews yesterday and today. Verlag Wissenschaft und Politik, Bielefeld 1991, p. 393 f.
  72. ↑ Angelika Königseder: Displaced Persons (DPs). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Volume 3: Concepts, ideologies, theories. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2008, ISBN 978-3-598-24074-4 , p. 57 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  73. ↑ Monika Schwarz-Friesel and Jehuda Reinharz : The language of hostility towards Jews in the 21st century . Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / Boston 2013, ISBN 978-3-11-027772-2 , pp. 276, 299, 301, 303, etc. (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  74. ↑ Bernhard Pörksen: The construction of enemy images: On the use of language in neo-Nazi media. Westdeutscher Verlag, Wiesbaden 2000, p. 187.
  75. ↑ Albert Scherr, Barbara Schäuble: "I have nothing against Jews, but ..." Initial conditions and perspectives for socio-political educational work against anti-Semitism. Amadeu Antonio Foundation 2007, p. 13; online (PDF).
  76. ^ Matthias Vetter: Russia after the end of the Soviet Union. In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus . Vol. 1: Countries and regions. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2010, ISBN 978-3-11-023510-4 , p. 308 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
  77. ↑ Ulrike Marz: Critique of Islamic Anti-Semitism. On the social genesis and semantics of anti-Semitism in the Islamic Republic of Iran . LIT, Münster 2014, ISBN 978-3-643-12785-3 , p. 150.
  78. ^ Klaus Holz and Michael Kiefer: Islamist Antisemitism. Phenomenon and state of research. In: Wolfram Stender, Guido Follert and Mihri Özdogan (eds.): Constellations of anti-Semitism. Research on anti-Semitism and socio-educational practice. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, Wiesbaden 2010, p. 123; the sociologist Ulrike Marz, on the other hand, analyzes the series as a use of the ritual murder legend , the same: a critique of Islamic anti-Semitism. On the social genesis and semantics of anti-Semitism in the Islamic Republic of Iran . LIT, Münster 2014, ISBN 978-3-643-12785-3 , p. 227.
  79. ^ Christian Pape: International Holocaust Caricature Competition (2006). In: Wolfgang Benz (Hrsg.): Handbuch des Antisemitismus. Volume 7: Literature, Film, Theater and Art. De Gruyter Saur, Berlin 2015, ISBN 978-3-11-034088-4 , p. 186 (accessed via De Gruyter Online).
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