Presidential election in the United States, 1916

‹  1912  •   •  1920 ›
33rd presidential election
November 7, 1916
			Democratic Party
			Woodrow Wilson / Thomas Marshall
			electors					277
			be right				9,126,868
									49.2%
			Republican Party
			Charles Hughes / Charles Fairbanks
			electors					254
			be right				8,548,728
									46.1%
Election results by state
30 states   Wilson / Marshall						18 states   Hughes / Fairbanks
President of the United States
Before the election Woodrow Wilson Democratic Party						Elected Woodrow Wilson Democratic Party

The 1916 presidential election in the United States took place on November 7, 1916 - against the backdrop of the First World War , in which the United States had remained neutral until then . The Democratic Party candidate was incumbent Woodrow Wilson , who was particularly popular during his first term because of his anti-war stance and a series of worker-friendly reforms. For the Republican Party joined Charles Evans Hughes to which from 1910 until his nomination as a judge at the Supreme Court of the United States had acted. Former US President Theodore Roosevelt , unlike four years earlier, waived his own candidacy with his Progressive Party in favor of Hughes .

The main topics of the election campaign were, domestically, the progressive reforms of incumbent Wilson and, in terms of foreign policy, a possible participation of the United States in the war . While Wilson made maintaining American neutrality a key issue in his campaign, Hughes advocated better preparation for the country's possible dragging into the conflict, which in part led to his perception as a "war candidate." Woodrow Wilson won the election by a narrow margin and was re-elected for a second term as President of the United States .

From the point of view of election research , the strong influence of the First World War in particular is considered to be a decisive factor in the outcome of the election. Motivated by changes in German war policy at the beginning of 1917, the United States entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente in April , with diverse and sometimes long-lasting effects on the country's social and political life. Domestic politics during his second term in office were marked by the nationwide introduction of women's suffrage and the failure of his legislative initiatives to ban child labor . In 1919 Woodrow Wilson, who was in office until March 1921, received the Nobel Peace Prize "for his services to ending the First World War and establishing the League of Nations".

initial situation

Theodore Roosevelt, whose candidacy in 1912 had split the Republican Party and favored Wilson's victory

The political landscape in the United States before the 1916 presidential election was shaped by the aftermath of the election four years earlier , in which Democrat Woodrow Wilson had prevailed. His opponents were former President Theodore Roosevelt , who had split off from the Republicans with the Progressive Party , and the Republican incumbent William Howard Taft . Roosevelt, who, in contrast to Taft, represented the liberal wing within the Republicans, had previously tried unsuccessfully to nominate the party. After this had gone back to the conservative Taft, Roosevelt decided to run together with the California Governor Hiram Johnson , with whom he founded the Progressive Party in the same year. This split the Republicans and their potential electorate, as a result of which incumbent Taft lost the election to his Democratic challenger Wilson and finished only third behind Roosevelt in both electoral and electoral votes.

In terms of domestic politics, after taking office, Wilson had implemented a number of projects with the support of a majority democratically occupied Congress , which were propagated under the slogan "The New Freedom" and, above all, changes in the area of competition law and customs , the Banking sector and monetary policy included. The most important of these reforms included the creation of the Federal Reserve System as the central banking system of the United States in 1913 and the establishment of the Federal Trade Commission a year later with the aim of preventing or combating anticompetitive trusts and market and production monopolies. Both institutions are central to the economic system of the United States to this day . In addition, the government passed several laws that improved the work situation in various sectors of the economy. These included, for example, the limitation of daily working hours to eight hours and the Seamen's Act , which improved the working and living conditions of seafarers in the American merchant fleet . The economic situation in the United States, which was initially characterized by an economic downturn during Wilson's first term in office , had later recovered due to an increase in demand caused by the war .

In terms of foreign policy, Wilson had prevented the United States from participating in World War I , which began in Europe in 1914 . He undertook various mediation initiatives with the warring parties to resolve the conflict, but they were unsuccessful. He was criticized by Republicans, particularly under Theodore Roosevelt's leadership, for his refusal to prepare the American armed forces for possible war participation. In his opinion, this would have forced entry into the war, an attitude that secured him support within the American peace movement . Wilson was very popular in the run-up to the 1916 election because of this antiwar stance and because of his domestic policy reforms in favor of workers in large parts of the population.

The vote

Candidates

Woodrow Wilson

Charles Evans Hughes

Thomas Riley Marshall

Charles Fairbanks

Within the Democratic Party, incumbent Woodrow Wilson was almost undisputed due to his domestic and foreign political successes during his first term in office. Few presidents in American history were considered to be similarly dominant in their party. At the Democratic National Convention from June 14 to 16, 1916 in St. Louis , he was therefore nominated again by an overwhelming majority in the first ballot. The only opposing candidate was the little-known delegate Homer S. Cummings , who became Minister of Justice under President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s . The incumbent Vice President Thomas Riley Marshall was also re-elected by the Democrats with no opposition.

In the Republican Party's primary elections, 13 candidates ran for nomination as challenger to the incumbent president. These included, among others, former Vice President Charles W. Fairbanks , the automobile manufacturer Henry Ford , the former Justice and Foreign Minister Philander C. Knox , the Constitutional Court judge Charles Evans Hughes , the Governor of the State of Pennsylvania , Martin Brumbaugh , and seven senators from different states. During the Republican National Convention in Chicago from June 7 to 10, 1916 , Charles Evans Hughes won the nomination in the third ballot. The main reason was his moderate political stance, through which the Republican leadership hoped to strike a balance between the liberal and conservative wings of the party. Charles W. Fairbanks, who had already held this office under President Roosevelt from 1905 to 1909, was selected as a candidate for the office of vice president. After accepting his nomination, Hughes stepped down from Supreme Court Justice on June 16, 1916.

Theodore Roosevelt, who originally wanted to run again for the Progressives, withdrew his candidacy and supported Charles Evans Hughes in the election campaign. This decision, influenced by his passionate rejection of Wilson, with which he wanted to prevent a renewed election victory of the Democrats, led to the end of the Progressive Party and the return of most of its members to the Republicans. Frank Hanly , who had previously served as a member of the House of Representatives for Republicans from 1895 to 1897 and served as governor of the state of Indiana from 1905 to 1909 , ran for the Prohibition Party . Author and newspaper editor Allan Louis Benson ran for the Socialist Party of America .

Election campaign

The election campaign was initially dominated by domestic political issues and then increasingly by the First World War in Europe. Woodrow Wilson's domestic political agenda included the fight against child labor , the nationwide introduction of women's suffrage , improvements to the penal system and the continuation of the progressive reforms from his first term that had contributed to his popularity among the population. These projects, as well as the results of his policy so far, also earned him the support of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), the largest trade union association in the USA in the first half of the 20th century.

Woodrow Wilson at the opening of the 1916 baseball season

In addition, the New York Times , the defeated Henry Ford in the Republican primary and the inventor and entrepreneur Thomas Alva Edison , who had voted for Roosevelt as the Republican candidate , spoke out in favor of Wilson. William Randolph Hearst , who owned the San Francisco Examiner and several other daily newspapers and was one of the country's leading media entrepreneurs, also called for Wilson's election after unsuccessfully trying to convince Roosevelt to run. Although he personally despised Wilson and rejected his policies, as a member of the Democratic Party he could not bring himself to support the Republican Hughes, to whom he was also defeated in the 1906 election as governor of New York .

Wilson's core foreign policy issue was maintaining neutrality and thus avoiding the United States from participating in the war. This was expressed in the democratic campaign slogan “He Kept Us Out of War” - “He kept us out of the war” - which referred to the two years since the war began in 1914. Since he was not convinced that he could avoid the USA entering the war, Wilson himself was not satisfied with this slogan. Wilson, who was little active in the election campaign, concentrated mainly on his own issues and almost completely ignored Hughes, who was politically inexperienced. In addition, with reference to the tense international situation and the need to remain in Washington , he refrained from going on an election campaign tour through the country and appeared only as an invited speaker.

Charles Evans Hughes campaigned in his campaign, which in contrast to Wilson's election campaign was characterized by extensive travel and was considered poorly organized, to better prepare for the possible effects of the war and for the United States to be drawn into the conflict. This has been interpreted by some newspapers in support of Woodrow Wilson as secret plans to enter the war after a possible election by Hughes. After Wilson had succeeded in using diplomatic pressure to dissuade the German Reich from continuing the unrestricted submarine war , Hughes found it difficult to oppose an effective election campaign against his opponent's peace campaign. In addition to a possible participation in the war in Europe as the main topic, he also addressed the involvement of the United States in the Mexican civil war in the field of foreign policy .

Charles Evans Hughes (left) during a campaign rally in New York on November 4, 1916

Domestically, he focused on criticizing some of Wilson's labor law reforms that he portrayed as detrimental to business interests. However, this also remained largely unsuccessful, as these reforms had improved working conditions for large sections of the workforce and thus contributed to Wilson's popularity among these sections of the population. The support of the still extremely popular former President Theodore Roosevelt proved to be advantageous for Hughes, especially among liberal supporters of the Republicans, even if his campaign statements regarding possible participation in the war probably contributed to the perception of Hughes as a "war candidate". In addition, Elihu Root , who had served as foreign minister under Roosevelt from 1905 to 1909 and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1912 , positioned himself in favor of Hughes.

Since Hughes made some ambiguous or contradicting statements in his criticism of Wilson, for example on Wilson's approach to the German Reich, he was sometimes perceived as undecided, which, in a modification of his middle name, gave him the nickname "Charles Evasive Hughes" ( evasive , English for "evasive"). In addition, on August 21, 1916, he underwent a potentially decisive faux pas while on a campaign tour in the state of California . During a stay in Long Beach, he stayed at the same hotel as Hiram Johnson , the then Republican governor of the state. Even so, there was no meeting between the two politicians, possibly because Hughes had not been informed that Johnson was also at the hotel. However, the incident, known as the forgotten handshake, was perceived as a snub, so that he subsequently refused Hughes full support in the election campaign in California.

Frank Hanly's campaign focused on calling for a ban on alcoholic beverages and games of chance . Allan Louis Benson made a name for himself primarily through his strict rejection of the war and his support for a nationwide referendum on a possible entry into the war by the United States.

Result

candidate	electors	be right	proportion of
Woodrow Wilson	277	9,126,868	49.2%
Charles Evans Hughes	254	8,548,728	46.1%
Allan Louis Benson	0	590.524	3.2%
Frank Hanly	0	221,302	1.2%
Votes cast			18,536,585
voter turnout			61.3%

Swearing-in of the election winner Woodrow Wilson by Edward Douglass White on March 4, 1917

Charles Evans Hughes was ahead in the first interim results on election day, November 7, 1916, due to early victories in states in the north-east and mid-west of the country, so that some newspapers have already declared him the election winner and Roosevelt congratulated him by telegram on his election victory . However, Woodrow Wilson managed to catch up , especially in the southern states and the west coast , and eventually to take the lead. California ultimately turned out to be the key state, where Wilson won by only about 3800 out of around one million votes, thus securing the election victory.

A total of 18,536,585 votes were cast, around 3.5 million more than 1912. Of these, Wilson received 9,126,868 votes, which corresponded to 49.2 percent, while Hughes received 8,548,728 votes, or 46.1 percent. Wilson received around 2.8 million votes more than in his first election, but only achieved a narrow relative majority among voters and, as four years earlier, failed to achieve an absolute majority . The turnout was 61.3 percent. In Electoral College , the electoral vote was 277-254 in favor of Wilson, who won in 30 states, while Hughes won the election in 18 states including his home state New York and Wilson's home state New Jersey . This was, with a minimum of 266 votes, one of the tightest electoral college elections in United States history. If Hughes had won the election in California, for example, he would have been elected president with the state's 13 additional electoral votes.

As had already become apparent in the first results, with the exception of Oregon , the victories of Hughes concentrated exclusively on the most populous and accordingly represented with a comparatively high number of electors in the Electoral College in the Midwest and Northeast of the country. He achieved the highest percentage of votes in Vermont with 62.4 percent and in New Jersey with 54.4 percent. Wilson, on the other hand, was only able to record an extremely narrow victory in the northeast in New Hampshire by 56 votes ahead of 89,127 votes cast. He did not benefit from the traditionally strong support of the Democratic Party among the predominantly Catholic descendants of the Irish immigrants , who lived mainly in the northeastern United States. The rejection of Wilson's policies on Europe and Mexico by this population group contributed to this in particular . In addition, the Irish-born residents of this region were largely disaffected by the social tensions caused by the war.

In the Midwest, Hughes' second stronghold, Wilson won the states of North Dakota , Nebraska , Kansas , Montana and Ohio, which are on the edge of the region . He also won by a large margin in all southern states, so in South Carolina with 96.7 percent and in Mississippi with 92.8 percent of the vote, and apart from Oregon also in the entire northwest and southwest. The basis of his election victory was his dominance in the south and west of the country and thus in the majority of states with a small number of inhabitants and correspondingly few electoral votes, whereby he benefited from the disproportionate representation of smaller states in the Electoral College, referred to as the " federalism bonus ". Above all, Wilson's complete success in the sparsely populated Mountain States between the Midwest and the West Coast was considered to be the decisive factor. In this region, which at that time was actually a stronghold of the Republican Party, he managed to secure votes from the traditional Republican electorate, in particular from progressive farmers and women who felt attracted by his peace campaign.

The Americans of Polish descent, traditionally leaning towards the Democrats, voted for Wilson with a clear majority. A change in his attitude towards immigration , which had led to his poor performance among this population group in the 1912 elections , contributed significantly to this . The votes of the Polish immigrants may have played a part in his narrow victories in Ohio, North Dakota and Missouri. The German-Americans , on the other hand, showed no consistent voting behavior and equally chose both candidates. Since regional factors played a greater role in the voting behavior of German-born Americans, Hughes won in this population group in Oregon, Minnesota and Illinois, while the majority of German-American voters in their traditional strongholds of Milwaukee and St. Louis as well as in Maryland and Ohio voted for Wilson. Both Wilson and Hughes had previously tried to distance themselves from the German-Americans in the election campaign. In his election campaign for Hughes, Roosevelt in particular questioned the loyalty of immigrants of German origin who, on the other hand, were also skeptical of Wilson, as they viewed his policy of neutrality as a hidden support for Great Britain.

Allan Louis Benson with 590,524 votes or 3.2 percent and Frank Hanly with 221,302 votes or 1.2 percent received no electoral votes in the Electoral College and had no influence on the outcome of the election. Benson achieved his best result in Oklahoma with 15.5 percent, Hanly in Florida with 5.9 percent. With his campaign, Wilson had succeeded in convincing a significant proportion of the socialist-oriented voters to vote for him instead of Benson. The result was more than 300,000 votes each, about a third below the results of Eugene V. Debs , the Socialist Party's candidate in the pre- and post-war elections of 1912 and 1920, respectively. This number was about half the lead of Wilson over Hughes .

Effects

Reactions abroad

The German government interpreted the outcome of the election as a mandate for Wilson to continue his neutrality policy. Accordingly, it based its policy on the assumption that it could win the war before the United States would provide military support to the Allied powers. In the German press, for example in the Vossische Zeitung , in the Berliner Tageblatt and in the Berliner Lokal-Anzeiger , fears were expressed after the election that Wilson might change his position as a result of his re-election and adopt an increasingly hostile attitude towards Germany. This deviated from the assessment made before the election, when the general opinion in the German press landscape was that the outcome of the election would have little influence on Germany.

In Great Britain , Wilson's election victory was received with approval by the Liberals and representatives of the Labor Party . In particular, those British politicians who hoped that Wilson's mediation would end the war and continue his departure from traditional American policies of isolationism saw the outcome of the election as the beginning of a new era in American history. For example, later Labor leader Harold Laski expressed his conviction in the Daily Herald that Wilson would lead the United States to more international cooperation. The Daily News, along with the Daily Telegraph and a number of other English newspapers, welcomed Wilson's re-election, calling it a "triumph of his personality and politics". In contrast, the British Conservatives reacted to the election result with disinterest or dissatisfaction.

In France too , the election result was an important topic in the daily newspapers. Nevertheless, only a few comments appeared in which an evaluation was expressed. In the contributions that commented on Wilson's victory, positive opinions predominated. It was emphasized that his success would further stimulate American neutrality, and that his foreign policy in the following four years would be free from electoral considerations, since he would no longer seek re-election. In addition to pointing out that a clear majority of voters spoke out against the war, as in the English press, its reputation was rated as a decisive reason for its success. In contrast, several French newspapers had favored Hughes shortly before the election, as some of Wilson's comments on the causes of the war in France had met with criticism.

In the Russian media, the outcome of the election was briefly and cautiously commented on and the expectation was expressed that further developments could force Wilson to take a clearer position and possibly to give up his policy of neutrality. The press in Japan hailed Wilson's victory and praised him for his peace efforts. In addition, the election result was seen as positive for the further development of American-Japanese relations, especially in business circles who feared the establishment of protective tariffs and thus disadvantages for Japanese exports to the USA if Hughes was elected . The presidents of several Latin American countries, such as Mario García Menocal from Cuba , Alfredo González Flores from Costa Rica , Manuel José Estrada Cabrera from Guatemala and Emiliano Chamorro Vargas from Nicaragua , congratulated Wilson on his election victory. However, he received no corresponding statements from any of the warring nations.

War participation

Woodrow Wilson (right) along with David Lloyd George , Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and Georges Clemenceau during the Paris Peace Conference

Even before Wilson's second inauguration on March 4, 1917, there were massive changes in German war policy that motivated him to join the United States in the First World War. On February 1, 1917, the unrestricted submarine war was resumed by Germany. At the end of February, the Zimmermann telegram from German State Secretary Arthur Zimmermann's intercepted by the British was leaked to Wilson . In this, the German Reich planned a military alliance with Mexico in the event of war with the USA , in which the USA also promised to cede territory to Mexico. After the sinking of three US merchant ships, Wilson convened a session of Congress on April 2, 1917 to declare war on the German Reich; this followed on April 6, 1917, and with it the entry of the war on the part of the Entente states France , Great Britain and Russia . He put the war aims of the United States on January 8, 1918 in a as 14-point program called programmatic speech to the US Congress is, in which he demands for a proliferation of free trade and democracy as well as the self-determination important principles of Introduced progressivism into the country's foreign policy.

Wilson responded to the growing opposition of the United States to participate in the war with the Espionage Act of 1917, which significantly expanded the criminal meaning of the term espionage , and the Sedition Act , which was passed a year later, to criminalize offensive or disloyal comments about the people american government, flag and armed forces. Both laws were highly controversial as they were viewed as restrictions on freedom of expression and other fundamental rights. By the end of the war, around 117,000 Americans lost their lives as a result of the fighting, and around 206,000 were wounded in the war. The end of the war led to massive economic and social problems in the USA and a mood of disenchantment among the population.

With his participation in the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, Wilson became the first American president to travel abroad during his tenure. A year before the end of his presidency, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919 as the second US President after Theodore Roosevelt "for his services to ending the First World War and establishing the League of Nations ." Robert Lansing , who had served as foreign minister since 1915, resigned from this office at Wilson's request in February 1920 because he did not support his commitment to the League of Nations. Bainbridge Colby served as his successor until the end of Wilson's tenure . Newton Diehl Baker was Secretary of War from 1916 to 1921 .

Domestic consequences

Samuel Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor

Of his pre-election domestic policy plans, Wilson pushed through the Keating Owen Child Labor Act to ban inter-state trade in child labor products in Congress during the election campaign . However, the law was passed two years later with the decision of Hammer v. Dagenhart of the Supreme Court declared unconstitutional and thus repealed. Also the beginning of 1919 passed by Congress Child Labor Tax Act , in which child labor to the federal competence in the field of combating tax legislation was resorted did not last in the Supreme Court. The federal government did not intervene again in the field of child labor until more than ten years later in the 1930s with changes in labor and social law during the Great Depression .

In contrast to the failure of his initiatives on child labor, Wilson succeeded in enforcing women's suffrage across the country with the 19th amendment to the Constitution, which was passed by Congress in 1919 and came into force a year later . Wilson's socio-political activities were, in close cooperation with the union leader Samuel Gompers , on the whole very employee-friendly. Gompers also acted as Wilson's advisor on labor policy issues during the Paris Peace Conference. For the last two years up to the 1920 election, Wilson officiated against a Republican-majority Congress . Such a strengthening of the party in opposition to a president in the congressional elections taking place in the second half of his second term in office is a repeated scenario in the US political system. There were no new appointments to judges at the United States Supreme Court during Wilson's second term after he successfully nominated three candidates with John Hessin Clarke , Louis Brandeis and James C. McReynolds between 1914 and 1916 .

For Republicans, the election and its aftermath, despite the defeat of Charles Evans Hughes, meant overcoming the split in the party between liberal and conservative forces created by the 1912 presidential election . Warren G. Harding , the candidate of the revitalized party in the 1920 elections , succeeded in an overwhelming victory against the Democrat James M. Cox , who stood for a continuation of Wilson's policies. One of the deciding factors was a mood among the US population in favor of a return to the politics of isolationism, which arose from the participation of the United States in the war and the losses it caused. A greater international commitment by the United States, for example by joining the League of Nations favored by Wilson and Cox , was rejected by the majority of US citizens.

Historical classification

In the typology of American presidential elections, which goes back to the election researcher Angus Campbell , the election of 1916 is regarded as a so-called deviating election (exceptional election ), i.e. an election based on the personalities of the candidates or others, due to the influence of the First World War and the subsequent peace campaign by Wilson exceptional circumstances was characterized by a temporary deviation from long-term party-political majority relationships and voter preferences. In contrast, there are maintaining elections , the results of which lead to a continuation of the existing political situation, and realigning elections , which are characterized by fundamental and far-reaching changes in voter orientation.

The conservative forces within the Republican Party failed to counter the two crucial aspects of Wilson's campaign - peace and progressivism - with anything effective. The liberal Republicans, who could identify with Wilson's statements, on the other hand, failed to challenge him on these issues in a credible manner, and Hughes, whom they largely supported out of loyalty to the party despite ideological differences, in public as the more progressive of the two To portray candidates. Woodrow Wilson's presidency fundamentally changed the United States socially and economically as a result of his reforms. However, as a result of the effects of the United States' involvement in the war, progressivism, which had previously become a national movement among various population groups, lost its appeal and political significance during Wilson's second term. Only the era of the “ New Deal ” in the 1930s brought similarly far-reaching social changes to the country again.

Woodrow Wilson, who had been paralyzed on one side since a stroke in October 1919, died around three years after the end of his second term. His Vice President Thomas Riley Marshall retired from politics and died of a heart attack in 1925 . Charles Evans Hughes served as Foreign Secretary in Harding's Cabinet from 1921 to 1925 and, after Harding's death, in the Coolidge Cabinet, and from 1928 to 1930 as Judge at the Permanent International Court of Justice in The Hague . In 1930 he returned to the United States Supreme Court, where he served as presiding judge until 1941; seven years later he died at the age of 86. Charles W. Fairbanks was two years after the election of the consequences of a kidney infection died.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} 1916. In: William C. Binning, Larry Eugene Esterly, Paul A. Sracic: Encyclopedia of American Parties, Campaigns, and Elections. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport 1999, ISBN 0-313-30312-6 , pp. 131/132
2. ↑ Wilson, Woodrow. In: William C. Binning, Larry Eugene Esterly, Paul A. Sracic: Encyclopedia of American Parties, Campaigns, and Elections. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport 1999, ISBN 0-313-30312-6 , pp. 443-446
3. ^ ^{A b} Election of 1916. In: Philip Sheldon Foner: History of the Labor Movement in the United States: On the Eve of America's Entrance Into World War 1, 1915-1916. Series: History of the Labor Movement in the United States. Volume 6. International Publishers Co, New York 1982, ISBN 0-7178-0595-6 , pp. 222-231
4. ^ Arthur S. Link: Woodrow Wilson and the Democratic Party. In: The Review of Politics. 18 (2) / 1956. Cambridge University Press, pp. 146-156, ISSN  0034-6705
5. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h} James Allen Beatson: The Election the West Decided: 1916. In: Arizona and the West. 3 (1) / 1961. University of Arizona Press, pp. 39-58, ISSN  0004-1408
6. ↑ The American Presidency Project: General Election Editorial Endorsements by the New York Times (accessed March 10, 2010)
7. ↑ Paul F. Boller, New York and Oxford 2004, p. 208 (see literature)
8. ^ Edison for Wilson as against Hughes. In: The New York Times . Edition of September 4, 1916, p. 7
9. ^ David Nasaw: The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston 2001, ISBN 0-618-15446-9 , pp. 249/250
10. ↑ Hughes, Charles Evans. In: William C. Binning, Larry Eugene Esterly, Paul A. Sracic: Encyclopedia of American Parties, Campaigns, and Elections. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport 1999, ISBN 0-313-30312-6 , pp. 214-216
11. ^ The Election of 1916. In: Joseph R. Conlin: The American Past: A Survey of American History. Volume 2. Cengage Learning, Belmont 2008, ISBN 0-495-56622-5 , p. 612
12. ^ Wilson a Failure, says Elihu Root. In: The New York Times . Edition of October 6, 1916, p. 1
13. ↑ Paul F. Boller, New York and Oxford 2004, p. 204 (see literature)
14. ↑ Spencer C. Olin, Jr.: Hiram Johnson, the California Progressives, and the Hughes Campaign of 1916. In: The Pacific Historical Review. 31 (4 )/1962. University of California Press, pp. 403-412, ISSN  0030-8684
15. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h} All information on voter turnout as well as absolute and percentage distribution of votes from: 1916 Dave Leip's Atlas of US Presidential Elections - 1916 Presidential Election Results (accessed on February 9, 2010)
16. ^ William M. Leary, Jr .: Woodrow Wilson, Irish Americans, and the Election of 1916. In: The Journal of American History. 54 (1) / 1967. Organization of American Historians, pp. 57-72, ISSN  0021-8723
17. ^ Edward Cuddy: Irish-Americans and the 1916 Election: An Episode in Immigrant Adjustment. In: American Quarterly. 21 (2) / 1969. Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 228-243, ISSN  0003-0678
18. ↑ Randall E. Adkins, Kent A. Kirwan: What Role Does the “Federalism Bonus” Play in Presidential Selection? In: Publius. The Journal of Federalism. 32 (4) / 2002. Oxford University Press, pp. 71-90, ISSN  0048-5950
19. ^ ^{A b} David Sarasohn: The Election of 1916: Realigning the Rockies. In: The Western Historical Quarterly. 11 (3 )/1980. The Western History Association, pp. 285-305, ISSN  0043-3810
20. ^ ^{A b} Preparedness and the Election of 1916. In: Sean Dennis Cashman: America in the Age of the Titans: The Progressive Era and World War I. NYU Press, 1988, ISBN 0-8147-1411-0 , pp. 475– 479
21. ↑ Edward R. Kantowicz: Polish-American Politics in Chicago, 1888-1940. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1975, ISBN 0-226-42380-8 , pp. 114/115
22. ↑ ^{a b} Lisa Schreibersdorf: German Americans. In: James Ciment, Thaddeus Russell: The Home Front Encyclopedia: United States, Britain, and Canada in World Wars I and II. First volume. ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara 2007, ISBN 1-57607-849-3 , pp. 326/327
23. ↑ Paul F. Boller, New York and Oxford 2004, p. 207 (see literature)
24. ^ Dwight Lowell Dumond: America in our Time. 1896-1946. H. Holt and Company, New York 1947, p. 242
25. ^ John Allen Krout, Arnold S. Rice: United States since 1865. Barnes & Noble, New York 1977, ISBN 0-06-460168-4 , p. Q127
26. ^ Wilson under Fire of Berlin Press. Newspapers Renew Charge That He Assumes an Unfriendly Policy Toward Germany. In: The New York Times . Edition of December 3, 1916, p. 3
27. ↑ Germany skeptical over election news. Newspapers, Misled by First Reports, Are Cautious in Comments Now. In: The New York Times . Edition of November 12, 1916, p. 5
28. ↑ ^{a b} Armin Rappaport: The British Press and Wilsonian Neutrality. Stanford University Press, Stanford 1951, pp. 100/101
29. ↑ London welcomes Wilson's Re-Election. Newspapers satisfied that Reins of Power will remain "In His Capable Hands". In: The New York Times . Edition of November 11, 1916, p. 1
30. ^ Paris Press hails Wilson. His Victory regarded as highly satisfactory by some of the papers. In: The New York Times . Edition of November 13, 1916, p. 1
31. ↑ Paris inclines to Hughes. Press comment seems to favor his election to replace Wilson. In: The New York Times . Edition of November 7, 1916, p. 2
32. ^ Expect a Stiffening of Wilson Policies. More Vigorous Resistance to Submarine Warfare Predicted by Russian Newspapers. In: The New York Times . Edition of November 13, 1916, p. 1
33. ↑ Japan Sees Peace In Wilson Victory. In: The New York Times . Edition of November 12, 1916, p. 1
34. ^ President thanks Hughes for Message; Glad to get Congratulations and sends "Good Wishes for Years to Come". In: The New York Times . Edition of November 24, 1916, p. 4
35. ^ President Calls for War Declaration, Stronger Navy, New Army of 500,000 Men, Full Co-operation With Germany's Foes. The New York Times , April 2, 1917, accessed November 7, 2016 . 
36. ^ War declared, June 1917. In: WJ Rorabaugh, Donald T. Critchlow, Paula C. Baker: America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham 2004, ISBN 0-7425-1191-X , p. 497
37. ^ Espionage Act of 1917. In: Anne Cipriano Venzon, Paul L. Miles: The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia. Garland Publishers, New York 1999, ISBN 0-8153-3353-6 , p. 219
38. ^ Sedition Act of 1918. In: Anne Cipriano Venzon, Paul L. Miles: The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia. Garland Publishers, New York 1999, ISBN 0-8153-3353-6 , pp. 536/537
39. ^ Anne Leland, Mari-Jana Oboroceanu: American War and Military Operations Casualties: Lists and Statistics. Congressional Research Service, published September 15, 2009, p. 2
40. ↑ ^{a b} W. J. Rorabaugh, Donald T. Critchlow, Paula C. Baker: America's Promise: A Concise History of the United States. Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham 2004, ISBN 0-7425-1191-X , pp. 503-508
41. ^ The Keaton-Owen Act. In: Hugh D. Hindman: Child Labor: An American History. ME Sharpe, Armonk 2002, ISBN 0-7656-0936-3 , pp. 65-70
42. ^ The Child Labor Tax Act. In: Hugh D. Hindman: Child Labor: An American History. ME Sharpe, Armonk 2002, ISBN 0-7656-0936-3 , pp. 70-74
43. ↑ Colleen J. Shogan: The Contemporary Presidency: The Sixth Year Curse. In: Presidential Studies Quarterly. 36 (1) / 2006. Center for the Study of the Presidency, pp. 89-101, ISSN  0360-4918
44. ↑ 1920. In: William C. Binning, Larry Eugene Esterly, Paul A. Sracic: Encyclopedia of American Parties, Campaigns, and Elections. Greenwood Publishing Group, Westport 1999, ISBN 0-313-30312-6 , pp. 132/133
45. ^ Warren G. Harding. Twenty-ninth President of the United States, 1921-1923. In: Philip Weeks: Buckeye Presidents: Ohioans in the White House. Kent State University Press, Kent 2003, ISBN 0-87338-727-9 , pp. 243-274 (especially p. 257)
46. ^ A Classification of Presidential Elections. In: Angus Campbell and others: The American Voter . University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1980, ISBN 0-226-09254-2 , pp. 531-538
47. ↑ Stuart Oskamp, ​​P. Wesley Schultz: Attitudes and Opinions. Third edition. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah 2005, ISBN 0-8058-4769-3 , p. 378
48. ↑ James Holt: Congressional Insurgents and the Party System, 1909-1916. Series: Harvard Historical Monographs. Volume 60. Harvard University Press, Cambridge 1967, ISBN 0-674-16250-1 , pp. 151-164 (especially pp. 151/152)
49. ^ 1916: Wilson edges out Hughes. In: Paul S. Boyer, Clifford E. Clark, Jr., Sandra McNair Hawley, Joseph F. Kett, Andrew Rieser: The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. Sixth edition. Cengage Learning, Boston 2009, ISBN 0-547-22280-7 , pp. 503/504

literature

• Arthur S. Link: Wilson Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace 1916–1917. Princeton University Press, Princeton 1967.
• SD Lovell: The Presidential Election of 1916. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale 1980, ISBN 0-8093-0965-3 .
• 1916. Wilson and the Great War. Paul F. Boller: Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush. Second edition. Oxford University Press US, New York and Oxford 2004, ISBN 0-19-516716-3 , pp. 202-211.
• Donald Richard Deskins, Hanes Walton, Sherman C. Puckett: Presidential Elections, 1789-2008: County, State, and National Mapping of Election Data. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2010, ISBN 978-0-472-11697-3 , pp. 306-315 (= Chapter 35: Woodrow Wilson's Reelection. ).

Web links

Commons : United States Presidential Election 1916  - Collection of Pictures, Videos, and Audio Files

• Dave Leip's Atlas of US Presidential Elections - 1916 Presidential Election Results Election Results and Statistics

This article was added to the list of excellent articles on March 27, 2010 in this version .