Gay style

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Schwulststil ( Schwulst- style ) is a term used in literary criticism that established itself in the 18th century and retrospectively accused the Baroque literature of being pompous. In a narrower sense, Schwulst is a characteristic of the manneristically exaggerated influence of rhetoric on poetry since the end of the 16th century. Modern literary studies no longer regard Schwulst as negative, but as an authentic expression of the times.

Word history

Origin and Uses

The word Schwulst, from mhd. Swulst to swëllen "swelling", was originally the expression for a swelling or for the swollen. The adjective bombastic , which today's bombastic equivalent, was in Early NHG heard of Luther in the transferred meaning for inflated used words. The word is used in the German dictionary of the Brothers Grimm analogous to tumor as feminine . Its meaning in the medical sense covers both tumor and edema and thus describes the different forms of internal and external swellings. Other evidence also uses it for the pregnant woman's belly.

Johann Christoph Adelung's grammatical-critical dictionary of the High German dialect (1774–86) differentiates between “the Schwulst” as a swelling of the body and “the Schwulst” as “a kind of pride, as one boasts several advantages with words and gestures to a high degree, as one really owns; in what sense the adjective pompous is more common ”. This already shows that today's usage of “bulky” and “bulky” means what is figuratively inflated and superficial, a formulation that, pars pro toto, points from the property to the expression.

In a figurative sense as a metonymy of the “chest swollen with pride”, it also means pride and pomposity per se; this word meaning can be found in Friedrich Schiller , Johann Gottfried Herder and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing . The baroque poet Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein had also used the word himself in his Ibrahim Bassa (1689), but to mean a swelling wave.

Related imprints are "Schwülstel" and "Schwulstfresser" for an obese person, "Schwulsterig " and "Schwülstig" for a visible swelling. A "pomposity" was considered someone who expresses himself pompously. Luther turned the word around as "blown up" in his language, but his translation of the Bible uses it in two places:

  • "I want to visit you with terror, swelling and fever" (Leviticus 26:16)
  • "The Lord will strike you with swelling, fever, heat, heat, drought, poisonous air and jaundice, and will persecute you until he kills you." (Deuteronomy 28:22)

Negative connotation

Johann Christoph Gottsched, the critical reformer

Schwulst and especially the more common adjective "bulging" usually have a derogatory meaning. An increasingly pejorative use of the term began with the change in style norms in the 1730s. In particular, Johann Christoph Gottsched criticized Schwulst in his Critical Poetry (1730) as an extreme form of stylistic elaboration and cited as counter-arguments, among other things, the demands for clarity and clarity stemming from the humanistic tradition, but also simply the category of taste; In doing so, he processed trends in contemporary rhetoric and aesthetics. He characterized Schwulst as a phenomenon of decay and compared it with Hellenism and the Roman Empire, including moral categories. After Gottsched, a positive view of the gay was rare. Moses Mendelssohn and August Wilhelm Schlegel made attempts in this direction .

The philosopher Karl Popper used the term disparagingly in his polemical letter Against the Big Words by calling the language of the dialectical philosopher Hegel and his successors Schwulst.

Within the literature it was only the representations of the 20th century that freed the term from its derogatory assessment through an unbiased view of Gongorism and the gay style in a scientific context. Since then it has been considered an authentic expression of the early baroque worldview. In everyday language, however, the negative connotation is still preserved.

Schwulst as a style phenomenon

In a figurative sense, the term is also used for a manner of speaking, thinking and writing that is inappropriate and exaggeratedly embellished and detailed. Johann Georg Krünitz tries to explain when which style level is appropriate with the following example:

"You want z. B. say in an ordinary speech, day is coming! And this is expressed by the words: Aurora is already lifting her radiant face up from the waters of the sea. What, moreover, in terms of expression, can be sultry in one kind of speech, is not in another. But if the sultriness needs to be admixed with sublime concepts and comparisons to mean, base objects, then it remains faultless in every type of presentation; z. B. a clergyman said in a funeral sermon to a peasant woman: 'Lament your oaks in the valley of Josephat, for the cedar has fallen on Lebanon! She would rather find her place in the funeral speech at the coffin of a queen, but not in that of a country woman, where these apostrophes only cause laughter. "

- Johann Georg Krünitz : Economic Encyclopedia

The excessive decoration ("ornatus" in rhetoric ) was also called "Phöbus" in France and " bombast " in English-speaking countries . Schwulst is particularly attributed to the inferior literature of the 18th and 19th centuries.

The Schwulststil in German baroque literature

Since the last third of the 17th century, the term Schwulst has mainly been applied to various literary phenomena of the late Baroque era . The development of German literature must be examined in order to understand the stylistic term, which has had negative connotations up to the present day and which, unlike “euphuism”, “concettism” or “marinism”, does not go back to titles, terms or names inherent in the literature, but only shows the external appearance. This also shows that the Schwulststil was not a uniform phenomenon, but appeared in various forms of a common principle.

Rhetoric and poetry

The understanding of content and expression changed fundamentally in the European scholarly literature of the Renaissance . While late medieval scholasticism still produced sluggish but precisely formulated texts based on the Aristotelian style model, in the 15th century the writers were interested in rhetorical formulas , mainly pathos formulas , allegories and pictorial symbolic formulas. Text genres such as didactic poetry or drama were slowly withdrawn from the rules of normative poetics under the influence of Francesco Petrarca and his contemporaries . This went hand in hand with the constant emancipation of philosophy and literature from the theology that had previously dominated. The relationship between pragmatics and aesthetic design gradually reversed; being and thinking no longer determined the expression. Rather, at the end of the process, the rhetoric itself claimed to be the guideline for philosophical sub-areas such as ontology and logic .

Julius Caesar Scaliger's poetics laid the foundation for the connection between rhetoric and poetry

Julius Caesar Scaliger made the most important and most respected contribution to a re-evaluation in the spirit of humanism with his Poetices libri septem, published posthumously in 1561 . He measured poetry by the functional categories docere (“teach”), delectare (“delight”) and movere (“move”), but abolished the basic distinction between rhetoric and poetry with regard to the aesthetic and didactic goals of literature. The tragedy was reinterpreted in its poetics; If Aristotle had granted catharsis to her alone as an effective purpose, Scaliger extended this possibility - always under the dominant motif of docere , moral instruction - to all poetry.

The definition of the difference between tragedy and comedy in Scaliger's sense has remained the rule for a long time; He matched the origin of the tragedy from the “noble” or the comedy from the “common” to the structure of the corporate society of that time, thus undertaking a genre differentiation in the social context of the dramatic characters. Scaliger's approach to this order of dramatic forms was based on his rhetorical interpretation of the concept of mimesis . Its relation to reality is thus to be seen from the perspective of the probable, i.e. H. it is not being that is imitated, but rather its possible manifestations. The purpose was a higher suggestive power on the viewer and reader. This aesthetic approach prevailed throughout the Baroque era, not just in drama but also in evolving opera .

Role models and influences

In contrast to Italy and Spain, the Renaissance found little echo in German vernacular poetry. The perception of social, political and scientific upheavals in the course of modern times has remained primarily limited to universities and royal courts. Until the end of the 16th century, early New High German had not finally established itself as a literary language. It was only after the Reformation that humanistic authors turned to German as a written language, but divided the readership into a courtly-learned and a bourgeois-folk camp. The devastation of the Thirty Years' War made it even more difficult to catch up with contemporary European developments.

The actual timeframe of the baroque swell includes the span between Hofmannswaldau's translation of Giovanni Battista Guarini's shepherd poem Il pastor fido and Barthold Heinrich Brockes as the last offshoot. Suitable types of text were developed for the transport of the Schwulst, such as the state novel or the heroically- gallant novel, which tried to combine the courtly way of life and heroism.

Another peculiarity of the baroque swell was the size that typical publications could take on. Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein's key novel Generous Feldherr Arminius , published posthumously in 1689/90, comprises more than a hundred pages in the table of contents alone, and the entire work over three thousand quarter pages. The striving for scope is still reflected in the so-called speaking titles, which came into the design sovereignty of the poets with the establishment of book printing since humanism . An example of this is Johann Michael Moscherosch's Wunderliche vnd Truhrachtige Gesichte Philander von Sittewalt. In which all world beings / all men Handel / with their natural colors / the vanity / violence / hypocrisy and folly / clothed: the show is publicly held / as portrayed in a mirror / and seen by males .

The role of language societies

Martin Opitz, creator of the first German poetics

At the center of language and theory of poetry which stood Sprachpflege that of the language societies was operated and Justus Georg Schottel 'treatise detailed work of the Teutonic Haubtsprache led (1663) in the first scientific work on the modern German language. The search for foreign models found its goal in the - often unreflective - adoption of verse or genre forms from other literatures, which from then on were considered the norm. In spite of their linguistic purism , which today appears to be superficial , the demands of which were hardly directly reflected in the text production, the will to create an independent national language and literature emerged. Without the ideational work of the linguists, the young standard language would not have been able to assert itself against the variety of spoken dialects and the literary languages ​​Latin and French, not even against the neglect of the language by the invasion of the war armies.

The scholarly literature of the 17th century developed its ideal style not in a European comparison, but based on the models of Latin rhetoric. Martin Opitz did not develop the first poetics of New High German poetry until 1617 in the book von der Deutschen Poeterey, modeled on Julius Caesar Scaliger , which was systematic enough to have a lasting effect on all literature, including popular poetry that was influenced by it of the conflict between Reformation and Counter-Reformation increased their means of expression. Opitz's poetics drew ten works on German poetry in the years 1640–45 alone. Noteworthy in this context are August Buchner's highly regarded, posthumously printed works Kurzer Weg-Weiser zur deutschen Tichtkunst (1663) and Instructions for German Poetry (1665). Buchner refers directly to the language of his contemporaries and demands:

“So that the speech may also be clean / pure and polite / it is necessary / that one abstains from their words / that mean something / that is not dishonest and shameful in front of oneself / but is of this nature / that a clean and shameful person unites Eckel and unwillingness could grasp (...) Darümb I wanted to use myself / as an example / of the word / smear / or / smear / if I wanted to talk nice and clean / never use. "

- August Buchner : Instructions for German poetry
August Buchner, the language tutor

Meanwhile, Opitz's poetry had also been an eclectic compilation of literary teachings that he had found in non-German-speaking countries; much of his advice was poorly considered and served more to systematize rather than reform a German literature. He turned against Latin as a literary language, but adopted the ancient rhetoric; he carelessly abandoned the folk song and its tradition, which lasted into the Middle Ages, but adopted French genre poetics as a formal model for a renewed literature. The tragedy in particular remained reserved for the courtly audience in his class, so that Lessing was only able to write a civil tragedy with Miss Sara Sampson in 1755 .

The stylistic devices recommended by Opitz were, on the one hand, the Alexandrian , which he preferred to Knittelvers , and, on the other hand, a clear and well-groomed German - which, however, only too slightly exaggerated the clarity in the baroque aesthetic. These include stylistic elements in the texts of the representatives of the Second Silesian School of Poetry, such as B. Daniel Caspar von Lohenstein , Andreas Gryphius , David Schirmer or Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau .

The material and formal manifestations

In general, two characteristics can be distinguished in the gay style, the material and the formal. Both are based on the technique of amplification , which was implemented on different levels of design.

Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen combined content and form

The material bulge is an appearance in the work and the work idea. Even the extremely extensive prose works of the time still had traditional narrative structures such as B. Plot layers or chronologically ordered episodes, which have now been expanded with new subplots and insertions. A novel like Lohenstein's Arminius , which was created out of the spirit of polymathy , the ideal of comprehensive education , thus contained a broad spectrum of subject knowledge that digresses from the narrative in learned disputations and offers the reader an abundance of scientific and unscientific information. Joseph von Eichendorff later called the novel a "mad encyclopedia ". However, this criticism only arose in the course of the Enlightenment; contemporaries held the author in high esteem for it.

The exuberant abundance of material by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen , who wrote the most famous picaresque novel of the German Baroque with Simplicissimus Teutsch (1668) , is material gusto. Grimmelshausen also keeps an eye on the form of a self-contained work, especially in the Simplicissimus , which connects various sources. Folk books , collections of Schwank and sagas flow together with encyclopedic writings of the time, from which the author quotes almost word for word; in addition, Eberhard von Wassenberg's Teutscher Florus , a historical work about the Thirty Years War, and Georg Philipp Harsdörffer's prose works are the starting materials for him. The narrator uses assembly techniques to embed the abundance of images and motifs.

In the material Schwulst the attitude of euphuism is reflected, which outlines a world view between the poles of reason and affect and adopts contemporary political references. An ethically based rationality is in the foreground with these authors, even where z. B. Johann Beer in the fool's novel The Famous Fool's Hospital (published anonymously in 1681) uses the accumulation of scatological expressions as a quasi-therapeutic means of language against “the annoyances of time” .

Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau, the mannerist of the baroque gusto

The formal-artistic swelling process, as it is e.g. B. Johann Klaj and Harsdörffer initiated, goes back to the Romance literatures. Harsdörffer had come into direct contact with Italian poets. Their mannerisms , the Concetti style, the overloaded language along with their onomatopoeia , its style figures - and tropical abundance he took in his poetry. Poetry soon gave the impression that it was merely an accumulation of sophisticated stylistic devices, more artificial than art. The style also brought new word coining in order to expand linguistic sensitivity. Examples are Hoffmannswaldau's compositions “thunder-hard” (a synesthesia ), “super powerful” or “holy sweet”, the latter being strongly pleonastic for contemporary readers , since süeze had been a fixed code for God's holiness since the Middle Ages .

Radicabor : Daniel Cramer's emblem (1642) combines the meaningful fields of bees, roses and hearts in an allegory of salvation

As in all other arts, the poets tried to organize their stylistic devices systematically. René Descartes ' doctrine of affect, Les Passions de l'âme (“The Passions of the Soul”) was published in 1649, a year later the theorist Athanasius Kircher wrote the Musurgia universalis . The attempts of this time aim at first systematically ordering a large number of language-image symbols (bee, flower, shipping, sun, light-dark contrast, color and number symbolism , etc.) and their relationships. The traditional rhetoric did not remain in its original form, however; it grew into a second language code that arose from the given meanings by expanding the meanings of images and interlacing their levels of reference. An example is the metaphor of bees , which already appeared in Angelus Silesius : the bee, known in mythology as a soul animal, which sits on the rose blossom, is only known through knowledge of several symbolic contexts (bee → human soul, rose blossom → wounds of Jesus, drink → Blood of Jesus) to a sign of salvation. The intention of this use of symbols and the logic of the image was therefore to create an ontological penetration of reality, i.e. H. to utter a higher revelation. The metaphor accumulation and the interrelationships between text and image components served to make the rhetorical concretisation, entirely in keeping with the notoriety of the bulge.

The classic definition of allegory as continuata metaphora (“continued metaphors”) was broken up in many places when different metaphors within a work describe the same content or the same metaphor in this work changes its meaning and context in a narrow space. This notation, which Johann Jakob Breitinger called Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau as “completely figurative and hieroglyphic” shows on the one hand the influence of the “Italian poets”, i. H. marinism; on the other hand, the reaction reveals how much the negative attitude towards the Schwulst was based on the incomprehension of meta-metaphors as early as the middle of the 18th century.

"He wraps the concept in parable and figure,
As a Kercker, nature hides us,
And avoids the clarity that brings us nothing strange, that
does not sing us in astonishment with Bantam's truth."

- Johann Jakob Bodmer : Character of the German Poems (1734)
Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg's figure poem is immediately accessible through the form

The baroque emblematic gives a precise impression of the complexity of allegory and at the same time of the role of the reader . Your motifs, which were still known in the neighboring baroque period, such as B. the pelican or the pierced heart, which had its origin in the veneration of the Sacred Heart of the late medieval mystics , were easily understood by the reader as long as they appeared in the "conventional" context and are still understandable today despite some narrowing of meaning. But if the picture appears transformed into the opposite as pectoris arcus , i.e. H. As the “arrow shot of the heart”, which, hit by the arrow shot, flies towards the sky with upside-down wings, it gives up the mimetic context and appears upside down to the paradox that requires a reader at least in the hermetic way of thinking in order to develop any rhetorical effect .

The figure poem , known since antiquity, was revived as a simpler, more obvious form . The typographic design was very popular. Sigmund von Birken , the reformer of the Pegnesian Order of Flowers , recommended in his Poetik Teutsche Rede-bind- und Dicht-Kunst (1679) in the chapter De variis Carminum generibus ("About the different types of poems") for Catharina Regina von Greiffenberg's figure poem About the crucified Jesus :

“The illustrated volumes / the many examples of which can be found in the shepherd poems of the flower companions now and then / are not a new invention / but were already common almost two thousand years ago: the ancient Greek poet and shepherd poet Theocritus measured an ax / a couple of wings and an altar / trained in verse / left behind. A Christian poet can train / the holy Creutz / at which all the world / through the death of the very life / from death and hell has been redeemed: of which a prelude follows. (...) Whoever knows and loves his Jesus correctly / will be able to imitate many more of the cross standing next to it / also be able to think of similar things with the thorn crown / the hostage soul / and other things of our dear Savior / Passion. "

- Sigmund von Birken : Teutsche Rede-bind- und Dicht-Kunst (1679)

Another important aspect is the memento-mori thought , which was already cultivated for religious reasons in the Middle Ages . As it appeared in the baroque epoch, it also had in the sense of the paradox of Mk 8:35 ( "For whoever wants to keep his life will lose it; and whoever loses his life for my sake and the gospel sake will keep it" ) the poetic relationship to language, which created an aesthetic of the ugly in parts of the bulbous poetry, expanded. The repulsive is portrayed in drastic turns.

“Gray hair full of lice and nuts /
eyes of scarlet fever / full of rivers /
blue mouth full of small bones /
half rusted and half broken.

Leaf tongue / to speak ill / to be
angry with affection / to laugh at fools /
wrinkled / thin cheeks / that hang
like yellow leaves.

Neck skin like the morianas /
arms / which remind me right /
like a child fell into the feces /
breasts / like two pressure pads. "

- Georg Greflinger : To a very ugly virgin

This aesthetic also finds its way into spiritual poetry in order to e.g. B. to portray the suffering and death of Christ or the idea of ​​hell with an even greater intensity than the baroque mystics were able to do. At the same time, the clarity of vanitas and suffering motifs is an artistic processing of contemporary history, as it appeared in Gryphius' tragedy Murdered Majesty or Carolus Stuardus King of Great Britain (1657) as well as in his extensive lyrical work.

"Oh! and woe!
Murder! Tedder! Pity, fear, Creutz! Torture! Worms! Plagues.
Bad luck! Torture! Hencker! Flame! Stanck! Ghosts! Cold! Fear!
Oh go away!
Low and high!
Sea! Hill! Mountains! Rock! who can stand the leg?
Swallow the abyss! oh swallow! who complain forever!
Je and Eh! Terrible spirits of the hellish hells, you who torture and endure torture
Can the eternal eternity's fire never atone for what you owe?
O cruel fear always die, but die!
This is the flame of fierce vengeance, blown by heated anger:
Hir is the curse of infinite punishments, here is the ever-growing lawn:
O man! Corrupt, so as not to spoil here. "

- Andreas Gryphius : Hell
Athanasius Kircher, the poet of the metaphor machine

In its extreme forms, the Schwulst turns into an artificial idle, for which Kircher designed the model of a metaphor machine in his Ars Magna Sciendi (1669) : a normative rule poetics that are a guide to the production of literature, from the drafting of the plot to the targeted use of garish effects want. Quirinus Kuhlmann stated that he wrote prose works on Kirchner's directives. It was precisely this excessive theatricality and unreality that later challenged the critics of the Enlightenment. The awkwardness of the expression also had the advantage of being able to hide an erotic secondary meaning behind the language images. The shepherd poet Hans Assmann von Abschatz , trained by Giambattista Marino , practiced this - despite ostensible distancing from it - to the point of barely veiled obscenity.

Overall, the material approach appears more traditional than the formal one. In later perception, it is less associated with the negative connotation of the term "gay". At the same time, the formal swell was the actual connection between rhetoric and poetry, as Scaliger's intention was.

Gay styles in other European literatures

The Schwulststil appears in Germany only as a late development within the European baroque literature. It was previously realized in many European literatures of the age, whereby it remained limited to those who had processed the classical-ancient poetics and rhetoric in the neo-Latin poetry of the Renaissance; Large parts of the Slavic literatures, especially the Russian ones , remained in the Church Slavonic tradition, so that literature remained in an anachronistic elongated Middle Ages until the beginning of the 18th century. Even the belated “Moscow Baroque” completely rejected the extreme possibilities of expression, themes of horror and ugliness, death and torment. Only in Polish poetry was there a tendency towards mannerism based on the models Jan Kochanowski and Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński in the first half of the 17th century, which led poets such as Kasper Miaskowski and Stanisław Grochowski, largely unknown today, to gay-like language means. The Croatian literature, under the strong influence of the Venetian naval power, had received the Italian Renaissance, especially Petrarch, and developed approaches to Mannerism; they were especially prominent in comedy. However, there are no comparable style developments here.

What all the gay styles have in common is exaggeration and distortion to the point of bizarre, which to the reader of later epochs is artificial, excessively exaggerated and inflated - in other words , pompous . However, the means and purpose of hyperbolization are very different in terms of form and content and have also achieved different effects.

Gongorism and cultism in the Spanish Siglo de Oro

The Gongorism or cultism ( span. Estilo culto , culteranismo or cultismo "educated style") is the entire Barockliteratur most influential style phenomenon of the age. It shaped Spanish literature in the Siglo de Oro as part of its national culture, which, regardless of the Renaissance, saw itself as an actual reinterpretation of medieval ideals. Literature is to be seen as part of the entire culture. It was under Italian influence. This became less visible in the spiritual literature, which is predominantly characterized by mysticism and erasmism , or in the folk poetry of a Lope de Vega than in lyrical poetry. Poets like Juan Boscán Almogávar and Garcilaso de la Vega introduced fabrics and forms of the Renaissance. They established the hendecasyllable and the trio , and finally the sonnet .

Luis de Góngora ...
... and Francisco de Quevedo, the antipodes of the Siglo de Oro

Starting from Mannerism in architecture and painting , the Spanish Baroque developed Gongorism to a rich flowering, which in its aftermath on the 20th century appears more emphatic, pathetic, “baroque” than comparable European literatures. The baroque understanding of style, to see the individual only in connection with the whole, was first brought to mastery here. Especially for the seal that z. For example, when the aestheticization of the ugly discovered design from the opposing, new fields of vision emerged here, which the Chiaroscuro-Romans of contemporary painters imitated. With the Libro de erudición poética (1611) Luis Carrillo wrote a poetics that systematically expanded the previous practical approaches of the Sevillian poetry school around Fernando de Herrera . It was quickly recognized as the authoritative script.

The spelling saw itself as an aristocratic mindset and consciously turned against the general public and their taste. According to Luis de Góngora's “dark”, enigmatic poetry, which quickly spread as a style model in Europe, Gongorism thus created the strongest expression of Schwulst, to which u. a. the writings of the national poet Miguel de Cervantes count.

“Era de el año la estación florida
en que el mentido robador de Europa
- media luna las armas de su frente,
y el Sol, todos los rayos de su pelo -,
luciente honor del cielo,
en campos de zafiro pace estrellas;
cuando el que ministrar podía la copa
a Júpiter mejor que el garzón de Ida,
- naufrago y desdeñado, sobre ausente -,
lagrimosas, de amor, dulces querellas
da al mar; que condolido,
fue a las ondas, fue al viento
el mísero gemido,
segundo de Arïón, dulce instrumento. "

- Luis de Góngora : Soledades I (1613/14)

“It was the time when May wreathed the year
and, kidnapping Europe from behind, unfolding
the crescent moon on his forehead in the escutcheon
and his curls like a ray of sun,
waving in the sky,
the stars graze on sapphire meadows:
there let - o when Jupiter chose him ,
he proffered the wine instead of Ida Schenk! -
stranded far away from home
on the sea, a young man
thawed tears of love, which, with restrained lamentation , carried away
in circles
of melancholy by wind and sea,
ebbed away like Arion's sweet sages. "

- German translation by Rudolf Grossmann

Characteristics of Gongorism at the word level are the frequent use of - sometimes rare and difficult to understand - foreign words , neologisms and overloaded stylistic figures, screwy and subtle puns, paraphrases, overloaded images and, not infrequently, esoteric ciphers , numerous rhetorical figures such as anaphor and epipher and the inclination to the antithetical escalation. His aim is a meticulous shaping of poetry and prose on a large and small scale. The sentence structure and the grammar also approximate that of Latin, which leads to considerable difficulties in understanding, especially in the later currents of non-Romance languages such as English or German. In addition, Gongorist poets used the nested sentence structure and free word order as artistic means, which is why contemporary criticism began early. The opposition between Góngora, the art poet, and the folk poet Lope de Vega sparked off.

Francisco de Quevedo , himself a concettist, but like Grimmelshausen as a narrator averse to the formal gay and a personal enemy of Góngora, parodied these language experiments in a “recipe” as a biting satire on gay poetics.

“Quien quisiere ser Góngora en un día
la jeri aprenderá gonza siguiente:
fulgores arrogar, joven, presiente,
candor, construye métrica armonia;
poco, mucho, sí, no, purpuracía ... "

- Francisco de Quevedo : Aguja de navegar cultos (1631)

"Who wants to be in a tag Góngora,
learn the fol- Kauder -gende Welsch :
shimmer, usurp, young feel, before,
purity, designed to metric, harmony;
little, much, yes, no, purple egg ... "

- German translation

Other poets such as Díaz de Rivas, Salcedo Coronel or Salazar Mardones defended Góngora in an art dispute that was unique in the 17th century, which went beyond the limits of serious literary criticism and ultimately degenerated into a heated polemic with public insults.

Just as the German Schwulst was later to deal with the social upheavals of the war, cultism can also be interpreted as a reaction to the political decline of Spain in the course of the 17th century. It was essentially an escape from reality into an ideal of beauty and perfection, a form of L'art pour l'art . Gongorism fell into disrepute in the following centuries, and with it Góngora himself, but in the 20th century it found new appreciation, imitation and full rehabilitation in Spanish-speaking writers such as Federico García Lorca , Gerardo Diego , Rafael Alberti and Rubén Darío .

Marinism in the Italian Baroque and concettism in Spain

Baltasar Gracián, theoretician of concettism

The navalism ( ital. Marinismo ), who after Giambattista Marino was named and whose main works Adone (1623) and La strage degli innocenti (1633) goes back, found next to the Creator and example in Claudio Achillini a known imitators. It found resonance all over Europe and culminated in Spanish-Italian concettism .

The dominant feature of the Marinist style is initially less the linguistic proliferation than the content aspect, the use of antithetics in an increased form. Based on the example of the Silver Latinity , especially after Ovid , whose fantasy impressed Marino, he designs a "Poetics of the Wonderful" that breaks with Aristotelian poetics and Petrarch, as he brings together metaphors , comparisons and allegories of completely different, even disparate areas of reality the analogy sought generates a surprising, memorable new worldview. The Aristotelian view, which would later lead Johann Christoph Gottsched to his negative judgment, is here pushed to the limits or consciously exceeded. The main focus is on the concetto , the witty punch line that proves the poet's intellectual acuity.

“Does this picture reveal the Son of God?
Alas, Lord of Heaven! are these fair cheeks,
dear to the angels, receive glow from them
the rose, milk the lily of the meadows?

Are these the serene eyes, these the brows,
From which beam and fire penetrated the sun,
The hair that made gold reach stars?
Alas, blood will thaw out of wounds!

What rough hand did such brutality?
And what compassion, example of true majesty,
drew pure linen around the sacred limbs?

Be wrong spirit mirror again and again
The new God as God man. Human
suffering forced God in human form with likeness. "

- Giambattista Marino : Ecce homo by Raphael of Urbino . German translation by Edward Jaime

Marinism is thus a typical form of poetry of the 17th century, which - like Kircher later - understood poetry as a mechanical system. The art of the poet consisted mainly in finding and assigning rhetorical categories such as B. in comparison of a queen with a rose: substantia (tall plant → sublime dignity), quantitas (red petals → purple mantle), qualitas (rose fragrance → grace) etc. The greater the difference between the equated things, the more hidden analogies the poet knew how to show, the greater his understanding. Affect and morality, in particular, were of little importance to Marino when it came to the development of the topic, as in the material swell of the German Baroque, language becomes the material for amplifications, enumerations and variations, shades of the sound of words and play on words. Among his contemporaries, however, this turned out to be less of a lush euphony of language and more of an accumulation of epigonal imitators who only looked for their topics in sub-areas - horror and monstrosity, exotic countries or wonders from science and technology. The importance of marinism for Italian literature should not be underestimated. Sonnet, canzone and madrigal , the traditions of metrics and poetic language owe their further development to the threshold of romanticism of the baroque manner.

Concettism shows a similar technique in comparison and antithetics, but with a different weighting of rhetoric and poetics, of content and form; In his way of understanding the content in relation to reality, he is actually not a writing but a thinking manner. In contrast to Gongorism, the context of content and form is questioned or denied by the indirect expression. The most important author of the concert was Francisco de Quevedo, one of the masters of the baroque picaresque novel and the biting satire of the social conditions of his time. The most important theorists are Emanuele Tesauro with the script Il cannochiale aristotelico ("The Aristotelian Telescope", 1654/70) and Baltasar Gracián , who achieved a stylistic synthesis with Gongorism. Gracián formulated in the Oráculo manual y arte de prudencia ("Hand oracle and the art of sophistication", 1647):

“Playing with open cards is neither useful nor pleasant. By not making one's intention known right away, one arouses expectation, especially when one is the subject of general attention because of the height of one's office. In everything you let something mysterious through and arouse awe through your closeness itself. (...) Therefore, imitate the divine rule by keeping people in suspicions and restlessness. "

- Baltasar Gracián : Oráculo manual , § 3

Two essential features appear in this declaration, a poetic reshaping of the religious, as the Schwulst in the German baroque strived for, and a functionalization of the rhetorical for the purpose of the greatest possible effect - no longer as a poetic imitation of God in the sense of Scaliger, but entirely on the superficial literary Effective success. The most important rules of poetry are discarded if they hinder aestheticization. Poetry becomes the servant of rhetoric, the relationship has been reversed. This style has created an anti-poetics that formally breaks the boundaries of the previous genres and inconsistently fluctuates between subjectivity and objectivity in terms of content, eludes discursive thinking and leaves the reader in the dark with leaps of thought and the conscious concealment of the text's intention.

Like Gongorism, concettism, too, can be interpreted as a reaction to a social reorganization, but with significantly different signs: Gracián sees the subject of the poet and thus the human being as no longer able to understand and describe the complex interrelationships between world and world order. Immediate insight is impossible, only deciphering the text leads to an understanding of the human world, as Gracián's allegorical novel El Criticón (“Das Kritikon”, 1651–1657) explains as the sum of the Konzettist worldview: the human world is easy to decipher Book that poses many riddles; Only the hermeneutic application of rhetoric can discover the hidden meaning. Every realism, every non-paradox is dull.

In an era of strategic intrigue, this way of thinking can also be seen as a time-critical political calculation. In Oráculo, Gracián raised the question of whether improper speaking meant any moral difference at all, when truth and lies replaced one another and could hardly be distinguished. He is at the end of a 50-year heyday of the Spanish novel, whose narrative technique could no longer develop under the glut of the Concettist rhetoric and dried up.

The Rederijkers in the Dutch Golden Age

Daniel Heinsius, the poet and cultural mediator

The Dutch Golden Age represents an atypical situation in European literary history. Here, too, as in Spain, a culture developed that blossomed quickly and then fell into a conventional paralysis. Here, too, the emerging national literature became a political issue that sparked controversy. But culture remained bourgeois during the republican epoch , it developed its own self-image between the humanistic educational tradition and vernacular new beginnings. Earlier than in German, Dutch literature dealt with the humanistic educational tradition; earlier than in the German language societies, articles on the rules of poetry emerged, including Antonis de Roovere's poem Refereyn van Rethorica (before 1482) and contributions by Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft , the intellectual Head of the Muiderkring . With Matthijs de Castelein's Const van rhetoriken , a complete poetic poetics appeared for the first time in Dutch in 1555. Daniel Heinsius finally translated the Aristotelian poetics into Dutch and wrote De tragoediae constitutione (1611), an independent poetics of the drama.

Den Rederijkers - the term is often derived directly from rhetoriqueurs ( French for "rhetorician"), but comes from a folk etymological reinterpretation of riker "someone who is rich in speech" - plays a special role in the development of the Baroque literature too. Some of the Rederijkerkammern originated as early as the 15th century, following the example of the German Mastersingers, as civil guild societies that could be found in all larger cities. In some cases, several societies existed in one city; almost 200 chambers have been handed down by name. From the middle of the 16th century they became one of the decisive forces of the Reformation. An inconsistent level of education characterized these chambers from the start; while a few poets like the members of the Muiderkring had an academic education, most of them remained committed to the rigid views of the late Middle Ages. Above all, the fact that many Rederijkers still saw all arts as given by God in a traditional way and did not want to pursue them as financially lucrative business, while the country around them was prospering economically and regarded rhetoric as a gift of the Holy Spirit, did not promote understanding between liberal and conservative forces. Since they stuck to their non-Reformation stance, the conflict between Rederijkern and the church intensified, so that in 1617 there was a break between them on the one hand, the authorities and the church on the other. Vigorous anti-Lutheran attacks led to the closure of some chambers.

In terms of content, the Rederijkers' poetry is not very innovative and mostly repeats the mediaeval themes and motifs. As in the material swell of the German baroque, the sacred ballads take up the memento-mori idea, especially the traditional dance of death motifs, as they later emerged. a. found again in the texts of the Lübeck dance of death . The language is strongly influenced by contemporary French and humanistic Latin, whose complex sentence structure it adopts. In addition, like Gongorism, it accumulates foreign words and uses artistic means to prove the rhetorical skill: acrostic , chronograms and so-called retrograde - poems that can be read word for word or even letter by letter forwards and backwards - are created. Form-oriented poetry remained dominant in Dutch poetry until the beginning of the 17th century.

Joost van den Vondel, the playwright

The Rederijkers' drama was still very much like the Meistersinger tradition. Up into the 16th century it was a spiritual game that was written, staged and performed by lay companies as a large, day-long folk festival, with theological issues later increasingly becoming the focus of rhetorical arguments. Here, too, the situation came to a head, public performances were suspended and theaters temporarily closed.

Joost van den Vondel , next to Hooft and Gerbrand Bredero one of the most important playwrights of the epoch, took up the Rederijker tradition in his virtuoso, plastic language and connected it with the humanistic education. He finally put the Aanleidinge ter Nederduytsche Dichtkunde ("Instructions for Dutch Poetry ", 1650) in front of his collected poems - a warning against excessive artificiality and sought-after imagery, and a warning about naturalness in poetry. Ultimately, Hooft led the Dutch sonnet, following the example of Petrarch, to its highest flowering of aristocratic refinement, with which he succeeded in connecting with Italian literature.

The Rederijkers were both mediators and role models in the development of the German gay style. The city of Danzig played a role as the economic, literary and journalistic center of its time: Opitz had got to know Heinsius' Nederduytsche Poemata (1616) here, highlighted it as a model in his German Poemata (1624) and attested to the poet and language reformer that he had vnsre Bring your mother tongue in your worth . He translated numerous works from Dutch and exchanged letters with Heinsius, the pupil of Scaliger's son Joseph Justus , from 1619, which gave him detailed insights into literary production.

It is noteworthy that the Rederijkers did not just devote their poetry to art poetry, but also expanded it to include trivial literature , carnival games , sermons and, above all, the forms of foolish literature and the satirically exaggerated peasant poetry. As in other countries, the artists of the Golden Age did not enjoy undivided recognition in the Netherlands - which also applies to some of the old masters of painting who are now the epitome of the Golden Age - but were viewed rather critically and their achievements were only recognized late .

Euphuism in English Renaissance literature

The euphuism , named after John Lyly Roman Euphues (1578, dt. The well-Advised ) is a highly intellectualized form of bombast. The author slips into the role of a poeta doctus who, with scholarly allusions to Roman and Greek mythology, makes it difficult for the reader to understand by puzzling him. This current had its ideal roots in the Elizabethan worldview , which combined the medieval idea of ​​the Ordo with a state philosophy comparable to absolutism .

William Shakespeare's dramas take up euphuism

The literary taste of the theater and prose was determined by the court and the aristocracy, so that the literature of the English Renaissance is based primarily on Italian and Spanish influences such as Giovanni Boccaccio's narrative tradition and the novella he developed . A main focus was the connection of moral and didactic content from humanism with late medieval prose in the series of Geoffrey Chaucer . Even before Lyly, George Pettie had incorporated mannerist elements into his prose, which, in addition to its lack of action, consisted primarily of speeches, monologues and reflections, rhymes and platitudes and thematized the contrast between reason and passion; Robert Greene followed him inside. The strongly antithetical prose style tried to cover up the missing content with rhetorical artistry. This not infrequently led to a bombast , which later readers found it to explode as the inner and outer form. The authors used u. A. the language of the office as a model. The misogyny , an attitude of preciosity literature appears, already isolated.

The dramatic and rhetorical impulse became important; a short time later, Lyly transferred euphuism to the Elizabethan theater and wrote a number of courtly comedies, almost all of which were performed in public or at the royal court. The euphuistic type combined an artfully structured structure based on classic-antique models with the traditional wit of the English stage tradition. William Shakespeare's comedy Much Ado About Nothing (1599) takes up him in a humorous way in the characters Benedict and Beatrice. The same happens in Verlorene Liebesmüh (1593), whose joker Costard is characterized by his stilted Latin, which ends in the word Honorificabilitudinitatibus - he makes the teacher Holofernes ridiculous. The tragedy Romeo and Juliet (1595) also shows the influence of euphuism on the language of Shakespeare.

" Romeo: O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!
It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night
Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear;
Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear!
So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows,
As yonder lady o'er her fellows shows.
The measure done, I'll watch her place of stand,
And, touching hers, make blessed my rude hand.
Did my heart love till now? forswear it, sight!
For I ne'er saw true beauty till this night. "

- William Shakespeare : Romeo and Juliet , 1st act, 5th scene

“ Romeo: Oh, she only teaches the candles to glow brightly!
Like a ruby ​​in the ear of the Moor,
So the beauty of the fair hangs on the cheeks of
the night; too high, too heavenly for desire.
She presents herself among the playmates,
As a white dove in a crowd of crows.
When the dance closes, I draw near to her: a squeeze of
the tender hand should make my hand happy.
Do I ever love? No, swear it off, face!
You haven't seen true beauty yet. "

- German translation by August Wilhelm von Schlegel

John Donne and Metaphysical Poetry pushed euphuism to the limit of comprehensibility. In more recent literature it was taken up again by TS Eliot and André Breton .

Preciousness in the French baroque

As precious and preciousness (of French. Précieux "noble," "precious," "campy" and préciosité "affectation", "affectation") were in France since the mid-17th century life, sensations and expressions of extreme or excessive, to a certain extent pompous sophistication ; these were previously attributed to the Parisian salon culture , and the terminology was used in particular in the negative name Preziöse for a female audience, which is said to have stood out in the aforementioned way in a most conspicuous manner.

With a programmatically acting movement or group of specific women and men, however, the precious and the precious do not come together. More recent research, which has meanwhile placed the concept of preciosity in an emancipatory environment, even understands "the precious" as a travesting creation of the literature and literary criticism of their time with Molière's play Les Précieuses ridicules ( The ridiculous precious , first performed in 1659, printed in 1660) as a shoot - and pivot point.

Differentiation from literary kitsch

A reception of the gay styles took place late, especially in the German-speaking area, a rehabilitation did not take place until the 20th century through the literature-historical processing; The aesthetics of the Weimar Classic , then the Sturm und Drang , did not pursue the pre-Enlightenment connection between rhetoric and poetry; it was only with romantic universal poetry that analogous processes set in, which, however, are not attributable to Romanticism itself, but rather its gradual decline to Romanticism. About the wordy hidden eroticism in Henry Claurens mimili (1816) and the beginning of the Biedermeier was a literature on popular fiction and trivial romance novels in the series of moral weeklies and later gazebo up to Hedwig Courths Mahler or home novels a use literature, trained literary kitsch . It looks similar to the Schwulst in some details, but must not be confused with it.

If one wanted to differentiate between material and formal forms, as with Schwulst, it becomes apparent that even with all parallels - accumulations of linguistic stereotypes, especially in the representation of emotions, schematic narrative structures in trivial literature with a predictable framework and outcome - there are romantic roots. Kitsch literature preserved the moral and artistic notions of Biedermeier in the sweet idylls - in the so-called sour kitsch also dystopias - of the world view, in black and white drawings of the characters and their language, in a banalization of the plot with simultaneous affectionate embellishment through pseudolyrical, sometimes inflationary used and therefore quickly worn-out forms of expression, which here do not appear as rhetorical figures with a symbolic background, but only for the sake of easier reliving of the affect. This has in today's understanding of the term bombastic , but is not bombast: Kitsch use identical means coarsened and broadened content and form, but has no interest in a symbolic depression. It does not offer a critical examination of disparate areas of reality, but a projection of (not possible) value and reality models.

Colportage and adventure novels such as Karl May's work were also part of a longer tradition that did not explicitly refer to Marino's “Poetics of the Wonderful”. Contemporary art literature, even the entertainment writer Theodor Fontane , was delimited in terms of content by novella form and socially more demanding topics, formally by a "language of simplicity" trained in realism , although his work is not entirely free from kitsch elements. Kitsch in the sense of a stylistic term can still be found up into the 21st century, especially in those parts of women's literature , which since its inception has granted readers an intellectually limited status and imputes them to the desire for emotionalization. Schwulst as a stylistic feature appears elsewhere than self-analyzing, repetitive monologues on the edge of the linguistic expression possibilities with Thomas Bernhard , as the crowding together of disparate things in sprawling wordplay cascades with Max Goldt .

literature

General

  • Karl Gutzkow : Dionysius Longinus, or about the aesthetic swelling in modern German literature . Stuttgart 1878
  • Gustav René Hocke: Mannerism in Literature. Speech alchemy and esoteric combination art . Hamburg 1959
  • Wilfried Barner : Baroque rhetoric. Investigations into their historical foundations . Tübingen 1970, ISBN 3-484-10130-X .
  • Gerd Henniger (Ed.): Examples of mannerist poetry . Munich 1970
  • Peter Schwind: Schwulst style. Historical foundations of the production and reception of Mannerist forms of language in Germany 1624–1738 . (Dissertation) Bonn 1977, ISBN 3-416-01319-0 .
  • Sabine Rossbach : Modern Mannerism. Literature - film - visual arts . Frankfurt am Main / Berlin / Bern 2005, ISBN 3-631-52523-0 .

Gongorism and Concettism

  • Andrée Collard: Nueva poesía. Conceptismo, culteranismo en la crítica española . 2nd Edition. Madrid 1971
  • Henning Mehnert: Bugia and argutezza. Emanuele Tesauros theory of the structure and functioning of the baroque Concetto . In: Romanische Forschungen 88 (1976), pp. 195-209.
  • Robert V. Young: Richard Crashaw and the Spanish golden age . New Haven 1982, ISBN 0-300-02766-4 .
  • María Cristina Quintero: Poetry as play. 'Gongorismo' and the 'Comedia' . Amsterdam 1991, ISBN 90-272-1761-0 and, ISBN 1-55619-304-1 .

Euphuism

  • Clarence Griffin Child: John Lyly and Euphuism . Munich Contributions to Romance and English Philology, Vol. 7. Erlangen 1894

Web links

Wiktionary: Euphuism  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

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