mannerism

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Jacopo Pontormo : Christ Descent from the Cross

Mannerism (from Italian maniera , “way”, “style”, “ manner ”) is an art-historical term for a style or an era that extends roughly between 1520 ( Raphael's death ) and 1600, outside of Italy too even after 1600. Mannerism is originally based on the idea that an artist should develop and emphasize his very own style, the maniera . All technical possibilities for an extreme design are exhausted.

Depending on the definition, it is a form of the late Renaissance , or a transitional style between Renaissance and Baroque , which originated in Italy, with centers in Rome and Florence . Mannerist works emerged particularly in painting , sculpture and architecture , but also in literature and music . Literary works can generally be classified as Mannerist if they were written between the mid-16th century and 1630.

The most famous Mannerists include the School of Fontainebleau in France, Giovanni da Bologna , most of the Dutch Romanists and the artists at the court of Emperor Rudolph II in Prague , including Jan Vermeyen , Adrian de Vries , Ottavio Miseroni (1567–1624), Bartholomäus Spranger , Hans von Aachen and Joseph Heintz (so-called Rudolfinian art ).

In addition to the art-historical meaning as a term for an era and a style, the term “mannered” is generally used pejoratively and then describes an action, attitude or way of speaking that is perceived as artificial, graceful, pathetic or pompous .

term

The Italian term maniera in the sense of an individual style or an epoch ( maniera greca = Greek manner) can be found at the end of the 14th century with Cennino Cennini and in the 15th century with Ghiberti .

In the 16th century Pietro Aretino called the achievement of artistic authenticity maniera nuova and Giorgio Vasari called the style of the late Michelangelo , from which his own was derived, as maniera moderna , through which even antiquity - the previous peak of artistic development - had been overcome . Vasari associated the term with a positive evaluation and the requirement that a major artist develop (or possess) his own, unmistakable maniera .
In 1557 Lodovico Dolce used the term in a negative sense, also in reference to Michelangelo, whom he accused of having developed a maniera that was only a "bad exercise" and merely served to demonstrate all possible difficulties.

In the Baroque era, the term maniera and the works of the mannerist artists of the 16th century experienced an intense devaluation, u. a. by Bellori ; as manierata (= mannered) one called z. B. an artificial, unnatural-looking way of painting. In this sense, the Italian historian Luigi Lanzi first used the terms “mannerism” and “mannerists” in 1792, also in relation to Giorgio Vasari's work.

In the 19th century, Jacob Burckhardt took up the term again and was the first to introduce mannerism as an art historical term. The scope of Mannerism was still disputed in the 20th century. and in the first third of the 20th century, especially by German art historians, it was viewed as an “expression of a spiritualization contrary to nature” and an artistic subjectivity that defies fixed norms. Italian art historians, on the other hand, emphasized the search for formal elegance, while Johann Fischart emphasized the imagination and ingenuity and also recognized them in the work of northern European painters, such as B. with Hans Baldung Grien .

In his book Die Welt als Labyrinth, first published in 1958 . Manner and mania in European art , Gustav René Hocke tried to apply the concept of mannerism to a phenomenon that was both stylistically and epoch-wise more comprehensive, namely that of the “ decentered subject of modernity ”. Mannerism is, so to speak, the countercurrent to classical music . In his opinion, Mannerist art has continued to exist in individual life's works until the present day. In 1964 Robert Klein spoke of an “art of art” and also extended the term well beyond the actual Mannerist era.

History and requirements

The first Mannerist tendencies can already be seen between 1515 and 1525 in Rome and Florence, among others with Raphael (late work) and Michelangelo , from around 1520 it developed in several phases and from around 1550–60 can be considered the mainstream of the late Renaissance.

Its emergence coincides with religious, intellectual, political and economic upheavals and crises in Italy and Europe: the formerly bourgeois Medici family came back to power in Florence and rose to the rank of nobility; The discovery of America in 1492 changed the previous view of the world and the Mediterranean trade, which was important for Italy, clearly lost its importance; instead, Habsburg Spain rose to become a world power; The Reformation triggered by Luther meant an enormous shock for all of Europe , with all its consequences such as religious wars , a decade-long council in Trent and the counter-reformation that followed . In 1527 the situation escalated when Spanish, Italian and German mercenaries in the Habsburg service attacked and plundered Rome and imprisoned Pope Clement VII ( Sacco di Roma ) .

Detail of the Mannerist ceiling decoration made of paintings, grotesques and stucco by Girolamo Muziano and Cesare Nebbia u. a. in the Galleria delle carte geografiche of the Vatican Palace (approx. 1580–90)

In the opinion of some art historians, under the influence of these events, Mannerist artists came to the conclusion that the Renaissance program of glorifying the beauty of nature through art had failed and that instead nature had to be overcome and redeemed through art. As before in the Renaissance, Neoplatonic , Gnostic and alchemical thoughts also played a role.

On the other hand, Mannerist art - like the art of the 16th century in general - is a decidedly courtly art that was placed in the service of princely representation, and a. also with the help of spectacular temporary festival backdrops. Mannerism tends, as in interior decoration and handicrafts, to spectacular pomp (see illustration).

While the Renaissance was still a mainly Italian cultural achievement, Mannerism was perhaps the very first European art movement. Flemings in particular ( Giambologna , Stradanus ) moved to Italy to learn and work there, bringing their conceptions of art with them and enriching the late phase of Mannerism (and Renaissance) (see also: Romanism ). Woodcuts played an important role , later also copperplate engravings , which circulated all over Europe. In particular, Dürer's works were made known and taken up in Italy.

From the late 16th century onwards, other conceptions of art increasingly competed with the Mannerist, especially the classicist tendency with the Carracci brothers as the main representatives and pioneers of the Baroque (later represented in art theory by Giovanni Pietro Bellori , for whom the work of Nicolas Poussin was exemplary ), and a realistic or even naturalistic one with Caravaggio and his successors.

Since it was customary outside of Italy up to the present to associate the adoption of characteristics of Italian art in the 16th century in a general and undifferentiated manner with the term “Renaissance”, there is a clear linguistic distinction between the two terms (late) Renaissance and Mannerism difficult in practice; for example, some mannerist objects in the local patriotic tradition are proudly presented as “the largest Renaissance hall in…” or “the most important Renaissance building in…”. There are also keywords such as B. “ Weser Renaissance ” or “ Antwerp Mannerists ”, which were introduced by individual art historians and are now established, but which also undermine a correct definition: The Weser Renaissance is by and large actually Mannerism, while the Antwerp Mannerists are a group is about painters who are in the late Gothic tradition of Dutch painting, with transition tendencies to the Renaissance.

Style features

Giambologna's Rape of the Sabine Women in Florence, an example of the Figura serpentinata

In general, Mannerism is characterized by a departure from the balanced, geometrically calculated compositions of the Renaissance in a time of upheaval. In the place of harmonious forms of classic simplicity, there was a sought-after, complex, graceful manner , a capricious and tense style, often enriched with enigmatic allegories that should only be understood by initiated connoisseurs of aristocratic circles.
The representation of the human body was no longer based on the classical art of antiquity and nature, but on ideals of grace , some of which may still originate from the Gothic or early Renaissance, such as excessively long, slender limbs (arms, legs, neck); typical examples can be found with many artists, u. a. at Pontormo , Parmigianino , Tintoretto , El Greco or in the school of Fontainebleau. Occasionally the opposite also occurs: exaggeratedly strong, muscular, masculine, heroic body shapes even in female figures, as they are especially known from Michelangelo.

A typical characteristic of Mannerism in painting as well as in sculpture is the Figura serpentinata , that is, a representation with a strong twist, which is used on the one hand to increase expressivity, on the other hand, and especially in sculpture, but also to emphasize three-dimensionality . In painting there is a tendency towards chosen or daring color combinations, in portrait painting also sometimes emphatically cool colors that contribute a strongly distanced but elegant impression (example: Bronzino ).

Grotesque painting also played a not inconsiderable role in Mannerist interior decoration .

architecture

Plassenburg , Christian portal (1607) with broken gables and obelisks, Bavaria

In architecture , a clear distinction between Mannerism and Renaissance is not always easy, especially in Italy, where both styles coexist. In principle, Mannerist architecture is characterized by the timid dissolution of the classical ordering systems of the Renaissance. By and large, they were retained, but filled with small contradictions, for example the closing stone above an archway, which was originally intended to symbolize the force closure in the center, was moved out of its sensible position (e.g. Palazzo Te , Mantua) or the traditional connections of the facade elements derived from the statics were dissolved. They therefore show rather playful elements. Also rustication was often used unconventional (z. B. Palazzo Pitti , Florence). In general, classic elements are also combined with unconventional elements, which outside of Italy often resulted solely from typical local traditions or a long after-effect of Gothic building forms, for example northern European roof shapes ( saddle roofs ) and richly decorated gables .

A typical stylistic feature often found in Mannerist buildings is the blown gable , but also the attachment of obelisks within the blown gable or on its corners, as can be seen on the Droy says castle church . Overall, a preference for ornamentation and sculptural jewelry can be observed. B. within the gable, but sometimes also distributed over the entire facade, heads of putti , figures of gods or mythical creatures, or reliefs attached.

The obelisks in particular were rediscovered during historicism in the 19th century and were preferably used on neo-renaissance buildings; such buildings can then be described as neo-mannerism in their style .

Important representatives of Mannerism in architecture are: Michelangelo , Giulio Romano , Baldassare Peruzzi , Giorgio Vasari , Cornelis Floris II , Bartolomeo Ammanati , Giacomo della Porta , Hendrick de Keyser .

Italy

Uffizi Gallery in Florence, architect Giorgio Vasari

In addition to Rome, the centers of Mannerism in Italy were above all northern Italian cities such as Florence , Mantua , Vicenza and Venice .

The first Mannerist buildings are Michelangelo's forecourt of the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana in Florence with its unusual staircase solution, and the Palazzo del Te (1525–1536) in Mantua, created by Giulio Romano , which, however, is mainly famous for its interior decoration.

Representative mansions in the Mannerist style are the pentagonal Palazzo Farnese built by Vignola in Caprarola , the Villa Sarego by Palladio and the Palazzo Pitti (especially the garden side) in Florence , which was converted by Ammanati . The most important architectural projects also include the Villa Giulia in Rome from 1551–53 and the Casino Pius IV built by Pirro Ligorio between 1558 and 1562 in the gardens of the Vatican . A similarly rich relief decoration characterizes the facade of the church Santa Maria presso San Celso in Milan (from 1565). The Uffizi Gallery , originally built as an administrative building and built by Vasari from 1560 , with its long and narrow, “gorge-like” inner courtyard, is also a prime example of the maniera .

Outside Italy

François I Gallery in Fontainebleau Castle (1533–1540)

While Mannerism can be found almost everywhere in Italy as a separate style of the Renaissance, it was only used sporadically in buildings in Northern Europe.

In France , the Fontainebleau School stands out, founded in the 1530s by the Florentine mannerists Rosso Fiorentino and Primaticcio . Conversely, Fontainebleau also had an influence on the rest of Europe. a. one of the characteristic ornaments of Mannerism was invented here: the scrollwork . It spread across Europe via prints.
Fontainebleau Palace, however, is less Mannerist in the exterior than in the interior decoration, the porte dorée , the famous gallery François I , the ballroom of Henry II and wall and ceiling decorations in the former room of the Duchesse d'Étampes (the maitresse Franz I.), as well as various chimneys; in addition, a few late mannerist decorations that were added under Henri IV .
The most important French Mannerist buildings include parts of the Louvre : the Cour carrée, begun in 1546 by Pierre Lescot , and the Grande Galerie on the banks of the Seine , built under Henri IV . Anet Castle, built by Philibert Delorme for Diane de Poitiers from 1547 onwards, has also been preserved . The Tuileries Palace , which was also built from 1564 to plans by Delorme for Caterina de 'Medici , unfortunately burned down in the 19th century. Unfortunately, other important buildings are not or only partially preserved, including the large palace complex with mannerist park and grottoes of Saint-Germain-en-Laye , of which only the so-called Old Palace still stands, which from 1539 for Franz I on older foundations was rebuilt; the New Castle , built from 1557 and even more famous, was also a work by Delorme, which was later completed by Primaticcio, Louis Métezeau and Baptiste Androuet du Cerceau .

In the Netherlands and Flanders , as a separate mixture of (Gothic) local traditions with international mannerism, important buildings such as the city chancellery in Bruges (1534–37), the town halls of Antwerp (1561–65) and The Hague (1564–65), or the Vleeshuis of Haarlem , which Lieven de Key built in 1602-03. Among the most important artists are Cornelis Floris and Hans Vredemann de Vries , who also developed their own ornamental forms such as the fittings , as well as cartilage and tailwork . These found through architectural treatises by u. a. De Vries and Wendel Dietterlin widespread in northern Europe and also shaped the early baroque, especially in Germany and England.

The New Lusthaus Stuttgart , built between 1584 and 1593, in 1616

In Germany, the earliest example of the new Italian style is the interior decoration of the residence in Landshut , which was built between 1536 and 1543 based on the model of Palazzo Te. It also created its own styles such as the so-called Weser Renaissance , which took its forms less directly from Italy, but more from the Netherlands and based on engravings by German and Dutch draftsmen. Decorative forms such as the cartilage or the auricle style are characteristic of mannerism in German-speaking countries.
The most important center of mannerism in Germany is Munich , where u. a. in the 1580s Friedrich Sustris worked, who u. a. built the grotto courtyard of the Munich residence ; The antiquarium of the Residenz, which was built between 1568 and 1571 based on designs by Simon Zwitzel and Jacopo Strada , is often referred to as the “Renaissance hall”, but is in fact a clear and significant example of a Mannerist interior, despite the antiques exhibited in it. The Ottheinrichsbau of Heidelberg Castle is also an important building of German Mannerism. A very late example is the castle church Droyssig in Saxony-Anhalt, the construction of which did not begin until 1622 and which remained unfinished inside (invest ruin). The interior decoration of the village church in Osterwohle ( Altmark ), which a hitherto unknown artist made between 1607 and 1621, is an unusual architectural testimony to Mannerism in Northern Germany .

The most important palace of Mannerism in Austria is the ruinously preserved (pure style) and very extensive ensemble of Schloss Neugebauten near Vienna.

Prague was a stronghold of European mannerism at the time of Emperor Rudolf II , but mainly in the fields of painting, sculpture and handicrafts. There worked as architects u. a. Paolo della Stella and Bonifaz Wohlmut , who built the so-called Belvedere of Queen Anna (1538–1565) in the gardens of Prague's Hradcany , which cannot be clearly assigned to the Renaissance or Mannerism: it combines a highly elegant Renaissance loggia with a completely unusual one curved roof solution that appears almost oriental (or as an anticipation of the baroque). The Stern Castle near Prague, which was built for Archduke Ferdinand II and based on his ideas, has very simple facades, but can be assigned to Mannerism simply because of its unusual shape as a six-pointed star (there may be esoteric reasons for this shape ); This is also indicated by the stucco preserved inside. In the area of ​​today's Czech Republic (formerly Bohemia and Moravia ) there are also a number of interesting Mannerist and late Renaissance chateaux, including Nelahozeves , Litomyšl , Frýdlant (Friedland), Častolovice and, in some cases, Český Krumlov . Characteristically, their facades are often decorated using the sgraffito technique. The roundabout (or summer house) in Jindřichův Hradec , built between 1591 and 1596, is one of the most remarkable examples of Mannerist architecture in Bohemia. In the Bučovice Castle , spectacular mannerist interior decorations have been preserved. Plumlov Castle is also an important example of Mannerism in Moravia .

The center of Baltic Mannerism is Danzig . Particularly noteworthy here are the town houses on the Long Market , the Artushof Gdansk and the town hall. Another important Eastern European center of Mannerism is Lviv , which is mainly characterized by the town houses on the market square and the Boimów Chapel.

Garden art

Orcus in the Mannerist Sacro Bosco of Bomarzo

In landscape architecture , Mannerism's love for the grotesque and surprising is expressed on the one hand by often bizarre sculptures, on the other hand by grottos and fountains , some of which were provided with jocular features to amuse the host and guests. These systems were embedded in a sequence of artistically designed terraces , parterres and bosquets .

Famous examples can be found in the Boboli Gardens of the Palazzo Pitti in Florence and in the parks of the Palazzo Farnese in Caprarola and the Villa d'Este in Tivoli . The Sacro Bosco in Bomarzo is a mannerist garden with original staffage figures . North of the Alps, this type of Italian garden was created in Hellbrunn Palace near Salzburg (the palace itself is already early Baroque), where there are a particularly large number of joke fountains, such as a table or a water theater, where guests can be splashed with water through hidden mechanisms.

The trick technology of such machines later inspired René Descartes to develop his theory of the human automaton .

  • Fontana dell'Organo of the Villa d'Este in Tivoli. In the middle there is an organ automaton that sounds automatically when the water features are running

  • Surprise table with trick fountains in Hellbrunn Palace , Salzburg. Similar systems existed before in Italy (e.g. Villa Lante )

Sculpture, stone cutting and goldsmithing

sculpture

Flying Mercury by Giambologna , 1580. Museo nazionale del Bargello , Florence

The sculpture reached a peak in the 16th century and entered into a contest with the hitherto in the art theory regarded as a noble painting . The advantages of sculpture were now seen in direct comparability with ancient sculptures ( ancient painting was only known in part) and in the use of expensive and long-lasting materials such as marble and bronze. Benvenuto Cellini, as one of the outstanding sculptors and goldsmiths of Mannerism, cited as one of the most important characteristics, which in his opinion elevates sculpture above painting, to its multiple perspectives from all sides. Ultimately, this was reflected in the ideal of the spiral figura serpentinata already mentioned . Added to this is the obvious desire to give the sculptures the appearance of elegance and movement, which on the one hand leads to a graceful ideal of slender bodies with overlong limbs and graceful movements, on the other hand to complicated and sometimes bizarre postures where It is not uncommon for a figure to turn with one part of the body to one side and another to the opposite side. Such figures were already created by Michelangelo , u. a. for the Medici Chapel in San Lorenzo in Florence - although these sculptures are placed with their backs to the wall, so they are not visible from all sides.

It was no longer just individual statues that were created, but entire sculpture programs that were set up in the halls of palaces, in churches and gardens, and in public places. A famous example is the program of figures on the Piazza della Signoria in front of the Palazzo Vecchio and the Loggia dei Lanzi in Florence, which began with a few individual figures in the High Renaissance (including Michelangelo's David ), but was later greatly expanded in the Mannerist style, u. a. with Cellinis Perseus (1545–1554), Giambologna's Rape of the Sabine Women and the multi-figure Neptune Fountain (from 1560) by Ammanati and Giambologna . The latter became the model for numerous similar fountains in Europe, including the Hercules and Augustus fountains in Augsburg .

Important works of art such as B. also Giambologna's famous Mercury , were often reproduced by the artists' workshops for several clients and made in both large and mini format (for the private art chamber) and in various materials. This led to the spread of Mannerist ideals across Europe and promoted the fame of certain artists.

Although the ideals of Mannerism cannot be implemented in unlimited ways in the field of portrait art, as with ideal figures, they were also applied there. Examples are Guglielmo della Porta's tomb Pope Paul III. (1551) in St. Peter's Basilica , Leone Leonis bronze statue Charles V triumphs over the frenzy (1549–55) or the tomb for Gian Giacomo de 'Medici in Milan Cathedral (1560–63), also created by Leoni .

In addition to the artists already mentioned, the French Jean Goujon , Barthélemy Prieur and Jean Bullant from the school of Fontainebleau and the Flame Adriaen de Vries - a pupil of Giambologna - are among the most outstanding sculptors of Mannerism; furthermore Antonio Abondio , Alessandro Vittoria , and Ludwig Münstermann .

Stone cutting and goldsmithing

Crown of Rudolph II. ( Gold , enamel , pearls , diamonds , rubies , sapphire , spinels ), Jan Vermeyen , Prague 1602. Treasury in the Vienna Hofburg. The enamel bands are decorated with the finest grotesques , the golden reliefs show scenes from the life of the emperor.

The love for the whimsical and the pomp led in combination to a heyday of the Mannerist goldsmith and the stone cutting art, which not - rarely in association - produced outstanding works of art. They were often exhibited in the art and wonder chambers typical of the epoch . The typical motifs of Mannerism worked particularly well in the field of small art and led to richly ornamented, fantasy creations in which not only elegantly twisted small figures, but also often bizarre or mystical figures such as dragons or mythical creatures , or animals such as snakes appear. Enamel- coated frames were also very popular, often with grotesques in miniature and other richly ornamented and chased ornaments. Typical Mannerist ornamental forms such as scrollwork , fittings or cartilage also appear, and in some cases even have their origin here. In some cases, machines in splendid versions were also produced.

The most famous stone cutters include the workshops of the Saracchi and Miseroni or Annibale Fontana from Milan . The Saracchi were especially popular for their vessels and other objects made of rock crystal with virtuoso engravings by z. Some known biblical or mythological scenes. A number of workshops worked for the Medici in Florence, including the Flemish Jacques Bylivelt and Bernardo Buontalenti . There were also excellent goldsmiths and other artisans in Germany, especially in Augsburg and Nuremberg, including Wenzel Jamnitzer and Christoph Jamnitzer , Nikolaus Schmidt, Hans Elias and Christoph Lencker, and Melchior Mair. Hans Reimer and Hans Scheich worked directly for the Wittelsbach court in Munich . Sculptors, too, often worked in the arts and crafts, such as Giambologna or Cellini . However, many works have also been passed on anonymously.

Handle in the form of a grotesque mythical creature on a magnificent vessel by Gasparo Miseroni, approx. 1570 Milan (gold, enamel). KHM , Vienna

Almost all of the princes collected relevant objects. But they were all surpassed by Emperor Rudolph II , who had a passionate predilection for gold, precious stones and marvelous things such as bezoars , shells, ivory or the mystical horn of the unicorn - only today do we know that the latter is actually a tooth the narwhal acted. For Rudolph (and other contemporaries) precious stones had not only a material, but also a mysterious, esoteric, spiritual value. With his treasures and precious stones he wanted “... to have a certain reflection of the shimmer of divinity ... ". He called numerous artists such as Jan Vermeyen , Adriaen de Vries , Paulus van Vianen and the brothers Ottavio, Alessandro and Giovanni Ambrogio Miseroni to his court in Prague, who, together with other artists, made special luxury goods for him from the materials mentioned in combination with gold and enamel created. Other artists who worked in Prague were Nikolaus Pfaff and Anton Schweinberger.

Among the most famous objects are Cellini's Saliera (salt and pepper vessel; today: Kunstkammer des KHM , Vienna) created for Franz I and the crown created by Vermeyen and other artists for Rudolph II , which 200 years later became the crown of the Austrian emperors (today: Treasury in the Vienna Hofburg ). It is an elegant virtuoso piece and not only set with precious stones and pearls, but also with small golden reliefs and tiny grotesques made of enamel, in which the imperial eagle appears (see picture above).

Painting and graphics

Domenico Beccafumi : Fall of the Rebel Angels , around 1528, San Niccolo al Carmine, Siena

General

The figure ideal is similar to that in sculpture: the physical proportions follow an ideal of extreme elegance and grace with excessively long limbs, arms, legs and necks, and the bodies pose in dynamic but intricate or impossible rotations; the people are often portrayed with aesthetic gestures and emphatically erotic or bizarre ugliness. The perspective is sometimes deliberately disregarded. Further style elements are eye-catching and unusual color compositions with sometimes garish and blatant color differences that appear expressive, and picture puzzles and anamorphoses . In addition, there are complex, mostly richly animated compositions, sometimes with an abundance of figures. In general, there is often a somewhat sought-after or artificial impression. It must be emphasized, however, that there are different manifestations of the style, with clear differences between individual representatives or regional schools. In the case of more mediocre artists, the implementation of the ideals mentioned can lead to an unaesthetic or completely artificial, deliberate and graceful impression, whereas in the case of the good or great artists of the era, an impression of elegance (e.g. Rosso Fiorentino, Parmigianino, Spranger) or them dominates achieve special effects in emotional or spiritual expression up to the mystical (e.g. Beccafumi, Tintoretto, El Greco, Barrocci).

Some innovative style elements of Mannerism were also taken up in the Baroque. However, there is a programmatic difference: Mannerism addresses the mind and loves intellectual play with learned allusions; the baroque, as an art form of the Counter-Reformation, addresses (religious) feeling. Formally, the baroque takes back the overly intentional and extreme gestures of mannerism and follows a more natural ideal, the proportions become more natural, the overall impression more curved and rounded instead of jagged, twisted or “cranky”. However, there are also various stylistic currents in the Baroque.

Mannerist style experiments became models for Expressionism , Dadaism , Surrealism and Cubism in the 20th century .

Lives and major artists

A first phase of early Mannerism extends from around 1515/20 to 1530. Michelangelo had already painted many figures in the Sistine Chapel not only in exaggeratedly powerful heroic body shapes, but also in unusual and difficult turns, which continued in his sculptural and painterly work . He became a great role model for the Roman Mannerists. The attempt to expand the means of expression in the direction of drama is also noticeable in the late Raphael and his workshop, for example in the Stanza of Heliodorus, the Borgobrand and the Transfiguration of Christ (1520, Vatican Pinakothek). The way in which Raphael and his workshop used grotesque painting in the loggias of the Vatican also became an essential ideal of Mannerist decorative art .

At the same time, the first Mannerist style experiments occurred in Florence with painters such as Pontormo , Rosso Fiorentino , Primaticcio . The search for a heightened and refined elegance and a style of its own led to the well-known extra-long limbs, twists and sophisticated color effects.

The Sacco di Roma in 1527 marked a dramatic turning point , which led to the emigration of various artists from Rome (including non-Romans such as Rosso, Perino del Vaga and Parmigianino ), but also to the spread of the new styles. The second phase of Mannerism begins, which is set up to around 1560.

Giulio Romano , trained in Raphael's workshop , created one of the most famous Mannerist decorations with his frescoes in the Palazzo Te in Mantua (1525–36), especially with his bizarre fall of the giants . The first two phases are as outstanding representatives also from Parma derived Parmigianino and in Siena acting Domenico Beccafumi , which is noticeable by some spectacular lighting effects, for example in the case of the rebellious angels (1528) in the church of San Niccolo al Carmine in Siena ( see fig.). In Florence, Agnolo Bronzino often showed cool and distant color effects, especially in his portraits .

With the appointment of Rosso Fiorentino, Primaticcio and Nicolò dell'Abbate to the French court by Francis I , the nuova maniera spread in France as early as 1530 and led to the development of the so-called School of Fontainebleau .

The chapel of Eleonora di Toledo in the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence, painted by Bronzino between 1540 and 1564

Roman Mannerism followed other paths and was clearly based on Michelangelo, among other things in the figure ideal and in the emphasis on disegno , which has now been metaphysically exaggerated. Its representatives include the brothers Taddeo and Federico Zuccari , Daniele da Volterra , Francesco Salviati , Girolamo Muziano and Cristoforo Roncalli , known as "il Pomarancio". Giorgio Vasari and his student Jacopo Zucchi also used a similar style . However, Vasari was more significant as a theorist than in his art.

Overall, in addition to individual images, there are also large and extensive fresco decorations and ceiling paintings in which the individual image appears subordinate to a larger whole and / or the painting is combined with stucco and gilding. Famous examples in addition to Palazzo Te are the décor in Fontainebleau Palace (Franz I's gallery and Henry II's ballroom ), the design of the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence under Vasari , and the extensive paintings in the Palazzo Farnese in Caprarola and in the villa d'Este in Tivoli, as well as numerous examples in Roman palaces and villas including Castel Sant'Angelo and the Vatican Palace.

In Venetian painting, Mannerist tendencies were initially less well received; the two great master masters Tizian and Veronese each created a very individual maniera , which, however, remained largely committed to the balanced ideals of the Renaissance and Classical periods - despite different stylistic phases at Tizian. However, Tintoretto is regarded as a main master of mannerism , in a very personal, independent and profound interpretation. Also Jacopo Bassano shows mannerist tendencies in a part of his work. Influenced by the Venetians and by traditional Greek icon art and even more individual is the work of the Greek El Greco , who worked in Spain , who clearly reflects his idiosyncratic, formally completely artificial style with elongated, slim figures and often hard, flat color effects and a loose brushwork Mannerism belongs. In it the spiritual and mystical tendencies of the style find a climax.

In the third phase from around 1550/60 to the beginning of the 17th century, painters from the Netherlands and Flanders emerged who at least for a time often lived in Italy itself, especially in Rome - they are therefore known as Romanists . Particularly influential were u. a. Frans Floris , Karel van Mander and the engraver and painter Hendrick Goltzius . Of particular importance are the painters at the court of Rudolph II in Prague , who primarily painted allegorical and mythological scenes with a strong erotic charge for the emperor : Bartholomäus Spranger , Hans von Aachen and Joseph Heintz the Elder . A connection to the sculptures by Giambologna and Adriaen de Vries cannot be overlooked. In addition, Giuseppe Arcimboldo's work accommodated the mannerist tendency towards the bizarre.

Some artists in the second half of the 16th century cannot be clearly assigned, as they show some characteristics of mannerism, but at the same time pay homage to a more natural image of man and / or tend to simplify the composition - so they lead to a more classical (or classical) ) Way back and thus contributed to the emergence of the early baroque . These include Federico Barrocci from Urbino , who , in his Correggio- inspired loveliness and softness, often already looks baroque, at the same time still stands out as mannerist, especially because of his imaginative use of colors, and the Cavalier d'Arpino , who works in Rome . Both exerted a great influence on other painters (who were sometimes more mannerist than themselves, e.g. Karel van Mander was clearly influenced by Barrocci).

Significant representatives of Mannerism in the fine arts are (sorted alphabetically):

Italy: Giuseppe Arcimboldo , Federico Barocci , Domenico Beccafumi , Francesco Brina , Agnolo Bronzino , Luca Cambiaso , Lelio Orsi (1508-1587), Parmigianino , Simone Peterzano , Cristoforo Roncalli "il Pomarancio", Perino del Vaga , Polidoro da Caravaggio , Pontormo , Francesco Primaticcio , Rosso Fiorentino , Pellegrino Tibaldi , Jacopo Tintoretto , Michele Tosini (1503–1577), Giorgio Vasari , Daniele da Volterra , Federico Zuccari , Jacopo Zucchi

Spain: El Greco

Northern Europe: Hans von Aachen , Albrecht Altdorfer , Hans Bock the Elder , Denis Calvaert , Antoine Caron , Frans Floris , Hendrick Goltzius , Cornelis van Haarlem , Maarten van Heemskerck , Joseph Heintz the Elder , Karel van Mander , Erhard Schön (1491–1542) , Virgil Solis , Bartholomäus Spranger , Lorenz Stöer , Giovanni Stradanus , Jacob Isaacsz van Swanenburgh , Joachim Wtewael

Mannerist literature

In literature, a major feature of mannerism is the so-called gay style . According to Gustav René Hocke , anagram and acronym , epigram and oxymoron are the typical stylistic devices of Mannerist "linguistic alchemy" (squatting) in literature.

From the writer's art are Michelangelo , Giambattista Marino , Miguel de Cervantes , Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau , François Rabelais , Ludovico Ariosto , Luis de Góngora , Baltasar Gracian , William Shakespeare , Georg Philipp Harsdörffer , Emanuele Tesauro , Giovanni Battista Guarini , Torquato Tasso , Edmund Spenser , Sperone Speroni , Jan Andrzej Morsztyn .

Mannerism Music

In musicology the term Mannerism is not precisely and unambiguously defined, but is occasionally applied to some composers and musicians of this period, especially in relation to madrigalists such as Carlo Gesualdo , Luca Marenzio , Giaches de Wert , Cristofano Malvezzi or the Canto delle Dame di Ferrara .

See also

literature

  • Jirina, Horejsi et al. a .: The art of the Renaissance and Mannerism in Bohemia. Prague 1979
  • Frederick Antal : Between Renaissance and Romanticism. Studies in art history. (Fundus books 38-39). Verlag der Kunst, Dresden 1975, DNB 760188807 .
  • Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997. ISBN 3-406-42755-3 .
  • Jacques Bousquet: Painting of Mannerism. The art of Europe from 1520 to 1620 . 3. Edition. Bruckmann, Munich 1985, ISBN 3-7654-1958-3 .
  • Erich Burck : From Roman Mannerism. From poetry of the early Roman Empire . Scientific Book Society, Darmstadt 1971, ISBN 3-534-05676-0 .
  • Max Jakob Friedländer : The Dutch Mannerists. (Library of Art History; Vol. 3). Seemann, Leipzig 1921.
  • Arnold Hauser : The Origin of Modern Art and Literature. The development of mannerism since the crisis of the Renaissance . Dtv, Munich 1979, ISBN 3-423-04324-5 .
  • Gustav René Hocke : The world as a labyrinth. Mannerism in European Art . Rowohlt, Reinbek near Hamburg 1991, ISBN 3-498-09184-0 .
  • Gustav René Hocke: Mannerism in Literature. Language alchemy and esoteric combination art . 6th edition. Rowohlt, Reinbek near Hamburg 1978, ISBN 3-499-55082-2 .
  • Werner Hofmann (ed.): Magic of Medusa. European mannerisms . Edition Löcker, Vienna 1987, ISBN 3-85409-107-9 (volume accompanying the exhibition of the same name).
  • Tibor Klaniczay : Renaissance and Mannerism. On the relationship between social structure, poetics and style . Akademie-Verlag, Berlin 1977, OCLC 780932471 .
  • Emil Maurer: Mannerism. Figura serpentinata and other ideals of figures; Studies, essays, reports . NZZ-Verlag, Zurich 2001, ISBN 3-85823-791-4 .
  • Achille Bonito Oliva : The ideology of the traitor. Mannerist art, mannerist art . Dumont, Cologne 2000, ISBN 3-7701-5424-X .
  • Jürgen Schultze (Ed.): Prague around 1600. Art and culture at the court of Rudolf II. Luca Verlag, Freren / Ems 1988, ISBN 3-923641-19-2 (2 volumes; book accompanying the exhibition of the same name).
  • John Shearman : Mannerism. The artificial in art . Athenäum Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1988, ISBN 3-89547-039-2 .
  • Franzsepp Würtenberger: Mannerism. The European style of the sixteenth century . Schroll Verlag, Vienna 1979, ISBN 3-7031-0490-2 (reprint of the Vienna 1962 edition).
  • Hubert Gersch (selection and epilogue) and Günther Stiller (woodcuts and overall design): Fireworks: Mannerist poetry of the 17th century , Bauer'sche foundry Frankfurt am Main 1962.

Web links

Commons : Art of Mannerism  - collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Furniture and Decorative Arts of the 16th Century  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files
Wiktionary: Mannerism  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 15
  2. ↑ According to Vasari, among others. Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 15
  3. ^ Lars Olof Larsson : For the introduction. The art at the court of Rudolf II. - A Rudolfinian art? In: Prague around 1600. Art and culture at the court of Rudolf II. Exhibition catalog, Villa Hügel, Essen. Vol. 3: Contributions. Luca, Freren 1988, ISBN 3-923641-18-4 , pp. 39-43.
  4. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, p. 10
  5. ↑ Martin Seidel: Venetian painting at the time of the Counter Reformation . Münster 1996 states in footnote 614, p. 228: “It has been settled since the studies by CH Smyth ( Manierism and Maniera . New York) 1962, SJ Freedberg (source unclear) 1965 and J. Shearman ( Manierism . London) 1967 more and more the opinion that the term is only applicable to painting in Rome and Florence ”and cites extensive literature on this.
  6. ^ Walter Friedländer (1914), Erwin Panofsky (1924), Frederick Antal (1928). Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, p. 11
  7. ^ A b Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, p. 11
  8. ↑ Udo Kultermann: History of Art History. Berlin 1981, p. 37 f.
  9. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 12-13
  10. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . München, Beck, München 1997, pp. 13-14, pp. 48f, pp. 289-294
  11. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . München, Beck, München 1997, pp. 15–29, here: 15
  12. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . München, Beck, München 1997, pp. 15–29, here: 19
  13. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 15-29
  14. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 44-45
  15. ^ Dating from: Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus . Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 95-99
  16. ↑ Rosso came to France in 1530, Primaticcio 2 years later. Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, p. 101
  17. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, p. 101
  18. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus , ... 1997, p. 109 ff
  19. ↑ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus , ... 1997, pp. 164–168
  20. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 191-197
  21. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 23
  22. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 23
  23. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus , ... 1997, pp. 101-102
  24. ↑ Gottfried Kiesow : The auricle as a style element. From the Renaissance to Mannerism. In: Monuments Online , September 2006 ( German Foundation for Monument Protection ).
  25. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 23
  26. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus , ... 1997, pp. 180, 182–85
  27. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, p. 101
  28. ↑ Wilfried Rogasch : Palaces and Gardens in Böhmen und Moravia , Ullmann / Tandem Verlag, 2007, pp. 26–31, 66–71, 72–77, 98–101, 106–116.
  29. ↑ Wilfried Rogasch: Palaces and Gardens in Bohemia and Moravia , Ullmann / Tandem Verlag, 2007, pp. 43–45.
  30. ↑ Wilfried Rogasch: Palaces and Gardens in Bohemia and Moravia , Ullmann / Tandem Verlag, 2007, pp. 46–55.
  31. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus , ... 1997, pp. 180, 182–85
  32. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 232-239
  33. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, p. 239
  34. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, p. 237
  35. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 236 and 257
  36. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 270-71
  37. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 271-275
  38. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 265-267
  39. ↑ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus , ... 1997, pp. 212-214
  40. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : Der Europäische Mannerismus , ... 1997, p. 256f
  41. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, p. 265
  42. ↑ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, pp. 51–54
  43. ^ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, pp. 67 & 136
  44. ↑ The Jamnitzers, N. Schmidt and the Lenckers also produced objects for Emperor Rudolph II. Géza von Habsburg: Fürstliche Kunstkammern in Europa , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, pp. 129–130
  45. ↑ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , ..., 1997, p. 151 and 154f
  46. ↑ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , ..., 1997, p. 158f
  47. ↑ On Rudolph II's art chamber in Prague, see: Géza von Habsburg: Fürstliche Kunstkammern in Europa , ..., pp. 115–139
  48. ↑ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Kunstkammern in Europa , ..., 1997, pp. 131-136
  49. ↑ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, pp. 124–125
  50. ^ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , ..., 1997, p. 130
  51. ^ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , ..., 1997, pp. 54 and 136
  52. ↑ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , ..., 1997, p. 123
  53. ↑ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, p. 165
  54. ^ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, p. 126
  55. ^ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, p. 126
  56. ^ Géza von Habsburg: Princely Art Chambers in Europe , Kohlhammer, Stuttgart / Berlin / Cologne, 1997, p. 158
  57. ↑ see Parmigianinos Madonna with the long neck
  58. ↑ see El Greco's Laocoon : Laokoon ( Memento from June 26, 2004 in the Internet Archive )
  59. ↑ see Parmigianino's self-portrait in the convex mirror
  60. ↑ as Rosso Fiorentino's Deposition : Rosso Fiorentino 002.jpg
  61. ↑ as with Giuseppe Arcimboldo : Arcimboldo ( Memento from November 25, 2005 in the Internet Archive )
  62. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Munich, Beck, Munich 1997, p. 14
  63. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 13-14, pp. 48f, pp. 289-294
  64. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 15
  65. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 44-46
  66. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, p. 298f
  67. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 15
  68. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 17
  69. ↑ Ugo Muccini: Palazzo Vecchio - Guida alla Fabbrica, ai quartieri e alle collezioni (Italian), SCALA, Antella (Florence), p. 96
  70. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 18
  71. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 18
  72. ↑ Mannerism , in: Lexikon der Kunst, Vol. 8 , Karl Müller Verlag, Erlangen 1994, pp. 15–24, here: p. 18
  73. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 335-338
  74. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 341-342
  75. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, p. 339
  76. ^ A b Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, p. 343
  77. ^ Daniel Arasse , Andreas Tönnesmann : The European mannerism . Beck, Munich 1997, pp. 313-316