History of Prague
The history of Prague , the capital of the Czech Republic , begins with the prehistoric settlement of the fertile area. To the Prague Basin resident Celtic Boii came in the 1st century immigrant Marcomanni . Slavic settlement began in the 6th century . After the Přemyslids built two castles in the 9th and 10th centuries, Jewish and German merchants also came to the country.
Under Emperor Charles IV , the city experienced an enormous increase in importance. As a result, Prague was caught in the tension between the Holy Roman Empire , the countries of the Bohemian Crown and Austria-Hungary . As the focal point of the Czech national movement on the one hand and with the onset of industrialization on the other, the city experienced an economic and cultural boom. However, the Bohemian language conflict and the ethnic change in the 19th century also brought her serious disputes.
With the establishment of democratic Czechoslovakia , Prague regained its status as a European political center. The deportation of the Jews under National Socialist occupation and the subsequent expulsion of the Germans in 1945 ended the centuries-long coexistence of three cultures in Prague. The Prague Spring 1968 was the first unsuccessful attempt to democratize the communist regime. Since the fall of the Wall in 1989, Prague has developed into a modern metropolis, shaped by international tourism.
Prehistory and early history
The fertile Prague Basin, which was already explored in the Palaeolithic , is one of the almost continuous and most densely populated areas of Bohemia . Archaeological excavations , which have a long tradition in the region, have produced numerous settlement and grave finds from the Neolithic , the Bronze and Iron Ages . The Celts who settled in Bohemia during the Latène period referred to themselves as Boier . The late Hallstatt and Latène period oppidum Závist in the southern part of Prague is of particular importance . In the 1st century AD, Germanic groups from the north immigrated to the area around Prague and joined the Marcomanni under Marbod . In the course of the Great Migration , the Prague Basin was largely cleared by the Lombards who now lived here in the 6th century.
middle Ages
Early medieval settlement
In the second half of the 6th century Slavs immigrated to Bohemia and settled in what is now the urban area. The early Slavic settlement near Roztoky in the north of Prague, which stretched on the left bank of the Vltava , is of particular importance . Settlement finds from the 6th / 7th centuries Century are also known in the other, especially the northern, districts such as Bubeneč, Dejvice, Veleslavín and Bohnice, but most of them were largely undocumented destroyed at the beginning of the 20th century. Early Slavic cremation graves were excavated in Hradčany, Dejvice and again in Bohnice, among others.
In the course of the 8th and 9th centuries the settlement increased further and the first lightly fortified castle walls were built, such as in Butovice or on the Zámka spur near Bohnice. In the 9th century, a rampart was built on the superbly naturally protected mountain Šárka, which probably played a central role for the surrounding area.
The oldest castles and settlements
The oldest demonstrable medieval settlement in the inner city area is the Prague Castle on the Hradčany , which was founded in the first half of the 9th century by the Czech ruling family of the Přemyslids . The first Christian churches were built here at the end of the 9th century and in the course of the 10th century . At the same time there were already settlements in the area of today's Lesser Town (Malá Strana) as well as Loreto (Loretánské náměsti) and Hradčanské náměsti (Hradčanské náměsti).
Under the Přemyslids, who were able to assert themselves against competing sexes, Prague increasingly became the country's political and economic center. After Emperor Otto I set up an independent diocese in Bohemia under Boleslav II in 973 , Prague became the seat of the bishopric and was now under the archbishopric of Mainz , after the area of the diocese had previously belonged to the diocese of Regensburg . The diocese of Prague was raised to an archbishopric in 1344 and thus independent of the archbishopric of Mainz.
Around 965 the Jewish-Arab merchant Ibrahim ibn Jaqub visited the city and gave an impressive report on this well-known trading center. The truth of the matter was doubted for a long time, but archaeological excavations in the last decades in the Lesser Town have confirmed his information.
In the first half of the 10th century, a second castle was founded on the opposite side of the Vltava: the Vyšehrad . Duke Vratislav II (1061-1092, King of Bohemia since 1085) moved his residence from Prague Castle to Vyšehrad around 1070, founded the collegiate monastery of St. Peter and Paul and had a Romanesque palace built as well as other churches.
In the 11th and 12th centuries, German and Jewish merchants and local craftsmen settled in the protection of the two castle complexes along the Vltava and the connecting paths . A major reason for this was the location at the crossroads of important trade routes and the existence of two fords through the Vltava. Most of the loose settlements already had their own parish and cemetery churches. Since the late 12th century, the two sides of the river have been connected by the stone Judith Bridge , which dates back to wooden predecessors from the late 9th and 10th centuries.
The founding of the old town around 1230/34
King Wenceslas I had the largest of these Romanesque settlements fortified on the Vltava bend around 1230/34 and granted it city rights. Prague became the royal seat of the Bohemian rulers. The city fortifications with a double wall and ditch cut up settlements such as around St. Martin “in the wall” (Kostel sv. Martina ve zdi), and on the other hand, previously undeveloped areas were included in the wall ring, but these were now built on quite quickly. The later royal mint master Eberhard founded the city of Gallus ( Nova civitas circa S. Gallum ; Havelské město) through colonists from southern Germany , which had its own legal system until the city charter of Prague's old town was unified around 1287. It was built around a regularly laid out "New" market (Nové tržiště), which stretched from today's fruit market (Ovočny trh) to the coal market (Uhelný trh).
Lesser Town and Hradcany
Wenceslas son Přemysl Ottokar II drove out the Czech population below the castle on the other bank of the Vltava, settled North German colonists in 1257 and founded the first New Town in Prague ( Nova civitas sub castro Pragensis ), today's Lesser Town (Malá Strana), which he shared with Magdeburg City law provided. The third city in Prague was probably built before 1320 by the burgrave Hynek Berka of Dubá, the dependent city of Hradčany.
Expansion of the city under Charles IV.
The middle and second half of the 14th century are of particular relevance for the history of the city of Prague. During the reign of Charles IV and his son Wenceslas IV , the city experienced the most extensive change in importance and size up to that point. The aim of the two rulers was to develop Prague into a new residential city and a worthy metropolis not only of the countries of the Bohemian crown, but of the entire Holy Roman Empire .
During the reign of his father Johann von Luxemburg (the blind) in 1333, Charles had Prague Castle rebuilt on Hradschin Hill, which was destroyed by fire in 1303. Eleven years later, at his endeavor, the diocese of Prague was elevated to an archbishopric . Then the construction of the St. Vitus Cathedral began . In 1346 Charles IV was elected Roman-German king. In 1348 he founded Charles University as the first German university and the huge New Town of Prague . At the same time he had the second Prague castle, the Vyšehrad, enlarged and renovated. After Karl was crowned emperor in 1355, construction of the stone bridge, now called Charles Bridge , with the Old Town Bridge Tower began in 1357 , and in 1360 the expansion of the city on the other side of the Vltava, the Lesser Town, by building new fortifications. The construction boom also had an impact on the oldest and most important Prague city complex, the old town, in which almost all churches and numerous secular buildings were rebuilt or rebuilt on royal or private initiative. Building activity continued even after the death of Charles IV in 1378, and numerous building projects were completed under Wenceslaus IV. With its removal from the royal throne in 1400, Prague ceased to be a residential city, and with it all construction projects stopped as far as possible. The first major setback in the development of Prague occurred when the Hussite Revolution broke out in 1419, when Prague was largely destroyed.
Although only a few ecclesiastical and administrative buildings have survived to this day, the layout of the New Town still largely determines the cityscape of Prague. The systematic approach and the regularity of the Neustadt, which began in 1348 and was divided into three large markets, are particularly noteworthy. The Heumarkt (today Hybernergasse / Hybernská ulice) and Rossmarkt ( Wenceslas Square / Václavské náměstí) with a length of almost 700 m were laid out along older trade routes and each extended from a gate in the old town to a new gate built as part of the fortification of the new town . At the cattle market ( Karlsplatz / Karlovo náměstí) this was not possible, but here, too, the street leading across the square ran from the old town gate to the main gate of Vyšehrad. From the markets built along the cardinal points or exactly diagonally to these, street systems were laid out largely at right angles, which had to lead to slight irregularities, but which were skillfully compensated for. A monastery was founded in the immediate vicinity of the markets: St. Maria Schnee , St. Ambrosius and the Emmaus Monastery . The terrain dominants of the Neustadt were also highlighted by the magnificent church architecture, whereby the most important place (also for reasons of defense), the Karlshof , was the most important. Similar to the settlement of various orders , the most varied of church floor plans and room arrangements were chosen, from single-nave buildings to hall churches and basilicas to central buildings .
The five most important church complexes in the largely unpopulated south of the Neustadt form the ends and the intersection of an imaginary cross, which, according to medieval ideas, gave the city a special blessing. The Rossmarkt and the two connecting streets to the other markets formed another cross, which was also studded with urban dominants at its ends. The Rossmarkt divided the Neustadt into two parts of the city and connected them at the same time. In addition to the expansion of the numerous older parish churches, both parts received a new parish church each - the upper new town the St. Stephen's Church and the lower new town the church of St. Heinrich and Kunigunde as the main parish church of the entire new town - at least in the original plan had an almost identical appearance.
The construction of the new town was probably already largely completed in 1367, i.e. at the time of the merger with the old town, which was soon reversed. As a result of Charles IV's measures, Prague became the fourth largest city north of the Alps after Paris , Ghent and Bruges with around 40,000 inhabitants in 1378 . V. Lorenc calculated a total of 67,110 inhabitants on both sides of the river. If one adds the occupation of Vyšehrad, the clergy and members of the court and the university, which has not yet been taken into account in this calculation, the result is an estimate of the total population of Prague in the middle of the 14th century of around 85,000 inhabitants. In terms of its area, it was even the third largest city in Europe after Rome and Constantinople . The city walls built under Charles IV enclosed an area of 7.5 km², of which about a third (around 2.4 km²) was in the new town.
Hussite period
Growing social and religious tensions, which became particularly evident in the differently structured Prague cities, led to the Hussite uprising, which began with the first lintel in Prague on July 30, 1419 and severely affected the cities. In 1422 Jan Želivský , the leader of the radical Hussites, was executed in the Old Town Square.
Early modern age
In 1526 the Habsburg dynasty succeeded the throne and held the throne almost completely until 1918. In 1541 a fire almost completely destroyed the buildings on the Hradschin and the Lesser Town. In 1546/47 the Prague cities also took part in the Bohemian uprising against King Ferdinand I. After his suppression, the king was able to move into the Moldau metropolis with his troops in July 1547. The cities of Prague fell to the royal court and, along with the other utraquist cities, had the most to atone. They lost many rights and freedoms and had to pay high fines.
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Under Emperor Rudolf II (1576–1611), Prague became the imperial residence again in 1583 and thus the focus of social and cultural life in Central Europe. During this time, many Germans, but also members of other nationalities, came to Prague as new citizens. The emperor also encouraged the resettlement of Jews in Prague's old town. The city acquired such a multicultural character after it had been almost entirely Czech since the Hussite period. Rudolf II brought famous scientists such as Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler to the Prague court. The emperor put on the most important art collection of his time.
Thirty Years' War
The trigger for the Thirty Years' War was the second lintel in Prague .
In the Battle of White Mountain near Prague in 1620, the Protestant estates were defeated by the Catholic Habsburgs. From then on, the victorious party determined the cultural development (Prague Baroque). This was accompanied by a gradual decline of the Czech language and the Czech national consciousness. In Czech historiography, the 200 years after the “White Mountain” are called temno , in English: darkness. However, the German language was only systematically promoted in the Bohemian countries in the relatively short period of time from approx. 1740 to 1780 in the course of the efforts of enlightened absolutism to create an administration that was as efficient and uniform as possible.
In June 1621, 27 leaders of the Bohemian Uprising were executed on the Old Town Square . Protestants were expelled, and violent recatholization began. A city constitution issued in 1622 severely curtailed Prague's urban autonomy. After the defeat of the imperial army in the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631, the Saxons occupied Prague. With them came numerous exiled Protestants who immediately set about taking possession of their abandoned belongings again. This only lasted for a short time, as General Wallenstein recaptured Prague in May 1632. In the Peace of Prague on June 30, 1635, the Emperor ceded Lusatia to Electoral Saxony .
In the summer of 1648, the Thirty Years' War ended where it had started, again in Prague: Swedish troops under Hans Christoph von Königsmarck conquered the Lesser Town with the Hradschin and Prague Castle on July 26, 1648 , where the Prague art theft also took place. The districts to the right of the Vltava, however, were able to hold their own against the Swedes until the end of the war.
18th century
With Saxon troops, Bavaria and the French conquered Prague in 1741. In August 1744 the Second Silesian War began when the Prussians invaded Bohemia. After two weeks of siege, Prague had to surrender on September 16. In the Peace of Dresden in 1745, Bohemia was again recognized as Austrian.
The Battle of Prague in the Seven Years' War on May 6, 1757 also made history. On the Prussian side, King Frederick the Great and Field Marshal Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin led , on the Austrian Prince Karl of Lorraine and Field Marshal Maximilian Ulysses Browne .
In 1784 the four previously independent Prague cities of Hradschin (Hradčany), Lesser Town (Malá Strana), Old Town (Staré Město) and New Town (Nové město) merged and a closed Prague city fortification was created.
19th century
Like other European cities, Prague expanded strongly in the 19th century during the industrial revolution . The horse-drawn tram to Kladno was laid out in front of the Písek Gate in 1830 . In 1834 the Royal Corporate Technical College was established as the first technical university in Europe. The National Museum was founded in 1818 and later transformed into an active center of efforts for the renewal of Czech national culture by the politician and historian František Palacký . In 1834 the melody of the song Kde domov můj ? (Where is my home?). In the revolutionary year of 1848 , for the first time in more than two centuries, the Czech national consciousness reappeared as an independent political factor. On the Slavs Congress of the year 1848, showed pan-Slavic tendencies. However, the majority of Czech politicians ( Old Czechs ) pursued moderate goals of linguistic and cultural equality. The national aspirations of the Czechs were stifled that year, as were the German demands for freedom. The suppression of the Whitsun Uprising in Prague on June 16, 1848 by Austrian troops was the first military success of the counter-revolution in the states of the German Confederation .
Industrialization and population growth
The 1847 census showed a population of 66,046 Germans and 36,687 Czechs. A German mayor held office until 1861. From then on, the number of Czech inhabitants increased by leaps and bounds, due to the industrialization of the Prague suburbs. Economically, the second half of the 19th century brought a stormy upswing. In 1874, most of the city fortifications were removed to make room. This led to the city growing together with its suburbs. Industrial plants such as the Ringhoffer works or the Staropramen brewery were built in Smíchov . The suburbs of Karlín , Holešovice and Libeň also developed into industrial locations.
The establishment of the Czech National Theater inspired a whole generation of composers and creative artists . The operas by Bedřich Smetana and Antonín Dvořák were written . In the German population, a largely art and culture-loving upper class, a lively association and club life had developed. The German Theater Association financed most of the New German Theater . The actresses included Paula Wessely and Fee von Reichlin . The center of Germanness was the German House on the Graben .
A large-scale exhibition of Czech industry was the anniversary exhibition in 1891 , when the exhibition center , the Petřín lookout tower and the Letná tram were opened. Regular tram traffic in Prague began in 1896 .
Cultural melting pot
The division of Charles University in Prague into a German and a Czech university was a symbol of the ethnic conflicts that rocked Prague at the end of the 19th century.
Around 1900 Prague was like a greenhouse for artists and writers. Well-known German-speaking writers such as Franz Kafka , Rainer Maria Rilke and Gustav Meyrink worked in Prague. During this time, Prague in the multi-ethnic state Austria-Hungary was characterized by a lively exchange between the nationalities. For the Czechs, Prague was the cultural center, while the German-speaking artists of Prague (e.g. Kafka, Egon Erwin Kisch and Franz Werfel ) often spent part of their lives in German cultural centers.
Development of the Jewish proportion of the population
| Jews in Prague | |||||||
| year | Ges.-Bev. | Jews | proportion of | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1857 | 72,000 | 7,706 | 10.7% | ||||
| 1869 | 159,200 | 13,056 | 8.2% | ||||
| 1880 | 162,300 | 16,754 | 10.3% | ||||
| 1890 | 184,000 | 17,635 | 9.6% | ||||
| 1900 | 201,600 | 18,986 | 9.4% | ||||
| 1910 | 223,000 | 18,041 | 8.1% | ||||
20th century
With the First World War , material deprivation as well as political and national oppression fell upon the people. Against and directly against the monarchy, resistance flared up right at the beginning. Rioting broke out again and again in the Austrian army, and both hunger demonstrations and rallies increased in the early summer of 1918.
Czechoslovak capital
On October 28, 1918, the National Committee proclaimed the independence of the Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR), for which the Slovak National Committee, which met in Turčiansky Martin , also spoke out on October 30 . Prague was the capital of the new state. In 1920 Prague was enlarged by incorporating many suburbs. Air traffic in Prague had already started in 1919 at the Kbely airfield , in 1937 the civil airport in Prague Ruzyně in the north-west of the city went into operation.
The economic and cultural boom in the 1920s, with the completion of St. Vitus Cathedral in 1929, came to a standstill with the global economic crisis .
In the 1920s, the Czech population was around 600,000 citizens. The 30,000 Germans formed a small minority.
Occupation and World War II
With the invasion of German troops on March 15, 1939 to " smash the rest of the Czech Republic", Prague became the capital of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . Emil Hácha , who became President of the Czechoslovak Republic after the resignation of Edvard Beneš in 1938 , remained President of the Protectorate under German supervision until 1945. Immediately after the invasion, the persecution of the Prague Jews and their emigration began. Jewish institutions and companies were closed and expropriated. The systematic deportation of Jews began in 1941, initially to the Litzmannstadt ghetto and later to the Theresienstadt concentration camp . Of the almost 49,500 Jewish residents who lived in Prague when the war began in 1939, only about 7,500 survived the Shoah .
German troops occupied Prague until 1945. During the Second World War , Prague was hardly destroyed, as the city was to be spared because of its 90 percent Czech population. In contrast to Pilsen , Prague did not have any major war industries. During the war there were four Allied air raids on Prague .
On May 5, 1945 there was a radio call for the Prague uprising . On the same day, the Czech national military command in Greater Prague concluded an agreement with the 1st Division of the Vlasov Army (ROA), which was allied with the German Reich . This division marched on May 6th from the west against rebellious Prague, attacked the German positions there on May 7th from the west and occupied large parts of the city by evening. The communist-influenced Czech National Council (ČNR) also approved the action of the Vlasov Army in a punctuation on May 7, but distanced itself a little later. When it became apparent in the evening that the Americans would not march to Prague, but that the city would be occupied by the Red Army , the Vlasov troops withdrew against Pilsen on the night of May 8 to escape Stalin's revenge .
The position of the German troops in the city, especially parts of the Waffen SS division “Wallenstein”, improved only marginally as a result. Their goal was a surrender to the Americans, and their commanding General Rudolf Toussaint signed a document of surrender to the CR at 4:00 p.m. on May 8, granting the soldiers free withdrawal. The latter was done before the end of the night. Only a small part of the approximately 42,000 Prague Germans and other German civilians left the city with the troops. When the Soviet troops of the 1st Ukrainian Front Konev reached the city on the morning of May 9, 1945 in the course of the Prague operation , there were outbreaks of violence against the remaining German minority, which, according to Czech information, fell victim to almost 1,000 German civilians in twelve days . However, this figure is considered too low. The Germans were interned in cinemas, schools and in the Strahov stadium , taken to agriculture or deported to the Theresienstadt camp. The liberation of Prague soon resulted in a new occupation. The SMERSch had several hundred wounded Vlasov soldiers murdered, the chairman of the ČNR, Pražák, lost his professorship, and other members of the ČNR were arrested or executed.
communism
In the February revolution of 1948, the Communist Party ( KSČ ) , which had been dominant since 1946, gained political power. A period of massive oppression followed, with the Slansky trial as the climax, until the climate relaxed a little during the thaw period , so that the Stalin monument was blown up in 1962 after only seven years of existence.
In August 1968 an attempt at peaceful democratization ( Prague Spring ) was violently suppressed by intervention by five Warsaw Pact states . The protest against the Soviet occupation became known worldwide through the symbolic self-immolation of Jan Palach on Wenceslas Square on January 16, 1969.
In the 1970s, the Prague metro gradually started operating, designed as a subway network with three lines. The increasing traffic load was also countered with the construction of large access roads in the city center. During the Real Socialist era, some iconic buildings were built in the Prague cityscape, including the Neue Szene theater , the congress center and the Žižkov television tower .
Velvet revolution
The Velvet Revolution (Sametová revoluce) led to the overthrow of the socialist regime in November 1989 . Václav Havel was elected President . In addition, the events in the German Embassy in Prague , as a place of refuge for refugees from the German Democratic Republic , wrote all-German history. Socialist names of streets, buildings and metro stations were replaced and the city experienced a surge in modernization. In 1990 both Pope John Paul II and US President George HW Bush visited the Czechoslovak capital. In 1993 UNESCO named the historic city center a World Heritage Site .
On January 1, 1993, Prague became the capital of the independent Czech Republic.
Beginning of the 21st century
In August 2002, Prague, like other parts of Central Europe, suffered from severe flooding. Parts of the city had to be evacuated and cultural assets were destroyed or damaged.
In 2004 the Sazka Arena was built for the Ice Hockey World Championship . The economic development made an expansion of the transport infrastructure necessary. In 2009 the so-called new connection went into operation, which connects the railway lines from the north and east directly to the main station . The three lines of the metro have been extended several times since 1989, most recently line A in 2015. In 2011, the Blanka road tunnel complex with a length of over 5 kilometers was completed. Although public transport in Prague is traditionally well developed, the city is now burdened by car traffic.
Prague is not only the economically strongest region in the Czech Republic with the highest standard of living, but also the ninth richest region in Europe. The city is a popular tourist destination worldwide, with over 6 million foreign guests annually.
In 2014, Adriana Krnáčová was the first woman to be elected mayor. She was succeeded in 2018 by Zdeněk Hřib from the Pirate Party .
See also
- History of Bohemia
- List of Bohemian rulers
- History of Czechoslovakia
- History of the Czech Republic
- Administrative districts in Prague
literature
General
- Detlev Arens : Prague. Culture and history of the "Golden City" . DuMont art travel guide. 3rd updated edition. DuMont, Ostfildern 2005, ISBN 3-7701-4303-5 .
- Peter Demetz : Prague in black and gold. Seven moments in the life of a European city. Translated by Joachim Kalka . Piper, Munich / Zurich 1998, ISBN 3-492-03542-6 . Unabridged paperback edition: ibid. 2000. (= Piper series . Volume 3044.) ISBN 3-492-23044-X . (clearly legible, broad-based city history on a scientific basis)
- Nové Město pražské. 1348-1784. Praha 1998, ISBN 80-85394-19-7 .
- Hugo Rokyta : The Bohemian Lands. Handbook of monuments and memorials of European cultural relations in the Czech lands. Volume 1: Prague. 2nd revised and expanded edition. Vitalis, Prague 1995, ISBN 80-901621-7-7 .
- Umělecké památky Prahy. 1 ff. Praha 1998 ff. ISBN 80-200-0627-3 .
- Otto Muneles: Bibliografický přehled židovské Prahy. Prague 1952.
- Journal or series of publications: Documenta Pragensia. Sborník materiálií z Archivu Hlavního Města Prahy. Praha 1980–, ISSN 0231-7443 .
- Magazine: Staletá Praha. Sborník Pražského Ústavu Památkové Péce. Panorama Praha. Prague 1965–.
On prehistory and early history
- Marie Fridrichová, Jan Fridrich, Josef Havel, Jan Kovářík: Praha v pravěku. Archaeologica Pragensia Supplementum 2. Praha 1995, ISBN 80-85394-11-1 . (Current and well-illustrated overview of prehistory and early history in the area of the capital Prague, unfortunately only in Czech with a very short English summary)
- Journal: Archaeologica Pragensia. Archeologický sborník Muzea Hlavního Města Prahy. Praha 1980–, ISSN 0139-5998 . (Scientific articles on excavations and finds in the Greater Prague area, mostly in Czech with summaries in German or English)
To the Middle Ages
- I. Boháčová, J. Frolík, Z. Smetánka, B. Nechvatál, L. Hrdlička: Prague Castle, Vyšehrad Castle and the Prague agglomeration , in: J. Fridrich (Ed.): 25 years of archaeological research in Bohemia. On the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the Institute of Archeology, Prague. Památky Archeologicke Suppl. 1. Prague 1994, pp. 153-184. (here: L. Hrdlička: The Archaeological Study of the Historical Center of Prague: 1969–1993. ibid pp. 174–180).
- Jarmila Čihákova: Prague around the year 1000: infrastructure, transport. In Alfried Wieczorek, Hans-Martin Hinz (Ed.): European Center around 1000. Volume 1. Theiss, Stuttgart 2000, pp. 175–178.
- Ladislav Hrdlička: Prague , in: Alfried Wieczorek, Hans-Martin Hinz (Ed.): European Center around 1000. Volume 1. Theiss, Stuttgart 2000, pp. 373-375.
- Václav Huml, Zdeněk Dragoun, Rostislav Nový: The archaeological contribution to the problematic of the development of Prague from the 9th to the middle of the 13th century and the recording of the results of the historical-archaeological research of Prague . Journal for Archeology of the Middle Ages 18/19 (1990/91), pp. 33–69.
- Ferdinand Seibt (Ed.): Emperor Karl IV. Statesman and patron. Accompanying volume for exhibitions in Nuremberg and Cologne 1978/79. Prestel, Munich 1978, ISBN 3-7913-0435-6 .
- Dušan Třeštík : The foundation of Prague , in: Hansjürgen Brachmann (ed.): Castle - Castle Town - City. On the genesis of medieval non-agricultural centers in East Central Europe (= research on the history and culture of eastern Central Europe, vol. 4). Berlin 1995, pp. 229-240.
- J. Zavřel: Iron Making in the Center of Prague Basin and Possible Origin of the Name of the Town of Praha (Prague). (Železářství v centru pražské kotliny a možny původ jména města Praha.) In: J. Kubková, J. Klápště, M. Ježek, P. Meduna u. a. (Ed.): Život v archeologii středověku. (Life in archeology in the Middle Ages). Festschrift M. Richter and Z. Smetánka. Praha 1997, pp. 667-671.
During the occupation period 1939–1945
- Peter Demetz: My Prague. Memories 1939 to 1945. Translated by Barbara Schaden. Zsolnay, Vienna 2007, ISBN 978-3-552-05407-3 . (Mixture of personal memories of the occupation and their general historical representation) Reviews
Web links
- Prague at the Beginning of History - Exhibition in the Prague City Museum .
- Charter of founding of Charles University in Prague dated April 7, 1348 (Littera fundationis Universitatis Carolinae Pragensis), illustration and text
Individual evidence
- ↑ Friedemann Needy : Pocket Lexicon Thirty Years War. Piper Verlag , Munich 1998, ISBN 3-492-22668-X , p. 178f.
- ↑ Isabel Heitjan: The "miracle" Johann von Nepomuk 1744 in Prague. In: Börsenblatt for the German book trade - Frankfurt edition. No. 89, November 5, 1968 (= Archive for the History of Books. Volume 62), pp. 2863–2868, here: p. 2866.
- ^ Prague city walls. (No longer available online.) In: burgenwelt.org. Archived from the original on December 8, 2015 ; accessed on November 29, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ According to a newspaper article with the picture description "Procházka na mostě" (Walk on the bridge) he was also called "the old Prochazka" by the Czechs.
- ↑ Tobias Weger : A Little History of Prags. Pustet, Regensburg 2011, p. 96
- ^ A b Letter from the contemporary witness Adolf Siegl to Hugo Hermann Pilger (1991), Archives of the Corps Frankonia-Prague
- ^ Results of the censuses of the KK Statistische Central -ommission u. a. In: Anson Rabinbach : The Migration of Galician Jews to Vienna. Austrian History Yearbook, Volume XI, Berghahn Books / Rice University Press, Houston 1975, pp. 46/47 (Table III).
- ↑ Tobias Weger : A Little History of Prags. Pustet, Regensburg 2011, p. 127f.
- ↑ Keith Lowe : The Wild Continent. Europe in the years of anarchy 1943–1950. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-608-94858-5 , online .
- ↑ GDP per capita in the EU in 2011 ( Memento of March 7, 2014 in the Internet Archive ). In: Eurostat News Release, February 27, 2014.
