Ethnic groups in Hungary
Since the establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary , members of different peoples have always lived there alongside the Magyars . Over the centuries there have been repeated major population movements, with the composition of the population changing. The era of Turkish rule had special effects, as large parts of the country were depopulated during this time. Later new immigrants settled there. The current situation was largely determined by the Trianon Treaty . Other important events in the 20th century were expulsions and the population swap with Czechoslovakia after the Second World War . During the communist era, the remaining minorities were assimilated, especially Germans and Slovaks.
This article only deals with the population groups under legal minority protection, i. H. that the situation of religious groups is not presented. The Jewish part of the population plays a special role, as it is also important as an ethnic minority.
Historical overview
Conquest and Middle Ages
When the Magyars arrived in the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century, peoples of different cultures were already living there, for example Avars and Slavic tribes. Where no assimilation took place, the Slavic minorities, some of which still exist today, formed. These include the “Hungarian Slovenes” ( magyarországi szlovén or vendek ), which are also known as Wends in German . Their ancestors settled in the Carpathian Basin in the 6th century.
Formerly significant minorities were the Islamic Böszörmény , Bulgarian and Turkish ethnic groups who had lived in the Carpathian Basin from around the 9th century . In 1092 Ladislaus I passed a law according to which the Böszörmény were Christianized. The names of the municipalities of Berekböszörmény and Hajdúböszörmény in Hajdú-Bihar County are still reminiscent of these ethnic groups.
In the Middle Ages , especially as a result of the devastation during the Mongol Storm , the proportion of Magyars in Hungary's population decreased. Other peoples also settled in the area. These were often traders or artisans from the Holy Roman Empire and , to a lesser extent, from Italian areas and Flanders . The Cypchaks and the Jász came from Eastern European countries , a people related to the Alans and Ossetians who speak an Indo-Iranian dialect. Their descendants now live in the Jászság region in Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok county . These ethnic groups assimilated relatively quickly to the Magyars. Exceptions are the German-speaking Transylvanian Saxons and the Spiš, who lived in remote areas of the kingdom, as well as Romanians , who appeared in large numbers in Transylvania since the 14th century . They maintained their own language and culture.
Effects of the Turkish Wars
All ethnic groups suffered equally under the campaigns of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent in the Austrian Turkish War (1526–1555). Large parts of the country were depopulated when the Ottoman troops destroyed villages and the surviving population fled. For example, the Slovene population on the Mur in Zala and Somogy counties fled to Prekmurje and areas on the Raab . This region was later called Vendvidék .
After the victory over the Ottomans , two developments led to an increase in non-Hungarian speaking populations. On the one hand, according to the plans of Maria Theresa, Germans were settled in the depopulated areas. The German-speaking parts of the population who lived in remote regions, especially in the Mecsek and Zselic in the Hungarian low mountain range , descend from these. Most of the settlers came from Swabia , which is why the Germans who settled in Hungary in the 18th century are called Swabians - even those who came from other parts of the country. This is how they were differentiated from the Saxons who had lived there since the Middle Ages.
The second development is the immigration of members of the poor sections of the population who moved to barely populated areas in the hope of a better life. At the beginning of the 18th century, Germans came to the country independently of the organized settlement. Furthermore, Serbs and Bunjewatzen settled along the Danube . Šokci , Catholic Bosnians and Croats settled in Transdanubia . As part of further population movements, Romanians moved from Transylvania to the eastern Alföld ( Bánát and Partium ). In addition, immigrant Slovaks of Upper Hungary in the Békés one. Armenians , Greeks , Aromanians and Bulgarians also came to Hungary in smaller numbers .
Immigration in the 19th century
The last major wave of immigration took place in the 19th century. During this time, Jews in particular immigrated from Eastern Europe . Before that, the Jewish part of the population was a few thousand inhabitants. a. lived in cities. They were mainly Sephardic Jews of Czech or German descent. The new immigrants from Galicia or the Russian Empire were less wealthy, had a village-like lifestyle and were engaged in field work. Their language was Yiddish . By the end of the 19th century, the proportion of the Jewish population had risen to 5% (around one million people). At this time, a second wave of Roma immigrants ( Oláh and Beasch ) began. These groups came from Romanian areas.
Until the middle of the 19th century, the different peoples lived largely peacefully together. At the National Assembly in 1843–44, Hungarian was accepted as the official language. Thereupon other peoples also demanded the protection of their own language. With the rejection of their demands began the conflicts that culminated in armed confrontations during the revolution from 1848 to 1849.
The first legal step in Hungary was enforced by József Eötvös in 1868 . It was the first law in the world to regulate the right of national minorities to an independent culture. It ensured the practice of one's own language in the administration and in the education system, provided that a minority population in an area was more than 20%. The law laid the framework for later developments. One effect was that the limits were set in such a way that the proportion of a nationality in an area does not exceed the threshold of 20%.
Magyarization
Hungarian politicians followed the example of France and Great Britain to increase the proportion of those whose mother tongue coincided with the official language. In 18th century France, only about half the population spoke French as their first language. There, under the effect of a targeted educational policy, this proportion could be increased to 85% by the middle of the 19th century. It also succeeded in strengthening French national consciousness among the minorities.
It was hoped that the Magyarization would have a similar effect. This denotes two processes: Magyarosodás and Magyarosítás . Towards the end of the 19th century, many nationalities voluntarily adapted to the Magyars. This process, called Magyarosodás , took place mainly in the areas where the majority of the population consisted of Magyars, especially in what is now Hungary. In the other parts of the country, only the members of the growing Jewish and German minorities assimilated. In the areas where the majority of the population were Slovaks, Romanians or Serbs, the imposed policies of the Magyarosítás caused resistance. Nationalist currents were intensified among the various nationalities. According to data from the 1900 census, around 60% of the population spoke Hungarian at the time. The policy of Magyarization did not live up to the expectations that were placed on it.
In 1907 the Lex Apponyi School Act was introduced. Since then, Hungarian has also been taught in elementary schools, and teachers have promoted national awareness among children. This policy also spread to the hitherto non-Hungarian-speaking communities and aroused ever fierce resistance there.
However, not all Germans and Slovaks opposed Magyarization. The assimilation of a part of these ethnic groups can be explained with the role of Hungarian Jewry. In Hungary there was a stronger amalgamation with the predominantly Christian society than in other countries. Elsewhere, the Jews remained an isolated minority. In Hungary, on the other hand, many felt they were members of the Hungarian nation. A phenomenon that arose there is the neologic Jewish faith (see Conservative Judaism ). In the neological synagogues, services were held in Hungarian. Since the late 19th century, Judaism has been a religious denomination within the Hungarian nation by law. Since then it has been just as possible to be a Hungarian citizen of the Jewish faith, as well as of the Catholic or Protestant faith.
Of the mainly urban Jewish population, only a portion maintained traditional beliefs and ethnic idiosyncrasies. The majority, around a third of the capital's Jews, joined neologism Judaism. In this liberal atmosphere at the turn of the century, many Jews chose Hungarian or German spouses, who also assimilated at this time. In the 20th century, the Jewish and Christian populations had mixed up and Jews formed an important part of society and culture, so that separation would no longer have been possible. Among today's Hungarians, especially in the cities, there are many descendants of Jews, some of German, Slovak or other origins.
According to the 1910 census data, the following ethnic groups made up the largest proportions of Hungary's population. This count does not take into account religious groups. The total population (excluding Croatia ) of 18,264,533 inhabitants consisted of:
- 55% Magyars
- 16% Romanians
- 11% Slovaks
- 10% Germans
- 2.5% Russians and Ukrainians
- 2.5% Serbs
- 1.5% Croatians
- 0.6% gypsies .
According to the Trianon Treaty
Hungary did not become a homogeneous nation-state in the 20th century either . As a result of the Treaty of Trianon and the forcefully enforced nationality policies, Hungary remained a multi-ethnic state . In East Central Europe , the state borders never corresponded to the national distribution of the population. This was most likely the case in Hungary (2001 census - In Hungary 92.3% Magyars). Around a third of the Magyars still live outside the state's borders. In almost all neighboring countries there are more Magyars than other nationalities in Hungary. There are significantly more Hungarians in Slovakia than Slovaks in Hungary. There are also more Magyars living in Ukraine than Russians or Ukrainians in Hungary. A similar relationship exists between Hungarians in Transylvania and Romanians living in Hungary.
In 1920, the Zártszám-rendelet was passed in the 23rd article of the law, an important regulation relating to nationalities. This set a maximum number of minority university students. This approach was particularly directed against the Jewish population, but also had a negative effect on the development of other nationalities.
The Holocaust and Porajmos in Hungary
The assimilation of Hungarian Jews was hindered by the anti - Semitism that reached into the official level and that led to the Holocaust in 1944 and 1945 . Around 600,000 Jews, around 70% of the total Jewish population, were killed. The women, children and the elderly were deported in trucks and mainly taken to the concentration camps in Auschwitz and Dachau . Most of the men were forced to do labor at the front. The population of Jewish origin was completely wiped out in the Carpathian Basin , with the exception of Budapest and the areas outside the state territory (Transylvania, Transcarpathian Oblast , Southern Hungary (Délvidék) and Upper Hungary) . In the capital, more than 100,000 people, roughly half of the Jewish population, lost their lives in foreign death camps or under the terror of the Arrow Cross in Budapest. Most of the survivors emigrated to Israel or the USA . Many of them retained their Hungarian identity.
The mass murder of the Roma is referred to in their language as Porajmos ("devouring"). In 1944 the Nazis and Arrow Crossers deported a large part of the Transdanubian Roma, an estimated 30,000 to 70,000 people, to death camps, where they experienced the same fate as the Jews. After the war, the survivors of the Porajmos did not receive any compensation. Its history was not officially recognized until the 1990s.
Situation after the Second World War
Hungary emerged as a loser from World War II. The neighboring countries were able to restore the pre-war borders. The Bratislava bridgehead with three localities went to Czechoslovakia. The territorial unity of Hungary within the borders after Trianon had not been seriously questioned. Between 1946 and 1949 there was a population exchange between Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
Many Hungarian citizens, including many of German origin, were brought to the Soviet Union as forced laborers .
Politics between 1945 and 1989
After 1945, the young republic faced two options: either to carry out a “one nation” policy, as happened in Czechoslovakia, which was associated with repression and violent assimilation, or they could use the 1st article of the UN Charter (Chapter: "Aims and principles") recognize the rights of nationalities. However, the charter also states that neither the UN nor any other country may interfere in a country's internal affairs.
An unrealized bill
The Communist Party prepared a bill in the summer of 1945 to regulate the situation of minorities in Hungary. The text of the law met the expectations of the United Nations. This is immediately evident in the principles of the statement ("Elvi állásfoglalások"):
- 1. Minden magyar állampolgár, bármilyen anyanyelvű, nemzetiségű vagy vallású is, a törvény előtt egyenlő. Vallása, származása, anyanyelve vagy nemzetisége okából magyar állampolgárt joghátrány nem érhet.
- 2. A democratic Magyarországon a nem magyar nemzetiségű állampolgárokat a magyar nemzetiségű állampolgárokkal egyenlő jogok illetik, és egyenlő kötelességek terhelik. [...]
Free translation:
- »1. All Hungarian citizens of any mother tongue, nationality or religion are equal before the law. No Hungarian citizen can be legally disadvantaged on the basis of his or her religion, origin, mother tongue or nationality. "
- »2. In democratic Hungary, citizens of Hungarian nationality have the same rights and obligations as citizens of non-Hungarian nationalities. [...] «
The draft law also deals with basic citizenship rights such as the right to use one's own language. A language other than Hungarian can be the administrative language if at least one fifth of the population is of the same nationality. In this sense, the law could not be implemented at all in the cities, and hardly in the villages either, since the population was insufficient. The draft law also stipulated that in places where the proportion of a population group exceeded 10%, official texts would be subtitled in the respective language.
After the bill was not adopted, there was in fact no legal protection for minorities.
Expulsion of the Germans
After the Potsdam Agreement many German were from Eastern European countries sold . In Hungary the “German question” was open until December 1945. The majority of political parties supported the mass expulsions for domestic political reasons, for example the question of land distribution. In addition, the Hungarian government was able to accommodate the wishes of Czechoslovakia and make room for the resettled Hungarians. The government under Zoltán Tildy made the decision on December 22, 1945. The expulsion took place on the basis of the 1941 census. The citizens identified as Germans were u. a. accused of belonging to armed German formations or that they "supported Hitlerist organizations in any way" ("a hitlerista szervezeteket bármi módon támogatókat") . Initially there was talk of relocating between 300,000 and 500,000 people.
The expulsions began in January 1946 with deportations from villages near Budapest . Initially, around 130,000 to 150,000 German refugees came to the western zone of Germany. In a second wave, around 50,000 people came to the Eastern Zone. Together with those who had fled earlier, the number of displaced persons was 220,000 to 250,000, about half of the Hungarian-German population. Around 60,000 Germans died or were sent to Soviet labor camps during the war. A total of around 200,000 Germans remained in Hungary.
Even today it is the subject of conflict-ridden disputes, due to which the Hungarian state has expelled the Germans. There are interpretations that this was a result of pressure from the great powers. Others explain the events by saying that space had to be made for the arriving Czechoslovak Hungarians.
The authorities selected families who had to leave the villages. Those affected viewed Germany less as their homeland than Hungary, as over the centuries they had become more and more similar to the Magyars. In their language, customs and culture, they had moved away from Germany. Many felt they belonged to the Hungarian nation. During the war, some Hungarian Germans had joined a movement that turned against National Socialism .
To avoid expulsion, some swapped places with Hungarians willing to emigrate. After the expulsion, about two thirds of the Hungarian Germans came back. In the second half of the 1940s, their former houses were already inhabited by Slovak or Transylvanian Hungarians. They often only found accommodation in the outbuildings.
Population exchange with Czechoslovakia
The Slovaks in Hungary suffered from severe Magyarization after 1919. The situation of Hungarians in Slovakia after 1945 was unfriendly. They have lost their civil rights, some have been deported to the Soviet Union, and thousands have been forcibly relocated to the Sudetes. The Czechoslovak government strove to drive the Hungarians out of Slovakia, like the Germans before. The Allies did not allow this, however. As a stopgap measure, the Czechoslovak and Hungarian governments agreed on a population exchange in February 1946. About 70,000 people have been resettled on both sides. In addition to many Hungarians who previously left voluntarily, the Czechoslovak authorities have expelled many thousands as war criminals from the country. The Hungarians in Slovakia gradually regained their civil rights after 1949.
Status of minorities in the present
According to the data of the 2001 census, 314,060 respondents, that is 4% of the population, identified themselves as members of recognized minorities. This proportion is estimated to be much higher, at around 8-10%. The majority are Hungarian-speaking Roma.
There are currently 13 minorities legally recognized. Of these, 12 are national minorities and one ethnic minority, the Roma. Censuses only collect data on these historical minorities who have been resident for more than 100 years.
In addition to the recognized minorities, there are also large new minority groups, which, however, do not yet meet the conditions for official recognition. They include Russians, Arabs, Chinese, Kurds and citizens of African descent.
Demographic data
When interpreting the statistical data on ethnic identity, it should be noted that the information may give a distorted picture. If belonging to a group has a negative connotation, as is the case with the Roma, respondents tend to identify less with this group. The actual number is estimated to be at least 6% of the population.
- Composition of the minorities in 2001
- 190,046 Roma
- 62,233 Germans
- 17,693 Slovaks
- 15,620 Croatians
- 7,995 Romanians
- 5,070 Ukrainians
- 3,816 Serbs
- 3,040 Slovenes
- 2,962 Poland
- 2,509 Greeks
- 1,358 Bulgarians
- 1,098 Russians
- 620 Armenians
- 16,081 members of unrecognized minorities such as Jews, Bunjewatzen , Chinese and many others
- Development from 1949 to 2001
| year | German | Slovaks | Serbs | Croatians | Slovenes | Romanians | Roma |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1949 | 22,455 | 25,988 | 5,185 | 20.123 | 4,473 | 14,713 | |
| 1960 | 50,765 | 30,690 | 4,583 | 33,014 | 10,502 | ||
| 1970 | 35,594 | 21,176 | 12,235 | 14,609 | 4,205 | 8,640 | 325,000 |
| 1980 | 31,231 | 16,054 | 20,030 | 7.139 | 380,000 | ||
| 1980 * | 65,969 | 34,601 | 27,650 | 8,416 | |||
| 1990 | 30,824 | 10,459 | 2,905 | 13,570 | 1,930 | 10,740 | 142,683 |
| 2001 | 62,233 | 17,692 | 3.816 | 15,620 | 3,040 | 7,995 | 190.046 |
* Tanácsi minősítés
This table does not give any data on Ukrainians, Poles, Greeks, Bulgarians, Russians and Armenians, as these were only recognized in 1991. Therefore, they were not recorded in previous censuses.
Representation of the individual minorities
Roma
The Roma are the numerically largest minority. However, the term “Roma” does not designate a uniform ethnic group, but rather combines various groups that differ in their culture. Instead of Roma, the term “Gypsy” is often used in a defamatory way by the majority of the population.
The Hungarian Roma are largely descended from the Roma who came to Hungary from the Balkan Peninsula in the Middle Ages. The Roma in Hungary mostly speak Hungarian as their mother tongue. Today only a small part speaks the Romani language . She will v. a. spoken in small villages in Transdanubian counties and in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county .
The living conditions of the Roma are very problematic in Hungarian society. They occupy a disadvantaged position in the labor market and in terms of training. Improving your situation is a lengthy process.
German
Germans are the second largest minority in Hungary. They are still called Swabians or Danube Swabians today, even if not all of them are descendants of immigrants from Swabia. Many of them have roots in Austria , Bavaria , Hesse , Alsace or the Netherlands . The Germans mixed with each other, especially in the cities, as well as with Transylvanian Saxons and Zipsers. In the course of the 19th century many assimilated and, for example, took on Hungarian names.
Today most Germans live in Baranya County , v. a. in the eastern part. There are villages like Óbánya and Ófalu , which are almost exclusively inhabited by Germans. In Tolna County , in the north of the Mecsek and the River Sió many German also live. In third place are places in Bács-Kiskun county south of Kalocsa , for example in Hajós and Érsekhalma . There are still ethnic German population groups around Budapest. The places Budaörs , Solymár , Pilisvörösvár and Csolnok should be mentioned here. Within the capital, most of them live in Soroksár . In the neighboring district of Pesterzsébet there is a German high school (Német Nemzetiségi Gimnázium / German nationalities high school ) . Another German school is the Áron Tamási-Gymnasium in Buda . Some other municipalities are located in Komárom-Esztergom , Veszprém , Fejér , Somogy , Vas and Békés counties .
One of the most famous educational institutes is located in the Center for Germans in Hungary (Magyarországi Németek Általános Művelődési Központja) in Baja . There is a German theater in Szekszárd , the German Stage Hungary .
Slovaks
The Slovak minorities live mainly in three areas. In addition to the surroundings of Békés , the Pilis Mountains with a few villages such as Pilisszántó , Piliscsév or Kesztölc should be mentioned. Slovaks also live in Nógrád County.
Croatians
From the former Croatian population as well as from the Slovak minority only a few communities still exist. Most of these are located near the Croatian border. But there are also villages in parts of the eastern Alps , near Mosonmagyaróvár and Sopron . An important cultural institution is the Pécs Croatian Theater (Pécsi Horvát Színház) .
Romanians
The Romanians also live mostly on the Romanian border, mainly near Gyula and Méhkerék in Békés County . There are also a few thousand Romanians in Budapest.
Ukrainians
Besides the Ukrainians who live near the border, this minority is concentrated in Budapest. Some members of this group are scattered across the country. They have been recognized as a minority since 1991.
Serbs
There are Serbian population shares on the Danube, v. a. in Budapest, Szentendre , Szeged , Pécs and in the vicinity of Ráckeve . The only place with a Serb majority is Lórév . In 2006 there were Serbian minority self-governments in the following towns and cities:
- Baja , Battonya , Budakalász , Csobánka , Deszk , Dunaújváros , Érd , Göd , Hercegszántó , Lippó , Lórév , Magyarcsanád , Medina , Mohács , Pécs, Pomáz , Rácalmás , Ráckeve , Százhalombatta , Szeged , Székesfehérvár , Szentendre , Szigetcsép , Tököl , Újszentiván , Villány
Slovenes
The Hungarian Slovenes, also called Wends , live in the vicinity of Szentgotthárd in the Vendvidék (German: "Wenden- / Windenland"). The dialect spoken there preserves elements of the archaic Slavic language.
Poland
Citizens of Polish origin have only been recognized as a minority since 1991.
Greeks
The Greek minority has only been recognized as such since 1991.
Bulgarians
Like the Poles and Greeks, the Bulgarians have had the status of a recognized minority since 1991. Most of them live in Budapest, Miskolc and Pécs or in the vicinity of these cities. Important cultural institutions are the Bulgarian Culture and Information Center (Bolgár Kulturális és Tájékoztató Központ) and the Malko Teatro .
Russians
The ethnic group consisting of about 6000 people was recognized as a minority in 1991. They live mainly in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén County .
Armenians
Most of the Armenians live in Budapest. A smaller part is scattered over different areas.
The 1993 Act
Until the Nationalities Act (Nemzetiségi Törvény) was adopted in 1993, the situation of the Hungarian nationalities was only regulated by a ministerial ordinance, which worked more or less well.
In 1993 the Hungarian Parliament passed a law for the protection of national and ethnic minorities (Nemzeti és etnikai kisebbségek jogairól szóló törvény) . With the law, minority self-administrations of the following ethnic groups were formed in communities: Armenians, Bulgarians, Germans, Greeks, Croats, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Ukrainians and Roma. The elections for this self-government take place at the same time as the local elections. The tasks of these organs are v. a. of a cultural nature, such as running the media, providing educational opportunities, maintaining tradition, calls for proposals and grants.
There is also a minority self-government at the national level, which sets national festivals. Other areas of responsibility concern theaters, museums, libraries and publishers. Likewise, institutes for art and science as well as institutions in the area of middle schools and universities are operated. Legal services can also be offered. The most important right of the self-government is the legal participation in legislation in educational matters and in the protection of monuments. If the national minority body rejects a law, it is submitted to parliament again.
The system of self-government is particularly important in larger cities. In a place with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants, a number of 50 people, above 100 people, is a prerequisite for establishing self-government. In large constituencies with, for example, 100,000 inhabitants, this criterion is easier to meet.
The larger minorities such as Roma, Germans and Slovaks have a large number of self-governments. In contrast, the Slovenes, who live more concentrated in one area, have a relatively small number of representations.
Elections for minority self-government
| minority | Number of votes received | percent |
|---|---|---|
| Roma | 246,728 | 42.5% |
| German | 130,301 | 22.4% |
| Slovaks | 124,329 | 21.4% |
| Croatians | 29,731 | 5.1% |
| Poland | 9,690 | 1.67% |
| Romanians | 9,427 | 1.62% |
| Armenians | 6,477 | 1.11% |
| Russians | 6.364 | 1.10% |
| Greeks | 5,422 | 0.93% |
| Serbs | 4,840 | 0.83% |
| Bulgarians | 3,342 | 0.58% |
| Slovenes | 2,624 | 0.45% |
| Ukrainians | 1,722 | 0.30% |
| total | 580.997 | 99.99% |
| Source: Országos Választási Bizottság ("National Election Committee") | ||
In the elections for the self-government in autumn 2006, the candidates from the minority organizations received a total of 580,997 votes. The following table shows the total distribution of these votes.
Strive for recognition of further minorities
In 2005, 2381 citizens who call themselves Huns submitted their signatures to the National Electoral Committee to initiate official recognition as a minority. However, according to the Hungarian Academy of Sciences , they do not meet the legal requirements for minority status. Parliament's Committee on Human Rights, Minorities and Religious Affairs, after hearing its representatives, did not consider the bill to be suitable for subjecting it to parliamentary debate.
Also in 2005, the “Society for the Minority of Hungarian Jews” (Társaság a Magyarországi Zsidó Kisebbségért) started an attempt to gain recognition as a minority through a popular initiative. However, it was not possible to collect the required signatures by July 3, 2006.
On December 18, 2006, the Bunjewatzen collected more than 1000 signatures to gain recognition. However, the parliament did not agree to the recognition. The Bunjewatzen are currently considered a Croatian minority.
Individual evidence
- ↑ In October 2005 the "Society for the Jewish Minority in Hungary" (Társaság a Magyarországi Zsidó Kisebbségért) tried to initiate a referendum to submit the question of recognition as an ethnic minority to parliament. However, it was not possible to collect the required 1,000 signatures.
- ↑ The Transylvanian Saxons originally came from Franconian areas on the left bank of the Rhine (see: Internet portal Transylvania )
- ↑ Egy batyuval jöttek, egy batyuval menjenek. ( Memento of the original from March 7, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Kipke, Rüdiger: The Hungarian political system, p. 36.
- ↑ (2001 census)
- ^ Tibor Horvat, Joël Gerber: Vendvidék: Terminus and geographical position . vendvidek.com. Retrieved April 1, 2019.
- ↑ Percentages here rounded off to as many decimal places as indicated in the table values
- ↑ Hunnak lenni egy életérzés April 12, 2005.
- ^ Dési Tamás: Nemzetiségiek vagy "titokzsidók"? ( Memento of the original from March 16, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. published in the Szombat magazine, September 2006.
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- Viktor Karády: Túlélők és újrakezdők. Fejezetek a magyar zsidóság szociológiájából 1945 után . Múlt és Jövő Alapítvány, Budapest 2002, ISBN 963-9171-87-5 .
- György Perczel (Ed.): Magyarország társadalmi - gazdasági földrajza . ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, Budapest 1996, ISBN 963-463-079-0 .
- Központi Statisztikai Hivatal (Ed.): 2001, évi népszámlálás . KSH, Budapest 2001, ISBN 963-215-412-6 .
Web links
The sources given represent mainly the information base of the original article in the Hungarian Wikipedia.