Treverer

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Reconstructed Treverian hilltop settlement Altburg (approx. 300–50 BC)
Treverian gold stater

The Treveri ( Latin Treveri , Gallic Treviri, Treveri ) were a tribe of the Celts in northeastern Gaul with contacts to the right bank of the Rhine . According to Tacitus , the Treveri tried to differentiate themselves from the rest of the Gauls by tracing their origins back to Germanic roots.

The tribal area extended, after De bello Gallico by Gaius Iulius Caesar , from the Rhine to the land of the Remer . The Meuse formed the western border . The northern border was the Vinxtbach , north of it the Eburonen and Condruser settled , they were clientes of the Treveri. Caesar mentions no fortified place ( oppidum ) or the main place of the Treveri in his work . Augusta Treverorum (city of Augustus in the land of the Treveri, today's Trier ), did not rise to the capital of the Treveri until the provincial Roman times.

Origin of name

The common name of the Treverer comes from Cuno from tre ( reinforcement particle ) and vero , the Cymric gwyr (strong, efficient).

Xavier Delamarre quotes Rudolf Thurneysen , who suggested the Celtic trē-uer-o- after trevuero- , with the components trē- < * trei- "through" (compare Latin trāns ) and ver-o "to go over a river, drive “To reconstruct . The name Treverer would actually mean “the drivers” because this tribe allowed the Moselle to be crossed. This can also explain the existence of the ford goddess Ritona and the chapel for the Uorioni deo . The same root word also existed in the Old Irish treóir (< trē-u̯ori ) "guidance through a ford", "place where the river is crossed".

The language element ver / var- is Indo-Germanic and might mean “stream” or “river” (compare Sanskrit vār “water” or Old Norse vari ). This word is common in France in river names such as le Var, la Vire or la Vière and as part of Louviers , Reviers, Haut-Laviers and Verviers . The city of Horbourg-Wihr in Alsace is a former Argento-varia .

Early Celtic way of life

Palisade fortification in the reconstructed Treverian settlement Altburg

According to modern knowledge, the history of the Celts extends at least to the 6th century BC. BC back. The Treverians built their houses from clay and wattle on the basis of a wooden structure. These houses had a shelf life of possibly a generation or two .

The Treverians settled in single farmsteads and small settlements. In addition, there were numerous fortified hill settlements in the late Latène period - probably court communities of the upper class - and five oppida: the Martberg on the Lower Moselle , Wallendorf on the Sauer , Otzenhausen in the Hunsrück , Kastel on the Saar and the Titelberg in Luxembourg. The later main town of the tribe - Augusta Treverorum , today's Trier - seems, according to archaeological evidence, to have received its importance only with the establishment of the Roman provinces in northeastern Gaul. Simultaneously with the rise of Trier, there was a considerable loss of importance of the other oppida, whose heyday ended at the turn of the century .

Caesar particularly emphasizes the cavalry of the Treveri in De bello Gallico .

History

Role in Caesar's Gallic War

For the first time, the Treveri are in historical literary sources by Gaius Iulius Caesar for the year 58 BC. Mentioned. At that time, when Caesar had started his Gallic War , they informed the Roman general of a new arrival of the Suebi for Ariovistus . Perhaps her connection to the Haeduern, which was oppressed by the Suebi multitudes at that time, played a decisive role. At Caesar's request they sent him in 57 BC A contingent of their cavalry, whose great effectiveness they owed great war successes as well as their infantry, for the fight against the Belgians . But when the battle of the Sambre against the Nervier seemed to end with a defeat for the Romans, the Treverian riders sought the distance. So the people of Caesar should now have appeared to be unreliable.

In the period that followed, the Treverians were even more hostile to Rome. Caesar sent in 56 BC His legate Titus Labienus to them to keep the Belgians quiet. After Caesar 55 BC. Having defeated the Tenkeri and Usipeter who had invaded Gaul , he first crossed the Rhine to intimidate the Teutons , and this he perhaps did from the Treveri region. During the preparations for the second campaign against Britain in 54 BC. He went personally to the Treverians, whose attitude seemed too dubious to him to regulate the conditions there in his mind. At that time, two influential nobles, Indutiomarus , who was hostile to Rome, and his son-in-law Cingetorix , who was considered friendly to Rome , fought over the priority of honor. Caesar settled this dispute without a fight in favor of Cingetorix and took 200 people counted to the party of Indutiomarus, including his son and relatives, as hostages. So the Roman enemy should be forced to stand still.

Indutiomarus then persuaded leaders of other Gallic tribes hostile to Rome, such as Ambiorix , King of the Eburones , to attack the in the winter of 54/53 BC. Roman armies distributed in various camps. While Ambiorix's attack succeeded, that on Quintus Tullius Cicero's camp failed . When Indutiomarus learned of the failure, he broke off the attack he had undertaken on Titus Labienus, who was encamped with the Remern near the Treveri border. He was unable to win over the Germanic tribes on the other side of the Rhine to send auxiliary troops, but he received an influx of numerous refugees from Gallic tribes, disempowered Cingetorix and called for war against the Romans. Meanwhile, Indutiomarus' renewed attack on Labienus failed and he was caught on the run and killed.

53 BC The relatives of Indutiomarus took over power among the Treveri and allied themselves with Ambiorix and several tribes on the right bank of the Rhine. Before the arrival of the Germanic auxiliaries, they started an offensive against Labienus. But this succeeded before the unification of the opposing troops a victory against the Treverer, who had to submit. Cingetorix was placed at the head of the tribe as the leader of the party loyal to Rome. The subsequent second crossing of the Rhine from Caesar to Germania was made safely from the area of ​​the Treveri.

As Vercingetorix 52 BC BC organized and led the great uprising of numerous Gallic peoples against Caesar, the Treveri did not take part because they were exposed to pressure from the Germanic tribes. But they granted asylum to one of the leaders of the rebellious Haedu, Surus , to whom they 51 BC. Incited to further resistance against the Romans. Again it was Labienus who defeated the Treverians despite their support through Germanic troops. Towards the end of his warlike activities in Gaul, Caesar organized 50 BC An extensive army show on the border of the Treveri territory. This parade was intended as a show of power against the Treverians, but it was also intended to frighten the Teutons.

Another story from Augustus to Nero

From 39–37 BC Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa , the close confidante of Emperor Augustus , acted for the first time as governor of Gaul and suppressed a revolt by Gallic tribes, in which the Treveri probably also took part, because Agrippa crossed the Rhine in connection with the battles that took place. 29 BC The Treveri rebelled again and received help from the Germans on the right bank of the Rhine. Their revolt was probably connected with a simultaneous attempted insurrection by Gallic peoples residing in the far north, such as the Morinians . Marcus Nonius Gallus defeated the Treveri and was proclaimed emperor for this achievement .

During his second governorship, Agrippa led around 19 BC. In Gaul, including in the Treveri area, far-reaching regulations of an administrative and military strategic nature were implemented. From now on the Treveri were romanised more and more. As part of the redistribution of Gaul under Augustus, the Treveri area was incorporated into the province of Gallia Belgica . However, an area east of the Rhine that had been detached from its previous territory came under direct Roman army administration. Agrippa also laid out his own road network in Gaul, building one of the highways from Lugdunum (now Lyon ) across the Trier Valley to Cologne . While Caesar does not mention any Oppida of the Treveri, it was not until the Roman rule Augusta Treverorum (today Trier ) as their main town probably between about 19 and 12 BC. Founded. It should serve the Romans as an important station for future attacks on the Teutons and as an administrative center for the Treveri tribe. Shortly before the Roman Trier was built, an Alenkastell was built near it. The geographer Pomponius Mela mentioned Augusta Treverorum as the first author around 44 AD and at that time already described it as a wealthy and representative city for the Belgians. In the period that followed, the city remained very closely linked to the civitas Treverorum .

Caesar or Augustus probably granted the Treveri and Leuki peoples who were exposed to the Teutons and the Rhine border a privileged position among the Gallic tribes, so that both now had the status of a civitas libera . Emperor Tiberius is likely to have downgraded the Treverians in 17 AD as part of the reorganization of the army contingents on the Rhine to a lower-ranking, tributary civitas foederata and deprived them of tax privileges. According to the report of the Roman historian Tacitus, they now had to pay continuous taxes and set up and maintain a military cavalry unit, the ala Treverorum , which the Romans could make available if necessary .

Probably out of dissatisfaction with the high tax burden, the Treveri under Iulius Florus and the Haedu under Iulius Sacrovir rehearsed the revolt against the Romans in AD 21 . Both leaders belonged to the noble families of their tribes and a member of their ancestors had been granted Roman citizenship early on because of his merits . Florus led the apostasy movement first among his people, then in Belgian Gaul. In doing so, he could rely on indebted people and clients as a following; he also tried to win soldiers from ala Treverorum for his revolt. But as in Caesar's time, there was rivalry within the Treveri. Florus had the Rome loyal Treverer Iulius Indus as an enemy, who defeated the as yet unorganized rebels in the Ardennes forest , whereupon Florus committed suicide. The uprising of the Sacrovir was also soon put down.

According to the epigraphic evidence, the civitas Treverorum was a unit integrated into the Roman Empire . It is possible that the capital of the Treveri was given the status of a colonia and Latin law under Emperor Claudius , and its magistrates, such as the Decurions , were granted Roman citizenship. The members of the other civitas, however, are likely to have had a peregrine legal status .

Role in the Roman battles for succession after Nero's death; Participation in the Batavian uprising

The Treveri were also caught up in the turmoil of Roman politics after the death of Emperor Nero (June 68). In March 68, Gaius Iulius Vindex , the governor of the province of Gallia Lugdunensis , instigated a revolt against Nero and persuaded Galba , governor of Hispania Tarraconensis , to take over the leadership of the revolt. The Gallic tribes settling on the Rhine, such as the Treveri and Lingons , wanted nothing to do with participating in the uprising. Instead, the Treveri sided with Lucius Verginius Rufus, who was charged with fighting the Galba . Galba retained the upper hand and was proclaimed emperor on June 8, 68. He then punished the Treveri and other hostile civitates .

When, after Galba's assassination (January 15, 69), Otho became the new emperor and immediately received a competitor in Vitellius , who was also proclaimed emperor by the Roman legions stationed in Germania , the Treveri supported Vitellius in this power struggle. The Procurator of the Province of Belgica , Pompeius Propinquus , who resides in Augusta Treverorum , was killed. The noble Treveri Iulius Classicus commanded the ala Treverorum and was sent with other troops to Gallia Narbonensis to protect this province from attacks by the Othonians, but suffered a defeat. Another leader of the Treveri, Alpinius Montanus , supported the Vitellians militarily in the battle of Cremona.

After his auxiliary troops had been sent back to the Rhine, Vitellius, who had prevailed against Otho in April 69, faced a new rival to the throne through Vespasian's proclamation as emperor (July 1, 69). Iulius Civilis , a distinguished Batavian , instigated an uprising against Vitellius in August 69 , but also against Roman rule in general. Iulius Classicus fought with his ala Treverorum in the army of the legate Munius Lupercus against Civilis, but the Treverian units fled during the battle. As a result, the Treveri had to endure various hostilities on the part of the civilis.

Soon, however, Civilis tried to get the Treverians on his side. An initial agreement was reached with Montanus. Civilis also conducted secret negotiations with Julius Classicus, as a result of which Classicus allied himself with him; and Iulius Tutor and the lingone Iulius Sabinus also joined the pact. At a meeting of the representatives of the various tribes in Cologne, the agreements were sealed; Also on this occasion the realization of an independent Gaul is said to have been discussed.

Perhaps Iulius Classicus wanted to appear as Roman imperial pretender himself after Vitellius' death in December 69. When the Roman legate Gaius Dillius Vocula marched up to relieve the Vetera (near today's Xanten ), besieged for the second time by Civilis , Classicus and Tutor went over to the Gallic rebels and sent an assassin who killed Dillius Vocula. The Roman legions stationed in Bonn and Neuss surrendered and had to go as prisoners to Augusta Treverorum.

In 70 AD, Quintus Petilius Cerialis , a confidante of Vespasian, set out from Italy with a strong force to suppress the uprising. In response to this news, the Remer advised the Gallic tribes to make peace, but especially the youthful and distinguished Treveri Iulius Valentinus advocated the continuation of the war. However, Tutor suffered a defeat at the mouth of the Nahe , which the Treverians received with dismay. The two captured legions also managed to free themselves, whereupon they made their way to Metz . Valentinus, who held Rigodulum (today Riol ), also lost a battle against Petilius Cerialis and was taken prisoner. As a result, Cerialis was able to take Augusta Treverorum, although Tutor and Civilis offered further resistance. The Treveri surrendered, which is why their main town was spared. According to Tacitus' report, not only Classicus and Tutor, but also 113 other Treverian nobles, including Alpinius Montanus, moved with Civilis to the Bataverland; they probably sought refuge in the “free” Germania. After the Roman victory, the Treverian cavalry unit was disbanded; their soldiers now had to serve with other auxiliaries. The tribal aristocracy was completely reorganized. The Treveri no longer played a political role.

History from the Flavian emperors to late antiquity

The emperors from the Flavian dynasty (Vespasian to Domitian ), who ruled until 96 AD , apparently harbored a grudge against the Treveri. So far, no Treverians have been used in military service during their rule. Earlier Augustus had ordered the establishment of military districts in the east of their original tribal area; this territory, a strip of land about 70 km wide, was finally separated by Domitian towards the end of the 1st century and incorporated into the province of Germania superior . With this loss of territory, the Treveri lost their connection to the Rhine.

In the subsequent phase of increased Romanization of the West, however, the Treveri experienced a peaceful period of prosperity that lasted over 150 years. For example, in Augusta Treverorum, an amphitheater , the Barbarathermen , an Asklepios temple and the Lenus Mars temple were built in the early 2nd century . In the 2nd century there was also the strongest settlement in the country. Treverian businessmen, who, like large landowners, belonged to a new bourgeois elite, were initially to be found throughout Gaul and after the middle of the 2nd century expanded their economic activities to include larger parts of the Roman Empire . Proof of prosperity are, among other things, luxurious grave monuments and magnificent villas. On inscriptions, members of the tribe were still referred to as Treverian citizens ( civis Trever ), although they had lost their political independence. In the 2nd or early 3rd century, Augusta Treverorum moved up to the capital of the province of Gallia Belgica instead of Reims . Furthermore, two own cohorts of Treveri were created again. The establishment of these military units may have been ordered by Emperor Caracalla ; they were stationed in the Taunus fortifications in Zugmantel and Holzhausen until the fall of the Limes . People from the lower classes also benefited from the Constitutio Antoniniana decreed by Caracalla 212 .

Around the middle of the 3rd century, devastating incursions by Germanic troops shook the land of the Treveri. At about the same time, the phase of building magnificent tombs and the long-distance trade operated by Treverian merchants gradually ended. During the later period of the Gallic Empire , Augusta Treverorum was probably its capital in the early 270s. Individual groups of Franks and Alemanni plundered the metropolis soon after the death of Emperor Aurelian in 275, but also devastated the rest of the Treveri land. In the further late antiquity , Roman Trier played a far more important role than the tribe of Treveri; almost all mentions of the Treveri from this time are to be understood as such of their capital.

Culture and economy

The Celtic ring wall of Otzenhausen

The Treveri knew three social classes: the nobility , the common people and the Ambacten (slaves) . There was a money economy and a division of labor. In particular, the fortified cities, the so-called Oppida , were important as handicraft and trading centers of the late Latène period. Supra-regional trade, including with the Mediterranean region, has been proven by finds.

The economic basis of the Treverians was agriculture . They cultivated wheat and barley , and since the 1st century AD, they have also grown wine, and raised horses and sheep. The so-called long wall district north of Roman Trier was probably a fenced-in imperial stud farm about 220 km 2 in size. Textile production and the cloth trade developed from wool production. Other branches of industry were the production of ceramics (including so-called Trier Sigillata tablets) and metal processing .

According to recent research, the pre-Roman Celtic population of Rheinhessen also belonged to the Treverians. This is known as the Aresaken and is considered a sub-tribe or an ethnic group within the main tribe that was organized in the form of a pagus . The center of this settlement area of ​​the Treveri was probably the oppidum on the Donnersberg in the northern Palatinate mountains.

religion

The Treveri were originally polytheists and probably had a belief similar to that of the other Celtic tribes . After the Roman conquest, many of their deities were equated with the Roman gods (" Interpretatio Romana ") or connected. The tribal god Mars Lenus and Ancamna , Mercurius and Rosmerta , Iupiter Optimus Maximus , Apollon ( Grannus ) and Sirona , Intarabus and Minerva are among the most revered deities in the Treveri region . Deities that are only attested by the Treverians are, among others, Intarabus, Inciona , Veraudunus , Ritona and the Xulsigiae .

Three important pagan sanctuaries in the immediate vicinity of Trier are known from Roman times: the temple district in the Altbachtal , the nearby sanctuary Am Herrenbrünnchen and the important Lenus Mars sanctuary on the left bank of the Moselle. Another important temple district is on the Martberg near the Moselle town of Pomerania . Like most temples, this was first built in Roman times, as this type of religious practice was mainly adopted by the Romans. In the rural area there were spring sanctuaries and pilgrim sanctuaries , for example in Heckenmünster , temples in smaller settlements ( Belginum , Tawern ), sanctuaries in villas and mountain temples such as the one on the Burgkopf . Jupiter's giant columns show a special combination of Gallic and Roman elements .

Landscape-related deities are also known, such as Ardbinna , who probably embodies the Ardennes and is attested on an inscription in Gey .

Timetable

  • around 1200 BC BC - the urn field culture spreads in the Eifel - Moselle region ;
  • from approx. 750 BC Until the middle of the 6th century BC - Iron Age, the urnfield culture shaped Laufelder culture or Laufelder group in the Hunsrück- Eifel area;
  • from 2nd half of the 6th century BC Until the middle of the 3rd century BC - Hunsrück-Eifel-Kultur (HEK), Late Hallstatt period older HEK (HEK IA-IB), from 5th century BC Chr. Parallel to Frühlatènekultur Younger HEK (HEK IIA1, IIA2, IIA3 and IIB). In the older HEK state graves with four-wheeled chariots, bronze situla and lance additions ( Bell's chariot grave ), in the younger HEK state graves with sword additions, gold jewelery and southern imports (decision hill 6, Hoppstädten-Weiersbach hill 2, Remmesweiler, Schwarzenbach grave 2, Weiskirchen hill 3).
  • late 3rd to 2nd century BC - In spite of the simultaneous Celtic migrations, the continuity of the population is proven by finds from grave fields (Hoppstädten, Wederath) and fortifications;
  • 2nd half of the 2nd century BC Until 2nd half of the 1st century BC - with Treverian Oppida (central settlements), for example Martberg , Otzenhausen , Kastel , Wallendorf , Donnersberg and Titelberg as well as fortified chiefs' courts, differentiated handicrafts, coin economy and intra-Celtic trade, the Treverians, like the entire Celtic culture, experience a bloom;
  • 58 BC Chr. - 51 BC BC - Gallic War , submission by Caesar and beginning of Romanization, first mention of the Treveri as civitas in Caesar's first book De bello Gallico
  • 58 BC - Treverian ambassadors report to Caesar that 100 Gaue (pagi) of the Suebi, who belong to the Germans on the right bank of the Rhine, want to cross the Rhine;
  • 54 BC - Participation in the revolt of the Eburon king Ambiorix ;
  • 53 BC - The Treveri prince or king Indutiomarus attacks a Caesar's winter camp and is killed in the process, Titus Labienus subjugates the Treverian civitas, the son-in-law of Indutiomarus, the Rome-friendly Cingetorix , takes over the rule;
  • 52 BC BC - Battles of the Treveri against the Suebi ;
  • 51 BC BC - Titus Labienus's equestrian meeting with Treverian associations;
  • 30/29 BC BC - Treverer revolt against the Romans; struck down by Marcus Nonius Gallus ;
  • 16 BC BC - Foundation of Augusta Treverorum under Emperor Augustus ;
  • AD 21 - failed uprising of the Sacrovir
  • 68 - 70 AD - failed revolt under Iulius Classicus against the Romans ( Batavian revolt ).

Remarks

  1. ↑ Tacitus , Germania 28; Strabon 4,3,4.
  2. ↑ Caesar , De bello Gallico Book III, 11: (...) Treveros, qui proximi flumini Rheno sunt. ("The Treverians who live on the nearby Rhine.")
  3. ↑ Caesar, De bello Gallico Book V, 3 quae ingenti magnitudine per medios fines Treverorum a flumine Rheno ad initium Remorum pertinet (“[The Ardennes], which extends on an enormous size through the central area of ​​the Treverer from the Rhine to the area of ​​the Remer expand. ")
  4. ↑ Quoted from a travel guide from 1888 , Cuno remains unidentified
  5. ↑ Rudolf Thurneysen: Rheinisches Museum 84, pp. 188–192. In: Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise . editions errance , 2003, p. 300.
  6. ↑ According to the exhibits and a guided tour by a historian researching Treveri in the Landesmuseum Trier (autumn 2004).
  7. ↑ Caesar, De bello Gallico Book V, 3: Haec civitas longe plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet ("This tribe can do most with its cavalry in all of Gaul.")
  8. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 1, 27, 3.
  9. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 37, 1.
  10. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 2, 24, 4 f.
  11. ^ A b Gerhard Dobesch:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 175.
  12. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 3, 11, 1.
  13. ↑ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 3, 2 and 5, 4, 3 f ..
  14. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 3, 2-4, 6.
  15. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 26, 2.
  16. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 47, 4 f .; Cassius Dio , Roman History 40, 11, 1 f.
  17. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 53, 2.
  18. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 55, 1-4.
  19. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 5, 56, 1-58, 6.
  20. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 6, 2, 1-3.
  21. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 6, 7, 3-8, 9.
  22. ↑ Caesar, De bello Gallico 6, 9, 1-5; on this Gerhard Dobesch:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 176.
  23. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 7, 63, 7.
  24. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 8, 45, 1.
  25. ^ Caesar, De bello Gallico 8, 52, 1.
  26. ↑ Cassius Dio, Römische Geschichte 48, 49, 3; Reinhold Rau: Treveri. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume VI A, 2, Stuttgart 1937, Sp. 2306.
  27. ↑ Cassius Dio, Roman History 51, 20, 5 and 51, 21, 6.
  28. ↑ CIL 9, 2642
  29. ^ Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 177.
  30. ^ Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 178 .; Reinhold Rau: Treveri. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Volume VI A, 2, Stuttgart 1937, Sp. 2307.
  31. ^ Strabo , Geographika 4, 6, 11.
  32. ^ Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 178.
  33. ↑ Pomponius Mela, De chorographia 3, 30.
  34. ↑ Compare Pliny the Elder , Naturalis historia 4, 106: Leuci liberi, Treveri liberi antea et Lingones foederati, Remi foederati .
  35. ↑ Tacitus, Annals 3, 40 and 3, 42.
  36. ^ Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 179.
  37. ↑ Tacitus, Annalen 3, 40-42; Velleius Paterculus , Historia Romana 2, 129, 3.
  38. ^ Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 180.
  39. ^ Tacitus, Histories 1, 51 and 4, 69.
  40. ^ Tacitus, Historien 1, 53.
  41. ^ Tacitus, Histories 1, 57 and 1, 63.
  42. ^ Tacitus, Historien 1, 58.
  43. ↑ Tacitus, Historien 2, 14 f. and 2, 28.
  44. ^ Tacitus, Historien 3, 35.
  45. ^ Tacitus, Historien 4, 18.
  46. ↑ Tacitus, Histories 4, 28 and 4, 37.
  47. ^ Tacitus, Historien 4,32.
  48. ^ Tacitus, Historien 4, 55.
  49. ^ Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 181.
  50. ^ Tacitus, Histories 4, 57 and 4, 59.
  51. ↑ Tacitus, Historien 4, 62 f.
  52. ↑ Tacitus, Historien 4, 67 ff.
  53. ↑ Tacitus, Historien 4, 70 f.
  54. ↑ Tacitus, Historien 4, 75-78; Cassius Dio, Roman History 66, 3, 3.
  55. ^ Tacitus, Historien 5, 19 f.
  56. ^ A b c Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , p. 182.
  57. ^ Hans Hubert Anton:  Treverer. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 31, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2006, ISBN 3-11-018386-2 , pp. 182-183.
  58. ↑ CIL 13, 07848 Deae Ardbi / nnae

swell

  • Caesar, De bello Gallico I 37; II 24; III 11; IV 6, 10; V 2-4, 24, 47, 53, 55, 58; VI 2, 3, 5-9, 29, 32, 44; VII 63.

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