Dād

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The letter Ḍād in isolated form

Ḍād ( Arabic ضاد, DMG ḍād orحرف الضاد, DMG ḥarf aḍ-ḍād 'the letter Ḍād'; in isolated formض; transliterated as ⟨ D ⟩) is the 15th letter of the Arabic alphabet . It is one of the four emphatic consonants of Arabic and one of the fourteen sun letters . Ḍād is one of the six youngest letters of the Arabic alphabet and was only developed in Islamic times. The number 800 is assigned to him in Abdschad .

The pronunciation of the phoneme associated with Ḍād / ḍ /, Arabicصوت الضاد, DMG ṣawt aḍ-ḍād 'the Ḍād sound', is usually given in modern high-level Arabic as a pharyngealized or velarized voiced alveolar plosive ( IPA : [ dˁ ] or [ dˠ ]), but there are historical and dialect deviations from this debate. According to the opinion of numerous scholars, Ḍād was once articulated laterally or laterally - a characteristic that gave Arabic the nickname “language of Ḍād”. References to this pronunciation can be found in South Arabic dialects as well as in Arabic loanwords in Spanish and Indonesian.

In the Arabic alphabets of other languages, Ḍād usually only occurs in loan words, without representing its own phoneme.

shape

Forms of Ḍād
location shape example
initial ﺿـ ضمة / ḍamma
medial ـﻀـ رافضة / rāfiḍa
final ـﺾ الأبيض / al-Ubayyiḍ
isolated ﺽ فرض / farḍ

  • Spelling of the Ḍād (isolated form)

  • Ḍād in the Maghribi style (isolated form, c. 980)

  • initial (red), medial (green) and final (blue) Ḍād connected

  • The word حضرة / ḥaḍra with Ḍād-Rāʾ ligature and point in the Ḍād loop

Like most Arabic letters, Ḍād appears in four different forms, depending on its position in the word and the characters surrounding it: initial, medial, final and isolated. Essential in the appearance of the four emphatic consonants Ḍād, Ṣād (ص), Ṭāʾ (ط) and Ẓāʾ (ظ) is a loop on the side. With Ḍād, a small hook follows the loop upwards on the left, and a single point is placed over the loop. If Ḍād is final or isolated, the hook merges into a concluding, upwardly open semicircular arc, which is largely below the baseline . With the initial Ḍād to the left, with the final Ḍād from the right and with the medial Ḍād on both sides, the character on the baseline is connected to the neighboring letter.

From Ṣād, Ḍād differs only in the point above. Instead of the point above, in Arabic manuscripts in the isolated and final Ḍād one sometimes encounters a smear at the end of the arc, in Maghrebian manuscripts the point can sometimes be found within the loop.

The form of Ṣād and Ḍād in the Maghribi style differs from the other writing styles due to the lack of a hook after the loop. With some of the following letters, Ḍād can be combined to form a ligature .

Origins of the sign

The letter Sad in the Nabataean script

The most common theory on the origin of the Arabic script describes it as a further development of the Nabataean script , which in turn arose from the Aramaic script . According to this assumption, one of the 22 characters of the Nabataean script, the Sad, became the Arabic Ṣād, one of the characters of the early Arabic alphabet. However, since Arabic has 28 consonantic phonemes , different sounds were assigned to some characters, such as the rasm - the letter without diacritical marks - of the Ṣād also the phoneme / ḍ /.

The word فاضربوا / fa-ḍribū  / 'and beat' in the Koranic sura al-Anfāl in a manuscript from the late 8th century: Ḍād is the stretched, angular third character from the right, the diacritical point appears as a narrow line

As a result of the determination of the text of the Koran , efforts were made to avoid ambiguities by adding diacritics. Establishing the system ofإعجام / iʿǧām (putting diacritical points above or below the rasm) is usually attributed to al-Hajjaj ibn Yūsuf , governor of the Umayyad caliphate in the early 8th century . According to the orientalist Theodor Nöldeke , the resulting grapheme Ḍād was next to Ẓāʾ (ظ) and Qāf (ق) “Probably” one of the last letters to receive its diacritical point. Nonetheless, even with Ḍād, dotting was "quite well [...] used" as early as the first half of the 2nd century after the hijra (up to approx. 767 AD).

The resulting six additional letters are called روادف / rawādif  / denotes 'descendants', their relatively young age can also be read from their ranking in the Abdschad , where they were assigned the highest numerical values ​​in the lower positions: the Ḍād the value 800 (in the deviating Abdschad ranking in the Maghreb, however, the value 90 ). Ḍād slipped forward to the 15th position in the Arabic alphabet, as the usual sorting according to the numerical value was no longer used in favor of sorting based on the shape of the characters. Ḍād now ranks immediately after Ṣād (ص) and before Ṭāʾ (ط).

Calligraphic representation of the Ḍād

The basis of Arabic calligraphy are the proportions and regularities established by Ibn Muqla in the 10th century, which "have remained trend-setting to this day". The basis of Ibn Muqla's reflections is a diamond-shaped point set by the Qalam (نقطة / nuqṭa ) and a circle (دائرة / dāʾira ) with the diameter of the length of the alif (ا), the first letter in the Arabic alphabet.

Ideal proportions in the rasm of the letters Ṣād and Ḍād according to Ibn Muqla

Ibn Muqla's statements have only been handed down in fragments and are sometimes contradicting: In one place he speaks of three, in other places of four lines in the rasm of Ṣād and Ḍād, in one description of only arcuate ones, in other records of arcuate, horizontal, vertical and backward ( against the actual writing direction from right to left). What they have in common is that the sign from the "Ṣād head" on the right and the bow in the form of the letter Nūn (ن) on the left.

According to Ahmad Maher Rayef, the Ṣād head comprises a right-angled triangle with the hypotenuse as a horizontal line (called the line type) in the last stage of development of Ibn Muqla's theory of proportionمنسطح / munsaṭiḥ  / 'flat'), whereby the right leg (منكب / munkabb  / '(down to the right) bent') is half as long as the left one (مستلق / mustalqin  / '(to the bottom left) lying'). Nūn in turn corresponds to a semicircle with the diameter of the Alif length, in front of which (right)ترويس / tarwīs , a serif with the height of a nuqṭa , and the inإرسالة / irsāla ends, the letting out of the arc with the length of a seventh of the alif. The base line of the Ṣād head should be half as long as the nūn bow. However , a few decades after Ibn Muqla, the Brothers of Purity provided that the Ṣād head should be as wide as Alif, with the gap in the Ṣād head being one eighth of the height of Alif.

The word حض / ḥaḍḍa  / '(he) urged' in Ruqʿa style with a hook at the end instead of a point above

In the different calligraphic tradition of the Maghreb , the Ṣād head has an elliptical shape, and the "exaggerated" extension of the nūn arc is typical. In the Ruqʿa style, the “head” is often slightly above the actual baseline; As in the Maghribi style, the point of the Ḍād in the isolated and final form can be replaced by a smear or additional hook.

According to نظام التشابه / niẓām at-tašābuh  / 'rule of similarity', the nūn bow is also found in the Qāf (ق), Sīn (س), Šīn (ش), Yāʾ (ي) and Alif maqṣūra (ى) again, the Ṣād head also in the Ṭāʾ (ط) and Ẓāʾ (ظ). In Ibn al-Bawwāb's Muhaqqaq style, however, the “head” in Ṣād and dād has more height than in Ṭāʾ and Ẓāʾ, and here the base line is not completely straight, but slightly concave. The proportion between the lengths of mustalqin , munkabb and munsaṭiḥ is 3: 2: 4 with a height of two units.

The cut of the tip of the Qalam used also contributes to the ideal appearance of the manuscript , which determines the width of the arcs and lines.

pronunciation

ضد / ḍidda  / 'against'
فضي / fiḍḍī  / 'silver'
أرض / arḍ  / 'ground'


Pronunciation examples (male speaker from Tiznit )

Ḍād stands in Modern Standard Arabic for an emphatic / d / - a voiced alveolar or apico - dental plosive with a secondary articulation , which in Semitic studies is referred to as " emphasis ". According to the linguist Terence Frederick Mitchell, when the sound is articulated, this "emphasis" is characterized - differently in modern Arabic than, for example, in the Ethiosemitic languages , where they are realized as ejectives - when the sound is articulated by a plate-shaped, wide tongue, making the rearmost part of the tongue to the velum is lifted ( velarization ) and a pharyngeal constriction arises ( pharyngealization ). In addition, the lips can be slightly rounded with emphatic sounds. Aharon Dolgopolsky, on the other hand, recognized a retraction of the rearmost part of the tongue towards the uvula ( uvularization ) and the back wall of the pharynx (pharyngealization) in emphatic sounds . Ḍād is the emphatic counterpart to Dāl (د) as well as the voiced counterpart to the emphatic Ṭāʾ (ط).

The emphatic component of Ḍād has an effect on the sounds surrounding it in specific cases: The infix -ta- of the VIIIth verb stem after Ḍād becomes emphatic -ṭa- as the first radical (example:اضطجع / iḍṭaǧaʿa  / 'lie down'). A complementary phenomenon of the emphatic consonants is the articulation of the surrounding vowels as lower and lower allophones .

Ḍād is a sun letter , that is, the preceding definite article al- is assimilated to aḍ- (example:الضيف / aḍ-ḍaif  / 'the guest').

Ḍād among Arabic grammarians

The first division of the sounds of Arabic according to theirs مخرج / maḫraǧ  / 'place of articulation' is found in al-Farāhīdīs Kitāb al-ʿAin (8th century). Ḍād applies here together with Šīn (ش) and Ǧīm (ج) as شجرية / Šaǧrīya , which proved to be defined as difficult: The Orientalist Henri meat described šaǧrīya in the Encyclopaedia of Islam as " commissure of the lips " (German: " commissure of the lips"), the linguist Richard Lepsius as "formed between the jawbone and molars ". AA al-Nassir equates šaǧrīya with the hard palate .

Another, more detailed study of the Arabic phonemes can be found in Sībawaihs al-Kitāb , where - also in the 8th century - the place of articulation of the Ḍād is described as follows:

« ومن بين أول حافة اللسان وما يليه من الأضراس مخرج الضاد »

"  Wa-min baina auwal ḥāffat al-lisān wa-mā yalīhi min al-aḍrās maḫraǧ aḍ-ḍād  "

"And between the first part of the edge of the tongue and the adjacent molars is the place of articulation of the Ḍād"

- Sībawaih : al-Kitāb

Ḍād applies here as well as Lām (ل) as حرف حافة اللسان / ḥarf ḥāffat al-lisān  / ' tongue margin letter ', but should be articulated a little deeper than Lām. Sībawaih also had a different, unspecified, but unacceptable pronunciation asضاد ضعيفة / ḍād ḍaʿīfa  / 'weak Ḍād', the exact sound value of which has not been finally clarified. About 500 years after Sībawaih, Ibn Yaʿīsch described the “weak Ḍād” in the pronunciation of some foreigners as corresponding to the Ṭāʾ .

Sībawaih placed Ḍād in the group of مجهورة / maǧhūra  / are assigned to consonants that have been interpreted by various orientalists as "voiced" and, according to Sībawaih, are characterized by the fact that they cannot be whispered. Furthermore, Ḍād is considered in his system asرخوة / riḫwa  / 'loose, loose, soft', interpreted by Lepsius as “ fricative ”. The group of the four emphatic phonemes coincides with theمطبقة / muṭbaqa  / 'closed' consonants of Sībawaihs, which together with the uvulars form the group ofمستعلية / mustaʿlīya  / form 'enhancing' consonants, which influence the coloring of the vowels.

Later authors usually repeated the definitions established by Sībawaih, but as a result of the coincidence of the phonemes / ḍ / and / Dial / in Arabic dialects there was a renewed interest in arabād among Arabic grammarians: more emerged between the 10th and 18th centuries than 30 treatises on its distinction from Ẓāʾ . The earliest of these writings are to be understood as an attempt to preserve the language of Islam and to help readers distinguish the two phonemes. Later works from this genre were more philological or focused on the correct recitation of the Koran. In one of the philological texts written by Ibn Suhail in the 11th century, the pronunciation of Ḍād is described as coming from the left or right corner of the mouth with the middle of the tongue.

The Ḍād of Modern Standard Arabic, in contrast to the "classical" Ḍād, is not considered riḫwa , but ratherشديدة / šadīda  / 'hard, plosive'. Unlike Modern Standard Arabic, the Classical Arabic described by Sībawaih had no non-emphatic counterpart to Ḍād. The Arabist Kees Versteegh argues that / ḍ / is a phoneme sui generis , while Edward Y. Odisho argues that Sībawaih's assignments are incorrect.

« ولولا الإطباق لصارت الطاء دالا والصاد سينا ​​والظاء ذالا ولخرجت الضاد من الكلام لأنه لغعاس شيء من مووس شيء من »

«  Wa-laulā l-iṭbāq la-ṣārat aṭ-ṭāʾ dālan wa-ṣ-ṣād sīnan wa-ẓ-ẓāʾ ḏālan wa-la-ḫaraǧat aḍ-ḍād min al-kalām li-annahu laisa šuhā min mauḍiġihā  »

"And if there weren't any emphasis, the Ṭāʾ would become a Dāl and the Ṣād a Sīn and the Ẓāʾ a Ḏāl and Ḍād would disappear from the language, since no other sound is in the same place"

- Sībawaih : al-Kitāb

The characteristics of the Ḍād described by Sībawaih, as well as the difficulty of non-Arabs in correctly articulating the sound, contributed to the fact that the Arabic language became known as لغة الضاد / luġat aḍ-ḍād  / 'language of Ḍād' and the Arabs asالمتكلمون بالضاد / al-mutakallimūn bi-ḍ-ḍād  / 'Ḍād-speaker' andأهل الضاد / ahl aḍ-ḍād  / 'People of Ḍād' became known. Ibn Jinnī , a grammarian of the 10th century, wrote that / ḍ / belonged to the Arabs alone and could hardly be found in the language of the ʿAdscham , around 1400 Ibn al-Jazarii described / ḍ / as the most difficult of the Arabic language sounds. The phoneme / ḍ / - in fact one of the least common in the Arabic language - became “ an authenticating emblem, a border guard and a defining symbol of group identity ” ( Yasir Suleiman , German: “an authenticating emblem, a border guard and a defining symbol of group identity ”).

Ḍād in the recitation of the Koran

The orthoepic rules of the Tadschwīd , the ritual, careful recitation of the Koran , are based on the alsإسناد / Isnād denoted the oral chain of tradition since the Prophet Mohammed . The original pronunciation of Ḍād, revealed by Allah , is said to have been handed down to the present day regardless of dialectical and high-level language changes.

These rules allow articulating the Ḍād with either the left, right, or both edges of the tongue, but require the use of the back of the tongue, which must touch the molars . After that, the tongue is pushed forward and lifted, making the soundمفخم / mufaḫḫam  / is 'velarized, pharyngalized'.

In Tadschwīd as in Sībawaih's grammar, Ḍād is riḫwa - in which it differs from Ḍād in generative phonology in modern high-level language - and maǧhūra . Two moreصفات / ṣifāt  / 'properties' of Ḍād in Quranic Arabic are thoseاستطالة / istiṭāla / ' elongating  ', an expansion of the articulation process from the rear end of the tongue to the place of origin of the lām , which can only be observed in Ḍād (ل; / l /) on the incisors , andإخفاء / iḫfāʾ  / 'to hide', reducing a preceding / n / sound ( Tanwīn or Nūn with Sukun ) toغنة / ġunna  / ' nasalization '. At certain places in the Koran, reciters of the Koran speak - depending on the reading - as a result ofإدغام / idġām  / 'amalgamation, assimilation' consonants immediately before Konsād such as Ḍād and at a point Ḍād like the following consonants as Šīn .

A common mistake, which also occurs with some Arabs , is using a wrong place of articulation , whereby the resulting sound corresponds to the phoneme / d / or / ẓ /.

Reconstruction of the "classical" Ḍād

Since the information given by the early Arabic grammarians on Ḍād does not correspond to its pronunciation in modern standard language, numerous scholars postulate a change in sound, the timing of which is just as unclear as the phonetic quality of the "classical" Ḍād.

The Orientalist Edward Lipiński and the linguist Sabatino Moscati see the Arab phoneme / d / as an evolution of proto-Semitic / s /, the Lipiński as voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [⁠ ɬ ⁠] indicated. According to other interpretations, it was a voiced emphatic interdental sound .

Sībawaih's remarks do not allow for a clear reconstruction of the sound value of the “classical” Ḍād, but they do give indications that go beyond the mere assignment to the categories described above. According to Kees Versteegh , there must have been “a certain degree of laterality ” and this is justified by the fact that Sībawaih emphasized the role of the edge of the tongue and that, according to Sībawaih, dād, in contrast to the other emphatic consonants in Arabic, has no non-emphatic counterpart. According to Henri Fleisch, the "most likely" sound value of the "classical" Ḍād is the voiced, lateralized velarized interdental fricative, whereas the linguist Charles A. Ferguson assumes a lateral or lateralized plosive or affricative . For Versteegh, the lateralized articulation would be a unique selling point that makes the designation of Arabic as "Ḍād language" understandable; For an early form of the Arabic sound inventory, Chaim Rabin reconstructed four sets of three, each consisting of one voiced, voiceless and emphatic consonant, and grouped Ḍād with Šīn (ش) and Lām (ل) to a retroflex / lateral group. However, some scholars reject the assumption of a lateral component.

The word alcalde (“mayor”) of the Ibero-Romance languages , derived from al-qāḍī , is an indication of an earlier lateral pronunciation of Ḍād

The comparative analysis of Arabic loanwords in numerous languages ​​supports the theory of a lateral or lateralized pronunciation of the “classical” Ḍād. A hint for this can already be found in Akkadian , where the name of the ancient Arabic goddess رضاء / Ruḍāʾ was rendered as Ruldāʾu . There are also references in recent languages ​​that historically came into contact with the Arabic-speaking world, for example in Spanish aldea (fromالضيعة / aḍ-ḍaiʿa  / 'village'; Portuguese aldeia ), in the Hausa term àlƙáalíi (fromالقاضي / al-qāḍī  / 'judge'), in Indonesian perlu ("necessary", fromفرض / farḍ  / 'duty') and in Tamil paṟulu / paṟuḷu (“duty”, also fromفرض / farḍ ).

In Amharic and Somali, on the other hand, no such examples are known and in Indonesian / l / was only able to prevail in a few terms for Ḍād, while in other words there are several pronunciation variants or / d / or, as in Persian, / z / became the standard. Versteegh interprets words with / l / for Ḍād as older borrowings, whereas Torsten Tschacher justifies the / l / reflexes in Indonesian with the fact that they are adoptions from Tamil, which functioned as the intermediary language.

Different doctrines compete on the question of how the phonetic change took place, and several models attempt to establish a connection with the coincidence of the phonemes / ḍ / and / ẓ / in the Arabic dialects. Versteegh sees signs that different pronunciation variants for Ḍād already existed in pre-Islamic times and that regional phoneme coincidence began at that time, but the lateral Ḍād has remained common in southern Arabia for a longer period of time. The occurrence of lateral sounds for Ḍād in Arabic loanwords is due to the fact that actors and tribes from southern Arabia played a key role in the spread of Islam and in trade. Other authors date the change to the early Islamic period between the 7th and 10th centuries, but disagree on the exact sequence of the change from the lateral Ḍād to the modern / ḍ / and the phoneme coincidence.

Ḍād in Arabic dialects

Kees Versteegh According to the phonemes / are D / and / z / in all modern Arabic dialects collapsed: In most Bedouin -Dialekten Dad will like Ẓā' as / Z articulates /, in most sedentary dialects, however Ẓā' like Dad as a / d /. The computational linguist Nizar Y. Habash, on the other hand, describes a coincidence in favor of / ḍ / in Egyptian Arabic and in the Levant as well as / ẓ / in Iraqi Arabic and Gulf Arabic .

Speech forms in the south of the Arabian Peninsula are an exception to this phoneme coincidence. Carlo Landberg analyzed at the beginning of the 20th century that the classical Ḍād in the dialect of Dathina , Yemen, had developed into / ḷ /, an emphatic lateral . According to recent research, pharyngealized lateral sounds can also be found in recent Arabic dialects from the Saudi Arabian Tihama , which in most cases can be traced back to the high Arabic / ḍ /, less often to / ẓ /. These laterals were identified partly as sonorant , partly as fricative as well as voiced and unvoiced - a range that shows similarities to the emphatic lateral sound of the unrelated New South Arabian Mehri . In two of the Tihama dialects examined, a distinction between cognates of / ḍ / and / ẓ / was found. Regarding one of the sounds she identified, an emphatic voiced alveopalatal fricative lateral, Munira Al-Azraqi concluded: “ This sound has the same features as that described by the ancient grammarians. It is the ancient classical ḍād . "( Munira Al-Azraqi , German:" This sound has the same characteristics as described by the old grammarians. It is the old, classical Ḍād . ")

Clear differences between the individual Arabic dialects can be found in the effect of an emphatic consonant on the surrounding sounds, called “ emphasis spread ” in English . In Kairinese , an emphatic consonant usually has the effect that the entire word is emphatically articulated, in some dialects the effect extends into the preceding or following word. In the Saudi Arabian Abha, however, “emphasis spread” usually only extends to the adjacent vowel. Individual dialects such as Cypriot Arabic do not know any emphatic sounds.

Transcription

In many influential norms for transliterating the Arabic script, a subordinate point indicates emphatic pronunciation. Such is the legend of DMG a ⟨ D ⟩ for transmission of a dad in Latin script above, but also the use of a set under the consonants is tremas to illustrate the emphasis permitted to confusion with the inscription of Zerebrallauten be avoided.

In the Baha'i transcription , in which based on the DMG transliteration DIN 31635 , at ISO 233 , in the ALA-LC romanization and in the Encyclopaedia of Islam Dad is also with ⟨ D transliterated⟩. Deviating from the standard look of UNGEGN and the BGN / PCGN transcription using ⟨ D ⟩, an d with cedilla before; However, the BGN / PCGN transcription allows recourse to ⟨ D ⟩. Notwithstanding these standards and a proposed amendment to UNGEGN transcription according to the used Royal Jordanian Geographic Center the ⟨ d ⟩, a d with underneath to Makron as transcription of the DAD.

Transcriptions with restriction to ASCII characters as the standards Buckwalter and Qalam transliterate Dad with a large ⟨ D ⟩. In Standard Arabic Technical Transliteration System (SATTS) is, however, a ⟨ V resorted⟩.

Braille characters for Ḍād

In non-scientific transcriptions Dad will ⟨by a simple d ⟩ or Digraph ⟨ ie ⟩ played (Arab Saudi at about capitalالرياض / ar-Riyāḍ , German mostly transcribed as Riad , English as Riyadh ), whereby the distinguishability of Ḍād from Dāl or Ḏāl is lost. In so-called " chat Arabic " or 'Arabīzī represents a ⟨ d ⟩ or - derived from the shapeض- the character sequence ⟨9 ' ⟩ the letter Ḍād.

In Arabic Braille , P1246 ⟨⠫⟩ is used for Ḍād. The Morse code for Ḍād is short-short-short-long ⟨ · · · -⟩.

The sign in other languages

Due to the special development and pronunciation of Ḍād in Arabic, there is seldom a clear assignment of a phoneme to the grapheme Ḍād in Arabic-based alphabets of other languages . The following paragraphs illustrate this as an example:

Persian pronunciation of the name رضا/ Reżā / ' Reza '

In the Persian alphabet , Ḍād is one of eight letters found primarily in Arabic loanwords . While these eight letters - next to Ḍād, these are ʿAin (ع), Ḏāl (ذ), Ḥāʾ (ح), Ṣād (ص), Ṭāʾ (ط), Ṯāʾ (ث) and Ẓāʾ (ظ) - each have their own sound value in Arabic, they do not represent their own phonemes in Persian . Like the zāy (ز) Ḍād, Ḏāl and Ẓāʾ are articulated as the voiced alveolar fricative [ z ]. The Persian name of the letter is​​ضاد/ Zad , the transliteration is usually carried out with ⟨ ż ⟩, a z with übergesetztem point .

In the Arabic alphabets of languages ​​such as Urdu , Pashto , Sindhi , Kashmiri and Panjabi , whose Arabic alphabets are variants of the Persian alphabet, Ḍād is also one of several graphemes for the sound [ z ] and occurs in Arabic loanwords. In Urdu, Sindhi and Shahmukhi (the Arabic alphabet of Punjabi) there is also a different name for the character ضواد/ Żwād .

Also in Jawi , the Arabic script of Malay , the letter Ḍād (called dhad or dad in Malay Latin script ) can be found in Arabic loan and foreign words. In the adschami script of the Hausa , Ḍād is pronounced as / d / or / l /, but is only used very rarely. The Arabic script of Swahili contains Ḍād in the same way, but there is no phonetic differentiation from Ẓāʾ and from Ḏāl only by an "elite".

The Ḍād was deleted from the Arabic alphabet of Uighur during the writing reforms of the 1920s. The same applies to Tatar , whose alphabet, which was valid until 1920, contained İske imlâ Ḍād as one of the dark consonants, while in its successor alphabet Yaña imlâ Ḍād was no longer used. In the Arabic alphabet of Sorani Kurdish, Ḍād is no longer used “normally”, but some authors still use Arabic loanwords. The pronunciation corresponds to the voiced alveolar fricative.

The Belarusian Arabic alphabet was a special feature, in which Ḍād was able to establish itself as a symbol for a sound of its own. Ḍād represented the voiced alveolar fricative [ z ], Zāy (​​ز), which is assigned to this sound value in Arabic, whereas its palatalized variant [ zʲ ].

Derivatives

In the Arabic alphabets of Tamil ( Arwi ) and Malayalam is the letterۻ, in its form a Ḍād with a period below, in use. This symbol corresponds to the ள் in the Tamil script or the ള് in the Malayalam script and is articulated as a voiced lateral retroflexer approximant [ ɭ ]. In Tamil it can also correspond to the letter ழ் of the Tamil script, which stands for the voiced retroflexer approximant [ ɻ ]. ​​​​

The Xiao'erjing contains the markڞCorresponding to a DAD with two additional points over and set as aspirated unvoiced alveolar affricate [ TS ] ( Pinyin : ⟨ c is pronounced⟩).

Character encoding

In Unicode , Ḍād is coded several times. The Ḍād in the Unicode block Arabic automatically adapts to its position in the word and appears accordingly in an isolated, final, medial or initial form. In block Arabic Presentation Forms-A are different ligatures and in block Arabic Presentation Forms-B , the individual forms of the DAD coded. The characters of the last two Unicode blocks mentioned do not adapt to their position in the word. In the Unicode block Arabic mathematical alphanumeric symbols there are variants of the Ḍād for use in a mathematical context.

Overview of the Unicode points for Ḍād
block description Code point Unicode name HTML character
Arabic Ḍād U + 0636 ARABIC LETTER DAD & # 1590; ض
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād- Ǧīm isolated U + FC22 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH JEEM ISOLATED FORM & # 64546; ﰢ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature DAD Ḥā' isolated U + FC23 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH HAH ISOLATED FORM & # 64547; ﰣ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād- Ḫāʾ isolated U + FC24 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH KHAH ISOLATED FORM & # 64548; ﰤ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature dād- Mīm isolated U + FC25 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH MEEM ISOLATED FORM & # 64549; ﰥ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād-Ǧīm initial U + FCB4 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH JEEM INITIAL FORM & # 64692; ﲴ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād-Ḥāʾ initial U + FCB5 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH HAH INITIAL FORM & # 64693; ﲵ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād-Ḫāʾ initial U + FCB6 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH KHAH INITIAL FORM & # 64694; ﲶ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ḍād-Mīm initial ligature U + FCB7 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH MEEM INITIAL FORM & # 64695; ﲷ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād- Alif maqṣūra isolated U + FD07 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH ALEF MAKSURA ISOLATED FORM & # 64775; ﴇ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature DAD Yā' isolated U + FD08 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH YEH ISOLATED FORM & # 64776; ﴈ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature DAD Ra ' isolated U + FD10 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH REH ISOLATED FORM & # 64784; ﴐ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ād-Alif maqṣūra final ligature U + FD23 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH ALEF MAKSURA FINAL FORM & # 64803; ﴣ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ād-Yāʾ final ligature U + FD24 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH YEH FINAL FORM & # 64804; ﴤ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād-Rāʾ final U + FD2C ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH REH ISOLATED FORM & # 64812; ﴬ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād-Ḥāʾ-Alif maqṣūra final U + FD6E ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH HAH WITH ALEF MAKSURA FINAL FORM & # 64878; ﵮ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ḍād-Ḫāʾ-Mīm final ligature U + FD6F ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH KHAH WITH MEEM FINAL FORM & # 64879; ﵯ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ād-Ḫāʾ-Mīm initial ligature U + FD70 ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH KHAH WITH MEEM INITIAL FORM & # 64880; ﵰ
Arabic forms of presentation-A Ligature Ḍād-Ḥāʾ-Yāʾ final U + FDAB ARABIC LIGATURE DAD WITH HAH WITH YEH FINAL FORM & # 64939; ﶫ
Arabic forms of presentation-B Ḍād isolated U + FEBD ARABIC LETTER DAD ISOLATED FORM & # 65213; ﺽ
Arabic forms of presentation-B Ḍād final U + FEBE ARABIC LETTER DAD FINAL FORM & # 65214; ﺾ
Arabic forms of presentation-B Ḍād initial U + FEBF ARABIC LETTER DAD INITIAL FORM & # 65215; ﺿ
Arabic forms of presentation-B Ḍād medial U + FEC0 ARABIC LETTER DAD MEDIAL FORM & # 65216; ﻀ
Arabic math alphanumeric symbols Ḍād mathematically U + 1EE19 ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DAD & # 126489; ?
Arabic math alphanumeric symbols Ḍād mathematically initial U + 1EE39 ARABIC MATHEMATICAL INITIAL DAD & # 126521; ?
Arabic math alphanumeric symbols Ḍād mathematically with a tail U + 1EE59 ARABIC MATHEMATICAL TAILED DAD & # 126553; ?
Arabic math alphanumeric symbols Ḍād mathematically stretched U + 1EE79 ARABIC MATHEMATICAL STRETCHED DAD & # 126585; ?
Arabic math alphanumeric symbols Ḍād mathematically with a loop U + 1EE99 ARABIC MATHEMATICAL LOOPED DAD & # 126617; ?
Arabic math alphanumeric symbols Ḍād drawn twice mathematically U + 1EEB9 ARABIC MATHEMATICAL DOUBLE-STRUCK DAD & # 126649; ?

In the encodings Windows-1256 (D6), MacArabic (D6), ISO 8859-6 (D6), code page 708 (D6), code page 720 (E0) and code page 864 (D6 and EB), Ḍād is attached to the code points indicated in brackets contain. In ArabTeX it can be called by the command .d. In Arabic keyboard layouts , Ḍād is at the location of the Q of the QWERTY or QWERTZ layouts.

literature

  • Munira Al-Azraqi: The Ancient Ḍād in Southwest Saudi Arabia . In: Arabica . vol. 57, no. 1 . Brill, 2010, ISSN  0570-5398 , p. 57-67 ( online [PDF; 841 kB ; accessed on March 30, 2014]).
  • Jonathan AC Brown : New Data on the Delateralization of Ḍād and its Merger with Ẓā 'in Classical Arabic: Contributions from Old South Arabian and the Earliest Islamic Texts on Ḍ / Ẓ Minimal Pairs . In: Journal of Semitic Studies . vol. LII, no. 2 , 2007, ISSN  0022-4480 , p. 335–368 ( online [PDF; 661 kB ; accessed on March 27, 2014]).
  • Henri Fleisch : Ḍād . In: B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat, J. Schacht (Eds.): The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Volume II, C - G. Brill / Luzac, Leiden / London 1965, pp. 75 .
  • ʿAlī ibn Sulaimān al-Mansūrī : Treatise on the pronunciation of the Ḍād . Commented by Naphtali Kinberg and with a foreword by Kees Versteegh. In: Naphtali Kinberg, Leah Kinberg, Kees Versteegh (Eds.): Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic (=  Studies in Semitic Languages ​​and Linguistics Series ). vol. 31. Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11765-2 , ISSN  0081-8461 , p. 197–267 (Arabic:رسالة في كيفية النطق بالضاد. Translated by Naphtali Kinberg).
  • Kees Versteegh : Ḍād . In: Kees Versteegh (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics . Volume I, A-Ed. Brill, Leiden 2006, ISBN 90-04-14973-2 , pp. 544 f .
  • Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 273-286 .

Web links

Commons : Ḍād  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Brigitte Grabitz: The Arabic script . ikoo Buchverlag, Berlin 1983, ISBN 3-88677-911-4 , p. 44 .
  2. ↑ a b N. van den Boogert: Some notes on Maghribi script . In: Manuscripts of the Middle East . tape 4 . Ter Lugt Press, 1989, ISSN  0920-0401 , p. 37 .
  3. ↑ Andreu Balius: Arabic type from a multicultural perspective: multi-script Latin-Arabic type design . Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. University of Southampton, April 2013, pp. 63 ( online [PDF; 41.9 MB ; accessed on March 25, 2014]). online ( Memento of the original from March 31, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / eprints.soton.ac.uk
  4. ^ Shahid Ahmad Rajput: The Principle Source of Arabic Calligraphy and its Development in the Muslim World . Islamabad 2013, p. 16 ( online [accessed March 25, 2014]).
  5. ^ Theodor Nöldeke : History of the Qorâns . Verlag der Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, Göttingen 1860, p. 305-308 ( online [accessed March 25, 2014]).
  6. ^ Theodor Nöldeke: History of the Qorâns . Verlag der Dieterichschen Buchhandlung, Göttingen 1860, p. 311 ( online [accessed March 25, 2014]).
  7. ↑ James A. Bellamy: The Arabic Alphabet . In: Wayne M. Senner (Ed.): The Origins of Writing . University of Nebraska Press, 1989, ISBN 0-8032-4202-6 , pp. 100 .
  8. ↑ Stephen Chrisomalis: Numerical Notation. A Comparative History . Cambridge University Press, New York 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-87818-0 , pp. 163 .
  9. ^ Peter D. Daniels: Writing Systems . In: Mark Aronoff, Janie Rees-Miller (Eds.): The Handbook of Linguistics (=  Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics ). tape 22 . Blackwell Publishers, Oxford / Malden 2001, ISBN 0-631-20497-0 , pp. 72 .
  10. ↑ Ahmad Maher Rayef: The aesthetic foundations of the Arabic script in Ibn Muqlah . Inaugural dissertation to obtain the doctoral degree of the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Cologne . 1975, p. 89 .
  11. ^ Alain George: The Rise of Islamic Calligraphy . Saqi Books, London 2010, ISBN 978-0-86356-673-8 , pp. 136 .
  12. ↑ Ahmad Maher Rayef: The aesthetic foundations of the Arabic script in Ibn Muqlah . Inaugural dissertation to obtain the doctoral degree of the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Cologne. 1975, p. 116 .
  13. ↑ Ahmad Maher Rayef: The aesthetic foundations of the Arabic script in Ibn Muqlah . Inaugural dissertation to obtain the doctoral degree of the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Cologne. 1975, p. 100 f., 114-118, 147 .
  14. ^ Alain George: The Rise of Islamic Calligraphy . Saqi Books, London 2010, ISBN 978-0-86356-673-8 , pp. 111 f .
  15. ^ Sheila S. Blair: Arabic Calligraphy in West Africa . In: Shamil Jeppie, Souleymane Bachir Diagne (Ed.): The Meanings of Timbuktu . HSRC Press, Cape Town 2008, ISBN 978-0-7969-2204-5 , pp. 60 ( online [accessed March 25, 2014]). online ( Memento from March 31, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
  16. ^ TF Mitchell : Writing Arabic. A Practical Introduction to Ruq ʿ ah Script . Oxford University Press, Oxford 1953, ISBN 0-19-815150-0 , pp. 55-64 .
  17. ^ Nassar Mansour: Sacred Script: Muhaqqaq in Islamic Calligraphy . IB Tauris, London / New York 2011, ISBN 978-1-84885-439-0 , pp. 63, 216 .
  18. ↑ Ahmad Maher Rayef: The aesthetic foundations of the Arabic script in Ibn Muqlah . Inaugural dissertation to obtain the doctoral degree of the Philosophical Faculty of the University of Cologne. 1975, p. 56-58 .
  19. ^ TF Mitchell: Pronouncing Arabic . vol. 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1990, ISBN 0-19-815151-9 , pp. 27 f .
  20. ↑ Kimary N. Shahin: Accessing Pharyngeal Place in Palestinian Arabic . In: Mushira Eid, Dilworth B. Parkinson (Eds.): Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics. Papers from the Annual Symposium on Arabic Linguistics . Volume IX: Washington DC, 1995. John Benjamin Publishing, 1996, ISBN 90-272-7621-8 , ISSN  0304-0763 , pp. 133 .
  21. ↑ Nizar Y. Habash: Introduction to Arabic Natural Language Processing (=  Synthesis lectures on human language technologies, vol. 10 ). Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 2010, ISBN 1-59829-795-3 , ISSN  1947-4059 , pp. 59 .
  22. ↑ Melissa Barkat-Defradas: Vowel Backing . In: Kees Versteegh (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics . Volume IV, QZ. Brill, Leiden 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-14476-7 , pp. 669 f .
  23. ↑ a b Henri Fleisch: Ḍād . In: B. Lewis, Ch. Pellat, J. Schacht (Eds.): The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition . Volume II, C - G. Brill / Luzac, Leiden / London 1965, pp. 75 .
  24. ^ Richard Lepsius: About the Arabic speech sounds and their transcription: together with some explanations about the hard i-vocal in the Tartar, Slavic and Romanian languages . In: Treatises of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Philol.-hist. Treatises . Dümmler, 1861, p. 115 .
  25. ^ A b A. A. al-Nassir: Sibawayh the Phonologist. A critical study of the phonetic and phonological theory of Sibawayh as presented in his treatise Al-Kitab (=  Library of Arabic Linguistics . Monograph No. 10). Kegan Paul International, London / New York 1993, ISBN 0-7103-0356-4 , pp. 15 .
  26. ↑ quoted from Kees Versteegh: Introduction . (Chapter: Naphtali Kinberg: Treatise on the pronunciation of the Ḍād ). In: Naphtali Kinberg, Leah Kinberg, Kees Versteegh (Eds.): Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic (=  Studies in Semitic Languages ​​and Linguistics Series ). vol. 31. Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11765-2 , ISSN  0081-8461 , p. 197 .
  27. ^ Richard Lepsius: About the Arabic speech sounds and their transcription: together with some explanations about the hard i-vocal in the Tartar, Slavic and Romanian languages . In: Treatises of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Philol.-hist. Treatises . Dümmler, 1861, p. 119 .
  28. ^ Kees Versteegh: Introduction . (Chapter: Naphtali Kinberg: Treatise on the pronunciation of the Ḍād ). In: Naphtali Kinberg, Leah Kinberg, Kees Versteegh (Eds.): Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic (=  Studies in Semitic Languages ​​and Linguistics Series ). vol. 31. Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11765-2 , ISSN  0081-8461 , p. 198 .
  29. ↑ a b Abdul Rahman Ibrahim Alfozan: assimilation in Classical Arabic. A phonological study . A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts of the university of Glasgow in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 1989, p. 22 ( online [PDF; 9.2 MB ; accessed on October 16, 2014]).
  30. ^ AA al-Nassir: Sibawayh the Phonologist. A critical study of the phonetic and phonological theory of Sibawayh as presented in his treatise Al-Kitab (=  Library of Arabic Linguistics . Monograph No. 10). Kegan Paul International, London / New York 1993, ISBN 0-7103-0356-4 , pp. 35-39 .
  31. ^ Richard Lepsius: About the Arabic speech sounds and their transcription: together with some explanations about the hard i-vocal in the Tartar, Slavic and Romanian languages . In: Treatises of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Philol.-hist. Treatises . Dümmler, 1861, p. 120 f .
  32. ^ AA al-Nassir: Sibawayh the Phonologist. A critical study of the phonetic and phonological theory of Sibawayh as presented in his treatise Al-Kitab (=  Library of Arabic Linguistics . Monograph No. 10). Kegan Paul International, London / New York 1993, ISBN 0-7103-0356-4 , pp. 50 f .
  33. ^ AA al-Nassir: Sibawayh the Phonologist. A critical study of the phonetic and phonological theory of Sibawayh as presented in his treatise Al-Kitab (=  Library of Arabic Linguistics . Monograph No. 10). Kegan Paul International, London / New York 1993, ISBN 0-7103-0356-4 , pp. 44 .
  34. ↑ Jonathan AC Brown: New Data on the Delateralization of Ḍād and its Merger with Ẓā 'in Classical Arabic: Contributions from Old South Arabian and the Earliest Islamic Texts on Ḍ / Ẓ Minimal Pairs . In: Journal of Semitic Studies . vol. LII, no. 2 , 2007, ISSN  0022-4480 , p. 345–352 ( online [PDF; 661 kB ; accessed on March 27, 2014]).
  35. ↑ Ramaḍān ʿAbd at-Tawwāb:مشكلة الضاد العربية وتراث الضاد والظاء. In:مجلة المجمع العلمي العراقي. tape 21 .مطبعة المجمع العلمي العراقي, 1971.
  36. ^ Kees Versteegh: Introduction . (Chapter: Naphtali Kinberg: Treatise on the pronunciation of the Ḍād ). In: Naphtali Kinberg, Leah Kinberg, Kees Versteegh (Eds.): Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic (=  Studies in Semitic Languages ​​and Linguistics Series ). vol. 31. Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11765-2 , ISSN  0081-8461 , p. 198 .
  37. ↑ EY Odisho: An Aerodynamic, Proprioceptive and Perceptual Interpretation of Sībawayhi's Misplacement of /ط/ and /ق/ with Majhūra Consonants . In: Journal of Arabic Linguistics . Issue 52, 2010, ISSN  0170-026X , p. 45 f .
  38. ↑ quoted from Kees Versteegh: Introduction . (Chapter: Naphtali Kinberg: Treatise on the pronunciation of the Ḍād ). In: Naphtali Kinberg, Leah Kinberg, Kees Versteegh (Eds.): Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic (=  Studies in Semitic Languages ​​and Linguistics Series ). vol. 31. Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11765-2 , ISSN  0081-8461 , p. 198 .
  39. ^ A b Yasir Suleiman: The Arabic Language and National Identity: A Study in Ideology . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2003, ISBN 0-7486-1707-8 , pp. 59 .
  40. ^ A study of Arabic letter frequency analysis. intellaren.com, accessed March 30, 2014 .
  41. ↑ Clearing the Confusion behind ض | Part 5: The Bid'ah ض and its Bogus Sanad. therightfulrecital.com, March 13, 2014, accessed October 17, 2014 .
  42. ^ A b The Side of the Tongue. abouttajweed.com, accessed March 25, 2014 .
  43. ↑ Ebrahim Safa'ie: Muslims' Contributions to the Modern Linguistics: The Descriptive Framework of Tajweed of the Holy Qur'an and the Generative Phonology in Contrast. (PDF file, 607 kB) iium.edu.my , pp. 16–18, 23 , accessed on October 18, 2014 (English).
  44. ↑ ʿAlī ibn Sulaimān al-Mansūrī : Treatise on the pronunciation of the Ḍād . Commented by Naphtali Kinberg and with a foreword by Kees Versteegh. In: Naphtali Kinberg, Leah Kinberg, Kees Versteegh (Eds.): Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic (=  Studies in Semitic Languages ​​and Linguistics Series ). vol. 31. Brill, 2001, ISBN 90-04-11765-2 , ISSN  0081-8461 , p. 211 f . (Arabic:رسالة قي كيفية النطق بالضاد. Translated by Naphtali Kinberg).
  45. ↑ Abdul Rahman Ibrahim Alfozan: assimilation in Classical Arabic. A phonological study . A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Arts of the university of Glasgow in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 1989, p. 13, 103 f . ( online [PDF; 9.2 MB ; accessed on October 16, 2014]).
  46. ↑ Imam Jalāl-al-Din Abd al-Rahman al-Suyuti : The Perfect Guide to the Sciences of the Qur'an ' ān. Al-Itqān fī ʿ ulūm al-qur ʾ ān . vol. 1. Muḥammad bin Hamad Al-Thani Center for Muslim Contribution to Civilization / Garnet Publishing, Reading 2011, ISBN 978-1-85964-241-2 , Chapter thirty-one: Assimilation and Conserving; Suppression and Metathesis, pp. 233–240 (Arabic: الإتقان في علوم القرآن . Translated by Ḥamid Algar, Michael Schub, Ayman Abdel Ḥaleem).
  47. ↑ Kees Versteegh : Ḍād . In: Kees Versteegh (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics . Volume I, A - Ed. Brill, Leiden 2006, ISBN 90-04-14973-2 , pp. 544 .
  48. ↑ Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 273 .
  49. ↑ a b c Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 274 .
  50. ^ Charles A. Ferguson: The Arabic Koine . In: Language . vol. 35, no. 4 , 1959, ISSN  0097-8507 , p. 630 .
  51. ↑ Jonathan AC Brown: New Data on the Delateralization of Ḍād and its Merger with Ẓā 'in Classical Arabic: Contributions from Old South Arabian and the Earliest Islamic Texts on Ḍ / Ẓ Minimal Pairs . In: Journal of Semitic Studies . vol. LII, no. 2 , 2007, ISSN  0022-4480 , p. 340 ( online [PDF; 661 kB ; accessed on March 27, 2014]).
  52. ↑ Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 273-282 .
  53. ↑ Torsten Tschacher: Tamil . In: Kees Versteegh (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics . tape IV . Brill, Leiden 2009, p. 433-436 .
  54. ↑ Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 279-283 .
  55. ^ Nikolaos van Dam : Arabic loanwords in Indonesian revisited . In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- and Volkenkunde (BKI) . tape 166 , no. 2/3 , 2010, ISSN  0006-2294 , p. 226–230 ( online [PDF; accessed March 28, 2018]). online ( Memento of the original from June 28, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.nikolaosvandam.com
  56. ↑ Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 283 f .
  57. ↑ Jonathan AC Brown: New Data on the Delateralization of Ḍād and its Merger with Ẓā 'in Classical Arabic: Contributions from Old South Arabian and the Earliest Islamic Texts on Ḍ / Ẓ Minimal Pairs . In: Journal of Semitic Studies . vol. LII, no. 2 , 2007, ISSN  0022-4480 , p. 338–341 ( online [PDF; 661 kB ; accessed on March 27, 2014]).
  58. ↑ Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 275 .
  59. ↑ Nizar Y. Habash: Introduction to Arabic Natural Language Processing (=  Synthesis lectures on human language technologies, vol. 10 ). Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 2010, ISBN 1-59829-795-3 , ISSN  1947-4059 , pp. 30 .
  60. ↑ Kees Versteegh: Loanwords from Arabic and the Merger of ḍ / ḏ ̣ . In: Albert Arazi, Joseph Sadan, David J. Wasserstein (Eds.): Compilation and Creation in Adab and Luġa . Studies in Memory of Naphtali Kinberg (1948–1997) (=  Israel Oriental Studies XIX ). Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-045-0 , ISSN  0334-4401 , p. 276 .
  61. ↑ Janet CE Watson, Munira Al-Azraqi: Lateral fricatives and lateral emphatics in southern Saudi Arabia and Mehri . In: Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies . Papers from the forty-fourth meeting of the Seminar for Arabian Studies held at the British Museum, London, 22 to 24 July 2010. vol. 41. Archaeopress, 2011, ISBN 978-1-905739-40-0 , ISSN  0308-8421 , p. 426–432 ( online [PDF; 2.9 MB ]).
  62. ↑ Munira Al-Azraqi: The Ancient Ḍād in Southwest Saudi Arabia . In: Arabica . vol. 57, no. 1 . Brill, 2010, ISSN  0570-5398 , p. 66 .
  63. ^ Zeki Majeed Hassan, John H. Esling: Investigating the emphatic feature in Iraqi Arabic. Acoustic and articulatory evidence of coarticulation . In: Zeki Majeed Hassan, Barry Heselwood (Ed.): Instrumental Studies in Arabic Phonetics (=  Current Issues in Linguistic Theory ). vol. 319. John Benjamin Publishing, 2011, ISBN 90-272-8322-2 , ISSN  0304-0763 , pp. 220 .
  64. ^ Kees Versteegh: The Arabic Language . Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 2001, ISBN 0-7486-1436-2 , pp. 212 .
  65. ↑ Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft : The transliteration of the Arabic script in its application to the main literary languages ​​of the Islamic world . Memorandum to the 19th International Congress of Orientalists in Rome. Leipzig 1935 ( online [PDF; 1.3 MB ; accessed on March 25, 2014]). online ( Memento from July 22, 2012 in the Internet Archive )
  66. ^ Baha'i Studies Review: Contributor and Manuscript Preparation Guidelines. (PDF file, 293 kB) Baha'i Studies Review, accessed on July 16, 2014 (English).
  67. ^ Transliteration of Arabic. (PDF file, 184 kB) transliteration. eki.ee , accessed on March 25, 2014 (English).
  68. ↑ United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names : Technical reference manual for the standardization of geographical names (=  . Statistical papers Series M . No. 87 ). United Nations, New York 2007, ISBN 978-92-1161500-5 , pp. 11, 125 ( online [PDF; 3.6 MB ; accessed on December 25, 2015]).
  69. ^ Romanization System for Arabic: BGN / PCGN 1956 System. (PDF file, 719 kB) gov.uk, accessed on December 22, 2015 (English).
  70. ↑ United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (Ed.): Technical reference manual for the standardization of geographical names. (=  Statistical papers. Series M . No. 87 ). United Nations, New York 2007, ISBN 978-92-1161500-5 , pp. 12 f . ( online [PDF; 3.6 MB ]).
  71. ^ Nizar Habash, Abdelhadi Soudi, Timothy Buckwalter: On Arabic Transliteration . In: Abdeladi Soudi, Antal van den Bosch, Günter Neumann (eds.): Arabic Computational Morphology. Knowledge-based and Empirical Methods . Springer, Dordrecht 2007, ISBN 978-1-4020-6046-5 , pp. 17 .
  72. ↑ Abdelsalam Heddaya: Qalam: A Convention for Morphological Arabic-Latin-Arabic transliteration. (No longer available online.) Langs.eserver.org, archived from the original on March 31, 2014 ; accessed on March 25, 2014 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / langs.eserver.org
  73. ↑ SATTS. (No longer available online.) Languages-of-the-world.us, archived from the original on May 19, 2013 ; accessed on March 25, 2014 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.languages-of-the-world.us
  74. ↑ Mohammad Ali Yaghan: “Arabizi”: A Contemporary Style of Arabic Slang . In: Design Issues . vol. 4, no. 2 , 2008, ISSN  0747-9360 , p. 43 .
  75. ↑ Arabic Braille. tiresias.org, accessed March 25, 2014 .
  76. ^ Morse codes. homepages.cwi.nl/~dik, archived from the original on April 30, 2008 ; accessed on March 25, 2014 (English).
  77. ↑ Shahrzad Mahootian: Persian . Routledge, New York 1997, ISBN 0-415-02311-4 ( unspecified ).
  78. ^ CM Naim: Introductory Urdu . vol. 1. South Asia Language & Area Center, University of Chicago, Chicago 1999, p. 41 f . ( online [accessed March 26, 2014]).
  79. ^ Andreas Prilop: The Pashto alphabet. uni-hannover.de, accessed on March 26, 2014 .
  80. ↑ Javed Ahmed Mahar, Ghulam Qadir Memon: Phonology for Sindhi Letter-to-Sound Conversion . In: Journal of Information & Communication Technology . vol. 3, no. 1 , 2009, ISSN  1816-613X , p. 13 f . ( online ( memento of December 24, 2015 in the Internet Archive ), [PDF; 142 kB ]).
  81. ↑ Kashmiri ( कॉशुर / كٲشُر ). omniglot.com, accessed March 26, 2014 .
  82. ^ Andreas Prilop: The Panjabi alphabet. uni-hannover.de, accessed on March 26, 2014 .
  83. ↑ MB Lewis: A Handbook of Malay Script . Macmillan and Co. Limited, London 1954, p. 1 f .
  84. ^ Philip J. Jaggar: Hausa . John Benjamin Publishing Co., Amsterdam / Philadelphia 2001, ISBN 90-272-3807-3 , pp. 700 f .
  85. ↑ Yahya Ali Omar; PJL Frankl: An Historical Review of the Arabic Rendering of Swahili Together with Proposals for the Development of a Swahili Writing System in Arabic Script (Based on the Swahili of Mombasa) . In: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society . vol. 7, no. 1 , April 1997, ISSN  1356-1863 , pp. 67 .
  86. ^ TO Tucker: Foreign Sounds in Swahili . In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies . vol. 11, no. 4 , 1946, ISSN  0041-977X , p. 866 .
  87. ^ Waris Abdukerim Janbaz, Imad Saleh, Jean Rahman Duval: An Introduction to Latin-Script Uyghur . Salt Lake City September 2006, p. 4 ( online [PDF; 462 kB ; accessed on March 26, 2014]).
  88. ↑ WM Thackston: (زمانى) ورديى سۆرانى - Sorani Kurdish - A Reference Grammar with Selected Readings. (PDF file, 848 kB) fas.harvard.edu, p. 4 , accessed on March 26, 2014 (English).
  89. ↑ Ilya Yevlampiev, Karl Pentzlin, Nurlan Joomagueldinov: Revised Proposal to encode Arabic characters used for Bashkir, Belarusian, Crimean Tatar, and Tatar languages. (PDF file, 1.2 MB) std.dkuug.dk, May 20, 2011, p. 6 , accessed on March 26, 2014 (English).
  90. ↑ Torsten Tschacher: Islam in Tamilnadu: Varia (=  South Asian Studies Worksheets . Volume 2 ). Halle (Saale) 2001, p. 10, 14 ( online [PDF; 577 kB ; accessed on March 26, 2014]).
  91. ↑ Klaus Lagally: ArabTeX Typesetting Arabic and Hebrew User Manual Version 4.00. (PDF file, 612 kB) March 11, 2004, p. 19 , accessed on March 26, 2014 (English).
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on December 2, 2014 in this version .