Louvre

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Musée du Louvre
The Louvre palace (Sully wing; with a part of the Pyramid on the left)
Louvre is located in Paris
Louvre
Location within Paris
Established1793
LocationPalais Royal, Musée du Louvre,
75001 Paris, France
TypeArt museum, Design/Textile Museum, Historic site
Visitors8.3 million (2007)[1]
DirectorHenri Loyrette
CuratorMarie-Laure de Rochebrune
Public transit accessMetro, Palais Royal – Musée du Louvre
Websitewww.louvre.fr

The Louvre Museum (French: Musée du Louvre), located in Paris, France, is the world's most visited art museum, a historic monument, and a national museum of France. It is a central landmark, located on the Right Bank of the Seine in the neighbourhood of the 1st arrondissement.

The museum is in the Louvre Palace (Palais du Louvre), which has an 800 year history beginning as a fortress built in the 12th century under Philip II; remnants of which are still visible. In the 14th century Charles V converted the building into a residence and in 1546 Francis I renovated the site in French Renaissance style. The 460-metre (1,509 ft) Grande Galerie, used today to display paintings, was begun by Henry IV in 1594. Under the Bourbon dynasty the building increased in size and was renovated frequently by a string of architects. The Grand Louvre Project added the Pyramid and La Pyramide Inversée, finished in 1989 and 1993 respectively.

The museum officially opened to the public on 10 August 1793, during the French Revolution; the exhibitions' core were primarily drawn from appropriated Church property and royal collections. Holdings increased under Napoleon and the museum was renamed the Musée Napoléon. After his defeat at Waterloo, many works seized by Napoleon's armies were returned to their original owners. The collection was augmented through the reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X, and during the Second Empire the museum gained 20,000 pieces. Holdings grew steadily through donations and gifts since the Third Republic, although growth slowed during the World Wars.

The collection is divided among eight curatorial departments: Egyptian Antiquities; Paintings; Decorative Arts; Islamic Art; Near Eastern Antiquities; Prints and Drawings; Sculpture; and Greek, Etruscan, and Roman antiquities. Roughly 35,000 pieces are displayed, exhibited over 60,000 square metres (650,000 sq ft). The broad collection spans from the 6th century BCE to the 19th century.

History

Medieval

The only portion of the medieval Louvre still visible[2]
The Richelieu Wing of the Louvre at night
Main article: Palais du Louvre

In 1190, Philip Augustus constructed a fortress built on the location of the future Louvre; remnants are still visible in the crypt.[2] It is unknown if this was the first building on that spot, but it is possible that Philip modified an existing tower.[3] Likewise, the Louvre's etymology is uncertain: the name may be in reference to the structure's status as the largest in 12th century Paris (French L'Œuvre, masterpiece), its location in a forest (French rouvre, oak); or according to Larousse a wolf hunting den (via Latin: lupus, lower Empire: lupara).[3][4]

The Louvre was renovated and extended frequently through the Middle Ages. In 1358 Charles V built an encircling wall and converted the Louvre into a residence.[5] King Francis I acquired what would become the nucleus of the Louvre's holdings, and purchased Italian masterpieces for his baths. Among the king's collection was the Mona Lisa, completed by Leonardo da Vinci, likely after he moved to France in 1516.[6] In 1546, Francis I employed architect Pierre Lescot and sculptor Jean Goujon to remove the keep and to modernize the structure into a palace in Renaissance style.[7][8] Lescot added a ceiling to King Henry II's bedroom (Pavillon du Roi) that departed from the traditional beamed style, and installed the Salle des Caryatides, which featured sculpted caryatids based on Greek and Roman works.[9] Art historian Anthony Blunt refers to Lescot's work "as a form of French classicism, having its own principles and its own harmony".[9][10] In 1564 Catherine de' Medici directed building of the Palais des Tuileries which would face the Louvre, and the surrounding gardens.[7]

Bourbon dynasty

In 1594, King Henry IV began construction on his "Grand Design" to remove remnants of the medieval fortress, to increase the Cour Carrée's area, and to create a 460-metre (1,509 ft) link between the Palais des Tuileries and the Louvre. The link was completed via the Grande Galerie by architects Jacques Androuet de Cerceau and Louis Métezeau.[11] By 1639, classical architect Lemercier had finished the structure known as the Pavillon de l'Horloge, after a clock was added in 1857.[11] In 1659, Louis XIV instigated a phase of construction under architects Le Vau and André Le Nôtre, and painter Charles Le Brun.[11][12] Le Vau oversaw the decoration of the Pavillon du Roi, the Grand Cabinet du Roi, a new gallery to parallel the Petite Gallerie, and a chapel. Le Nôtre redesigned the Tuileries garden in the French style, which had been created in 1564 by Catherine de' Medici in the Italian style; and Le Brun decorated of the Galerie d'Apollon. A committee of architects proposed and began work on Perrault's Colonnade; the edifice was begun in 1668 but not finished until the 19th century.[11][13]

Construction slowed after Louis XIV chose Versailles as his residence in 1682; however, the royal collection increased by 1,800 pieces and the move permitted the Louvre to be a residence for artists.[14][15][13] Finance Minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert proposed the Louvre be used for exhibition and in 1750 Louis XV authorised the display of some of the collection at Versailles. This hall was available for public viewing on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and contained Andrea del Sarto's Charity and works by Raphael.[16] In 1776, Director General of Public Buildings comte d'Angiviller proposed that the Grande Galerie be converted into a French museum, to hold the masterpieces of the royal collections. This idea was resisted, and the museum was not completed before the French Revolution. However, improvements such as staircases and skylights were made to the exhibition halls.[16]

French Revolution

During the French Revolution the Louvre completed its transformation into a public museum; the Assembly declared in 1791 that the Louvre and Tuileries would serve as, "a place for bringing together monuments of all the sciences and arts".[16] On 10 August 1792, the Bourbon monarchy collapsed, and Louis XVI was imprisoned. A committee was established to create a museum in the Louvre that, "preserve[d] the national memory by collecting objects suitable to the purpose."[16] The royal collection was declared national property and the National Assembly officially turned the palace into a museum. The existing royal collection was combined with appropriated Church property from 1789.[17]

Opening

Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss was commissioned in 1787, and the first version was donated to the Louvre after the reign of Napoleon I in 1824.[18]

The museum opened on 10 August 1793, the one year anniversary of the monarchy's demise. The public was given free access three days per week; and the opening was "percieved as a major accomplishment and was generally appreciated by the public".[19] The collection showcased 537 paintings and 184 objects of art.[20] The early days were hectic, artists lived in residence, and works were placed randomly throughout the palace. The paintings were hung "frame to frame from floor to ceiling" and without labels. On days with strong sun, the works received too much light. The building itself was forced to close in May 1796 because of structural deficiencies. It reopened on 14 July 1801, arranged chronologically and with new lighting and columns.[20]

To expand and organize the collection, the Republic dedicated 100,000 livres per year.[16] In 1794, France's revolutionary armies began bringing pieces from across Europe, such as Laocoön and His Sons and the Apollo Belvedere, to establish the Louvre as a museum and "sign of popular sovereignty".[21][20]

Napoleon I

Under Napoleon a northern wing paralleling the Grande Galerie was begun, and the collection grew through successful military campaigns.[22] Following the Egyptian campaign of 1798–1801, Napoléon appointed the museum's first director, Dominique Vivant. In tribute, the museum was renamed the "Musée Napoléon" in 1803, and Spanish, Austrian, Dutch, and Italian works were acquired as spoils.[23] After the French defeat at Waterloo, the former owners sought their return. The Louvre's administrators were loath to comply and hid many in their private collections. In response, foreign states sent emissaries to London to seek help and many pieces were returned; some after restoration by the Louvre.[24][23]

Restoration and Second Empire

The Venus de Milo was added to the Louvre's collection during the reign of Louis XVIII.

During the Restoration (1814–30), Louis XVIII and Charles X together added 135 pieces at a cost of 720,000 francs. This was less than the amount given for rehabilitation of Versailles, and the Louvre suffered relative to the rest of Paris. After the creation of the French Second Republic in 1848, the new government allocated two million francs for repair work and ordered the completion of the Galerie d'Apollon, the Salon Carré, and the Grande Galerie.[25] On 2 December 1851, President Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte staged a coup d'état, ushering in the Second French Empire. Between 1852 and 1870, the French economy grew; the museum added 20,000 new pieces to its collections, and the Pavillon de Flore and the Grande Galerie were remodelled under architects Louis Visconti and Hector Lefuel.[25]

Third Republic and World Wars

During the French Third Republic the Louvre acquired new pieces via donations and large gifts. The Société des Amis du Louvre donated the Pietà of Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, and in 1863 an expedition uncovered the sculpture Winged Victory of Samothrace in the Aegean Sea. This piece, though heavily damaged, has been prominently displayed since 1884.[26] Thousands of works arrived after the acquisition of the Campana, Durand, Salt, and Drovetti collections.[26] Purchases and gifts of 133 works and 256 pieces given to the institution were styled the Collection Lacaze, including Rembrandts, such as Bathsheba at Her Bath.[26]

Growth was disrupted by the two World Wars. During World War II most of the museum's works were removed from Paris and valuable pieces were hidden, including the Venus de Milo and Mona Lisa. Packing for moving the artwork began on 25 August 1939, and on 27 August convoys of trucks began to leave Paris. The works were moved in thirty-seven convoys, each containing five to eight trucks.[27] By 28 December the museum was cleared of most artwork, except those which were too heavy to move and "unimportant paintings [that] were left in the basement".[27] In early 1945, following the liberation of France, art began to be returned to the Louvre.[28] After the wars, museum expansion slowed, and the collection did not acquire many significant new works; exceptions are Georges de la Tour's Saint Thomas and Baron Edmond de Rothschild's (1845–1934) 1935 donation of 4,000 engravings, 3,000 drawings, and 500 illustrated books.[17]

21st century

The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments; over 60,600 square metres (652,000 sq ft) is dedicated to the permanent collection.[29] The Louvre exhibits sculptures, objets d'art, paintings, drawings, and archaeological finds.[17] It is the world's most visited museum, averaging 15,000 visitors per day, 65% of which are foreigners.[30][31] In popular culture, the Louvre was a point of interest in the book and film The Da Vinci Code, for which it earned 2.5 million dollars.[32].[33]

Administration

The Louvre is owned by the French government.[34] Management is carried out by 2,000 employees led by Director Henri Loyrette, who reports to the French Ministry of Culture and Communications.[35][36][30] Since the 1990s, the museum has become more independent of the French government and has been required to generate funds for renovations.[35] By 2006, government funds had dipped from 75% of the total budget to 62%. In 2008 the French government provided $180 million of the Louvre's $350 million budget; the remainder is from private contributions and ticket sales.[34]

Under Loyrette's directorship, the Louvre has undergone policy changes.[35] The museum now loans and borrows more work, in 2006, 1,300 works were loaned, which enabled it to borrow more foreign works. From 2006 to 2009 the Louvre will lend artwork to the High Museum of Art in Atlanta, Georgia and receive a 6.9 million dollar payment earmarked for renovations.[35] Loyrette guaranteed that "20% of admissions receipts will be taken annually for acquisitions" and aims to expand weak areas of the collection through art loan income.[35] Loyrette enabled 90% of galleries to be open daily, as opposed to 80% previously; oversaw the creation of extended hours and free admission on Friday nights; and managed an increase in the acquisition budget to $36 million from $4.5 million.[35][34]

Grand Louvre and the Pyramids

Main article: Louvre Pyramid

In 1983, President François Mitterrand proposed the Grand Louvre plan to renovate the building and relocate the Finance Ministry, allowing displays throughout the building. Architect I. M. Pei was awarded the project and proposed a glass pyramid for the central courtyard.[37] The pyramid and its underground lobby were inaugurated on 15 October 1988. The second phase of the Grand Louvre plan, La Pyramide Inversée (The Inverted Pyramid), was completed in 1993. As of 2002, attendance had doubled since completion.[31]

Departments and organization

The Musée du Louvre contains more than 380,000 objects and displays 35,000 works of art in eight curatorial departments. The Louvre's is an almost rectangular structure, composed of the square Cour Carrée and two wings which wrap the Cour Napoléon to the north and south. In the heart of the complex is the Pyramid, above the visitor's center. From here, the museum is roughly divided into three wings: the Sully Wing to the east, which contains the Cour Carrée and the oldest parts of the Louvre; the Richelieu Wing to the north; and the Denon Wing, which borders the Seine to the south.[38] The collection is divided into eight curatorial departments.[39]

Decorative arts

13th century stained glass panel with Saint Blaise

The decorative arts' collection spans from the Middle Ages to the mid-19th century. The department began as a subset of the sculpture department, based on royal property and the transfer of work from the Basilique Saint-Denis, the burial ground of French monarchs that held the Coronation Sword of the Kings of France.[40][41] Among the budding collection's most prized works were pietre dure vases and bronzes. The Durand collection's 1825 acquisition added "ceramics, enamels, and stained glass", and 800 pieces were given by Pierre Révoil. The onset of Romanticism rekindled interest in Renaissance and Medieval artwork, and the Sauvageot donation expanded the department with 1,500 middle-age and faïence works. In 1862, the Campana collection added gold jewelry and maiolicas, mainly from the 15th and 16th centuries.[41][42]

The works are displayed on the Richelieu Wing's first floor and in the Apollo Gallery, named by the painter Charles Le Brun, who was commissioned by Louis XIV (the Sun King) to decorate the space in a solar theme. The medieval collection contains the coronation crown of Louis XIV, Charles V's sceptre, and the 12th century porphyry vase.[43] The Renaissance art holdings include Giambologna's bronze Nessus and Deianira and the tapestry Maximillian's Hunt.[40] From later periods, highlights include Madame de Pompadour's Sèvres vase collection and Napoloon III's apartments.[40]

Egyptian antiquities

The Seated Scribe is a piece added to the Louvre's collection from the findings of Auguste Mariette and dates from between 2600 and 2350 BCE. The limestone and alabaster work was found in a tomb near Saqqara.[44]

The department, comprised of over 50,000 pieces,[45] includes artefacts from the Nile civilizations which date from 4,000 BCE to the 4th century CE.[46] The collection, among the world's largest, permits an overview of Egyptian life spanning Ancient Egypt, the Middle Kingdom, the New Kingdom, Coptic art, and the Roman, Ptolemaic, and Byzantine periods.[46] The department's origins lie in the royal collection, but was augmented by Napoleon's 1798 expeditionary trip with Dominique Vivant, the future director of the Louvre.[45] Many pieces bought to Paris from Napoleon's expedition were eventually taken by the British, such as the Rosetta Stone.[47] After Jean-François Champollion translated the Rosetta Stone, Charles X decreed an Egyptian Antiquities department be created. Champollion advised the purchase of three collections, the Durand, Salt, Drovetti; these additions added 7,000 works. Growth continued via acquisitions by Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. Mariette, after excavations at Memphis, sent back crates of archaeological finds including The Seated Scribe.[45][47]

Guarded by the Large Sphinx (c. 2000 BCE), the collection is housed primarily in over twenty rooms in the Cour Carrée and Sully Wing. Holdings comprise art, papyrus scrolls, mummies, tools, clothing, jewellery, games, musical instruments, and weapons.[45][46] Pieces from the Ancient period include the Gebel-el Arak knife from 3400 BCE, The Seated Scribe, and the Head of King Djedefre. Middle Kingdom art, "known for its gold work and statues", moved from realism to idealization; this is exemplified by the schist statue of Amenemhatankh and the wooden Offering Bearer. The New Kingdom and Coptic Egyptian sections are deep, but the statue of the goddess Nephthys and the limestone depiction of the goddess Hathor demonstrate New Kingdom sentiment and wealth.[46][47]

Greek, Etruscan, and Roman

A marble female head circa the second millennium BCE. Although there appears to be no facial features aside from the nose, traces of pigment from other pieces indicate that these were added with paint.[48]

The Greek, Etruscan, and Roman department displays pieces from the Mediterranean Basin dating from the Neolithic to the 6th century CE.[49] The collection spans from the Cycladic periodto the decline of the Roman Empire. This department is one of the museum's oldest; it began with appropriated royal art, some of which was acquired under Francis I.[46][50] Initially, the collection focused on marble sculptures, such as the Venus de Milo. Works such as the Apollo Belvedere arrived during the Napoleonic Wars, but these pieces were returned after Napoleon I's fall in 1815. In the 19th century, the Louvre acquired works including vases from the Durand collection, bronzes such as the Borghese Vase from the Bibliothèque nationale.[44][49]

The archaic is demonstrated by jewellery and pieces such as the limestone Lady of Auxerre and Hera of Samos.[46] After the 4th century BCE, focus on the human form increased, exemplified by the Borghese Gladiator. The Louvre holds masterpieces from the Hellenistic era, including The Winged Victory of Samothrace (190 BCE) and the Venus de Milo, symbolic of classical art.[50] In the galleries paralleling the Seine, much of the museum's Roman sculpture is displayed.[49] The Roman portraiture is representative of that genre; examples include the portraits of Agrippa and Annius Verus; among the bronzes is the Greek Apollo of Piombino. Greek vases such as Eupronios' Heracles and Antaeus, offer a perspective on stylistic schools from the 9th century to the 2nd century BCE.[51]

Islamic art

The Islamic art collection, the museum's newest, spans "thirteen centuries and three continents".[52] These exhibits, composed of ceramics, glass, metalware, wood, ivory, carpet, textiles, and miniatures, include more than 5,000 works and 1,000 shards.[53] Originally part of the decorative arts department, the holdings became separate in 2003. Amongst the works are the Pyxide d'al-Mughira, an ivory box dating to 968 CE from Andalusia, and the Baptistery of Saint-Louis, an engraved brass basin from the 13th or 14 century Mamluk period.[54][52] The collection contains three pages of the Shahnameh, an epic poem by Ferdowsi in Persian, and a Syrian metalwork named the Barberini Vase.[53]

Near Eastern antiquities

This Assyrian human-headed winged bull (lamassu), dating to the 8th century BCE, was part of Paul-Émile Botta's.

Near Eastern antiquities, the second newest department, dates from 1881 and presents an overview of early Near Eastern civilization and "first settlements", before the arrival of Islam. The department is divided into three geographic areas: the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Iran. The collection's development corresponds to archaeological work such as Paul-Émile Botta's 1843 expedition to Khorsabad and the discovery of Sargon II's palace.[46][54] These finds formed the basis of the Assyrian museum, the precursor to today's department. Holdings were augmented by Claude Schaeffer's excavations in Ras-Shamra and André Parrot's work in Mari, Syria.[51]

The museum contains exhibits from Sumer and the city of Akkad, with monuments such as the Prince of Lagash's Stele of the Vultures from 2,450 BCE and the stele erected by Naram-Suen, King of Akkad, to celebrate a victory over barbarians in the Zagros Mountains. The 2.25-metre (7.38 ft) Code of Hammurabi, discovered in 1901, displays Babylonian Laws prominently, so that no man could plead their ignorance. The Iranian portion contains work from the archaic period like the Funerary Head and the Persian Archers of Darius I.[46][55]

Paintings

The paintings collection has more than 6,000 works from the 13th century to 1848. Nearly two-thirds are by French artists, and more than 1,200 are Northern European. The Italian paintings compose most of the remants of Francis I and Louis XIV's collections.[56] The department is representative of Western pictorial art, but the world's largest.[57] The 12 curators of the paintings department oversee the arrangement and display of the collection. The use of the Louvre as a depository for painted works in the Royal Collection began with Francis I, who envisioned a collection rivalling the Italians.[51] The king acquired works from Italian masters such as Raphael and Michelangelo and brought Leonardo da Vinci to his court.[58]

After the French Revolution, the Royal Collection formed the nucleus of the Louvre. The collection grew through the First French Empire during Napoleon I's European Wars, mostly via shipments of wartime spoils, by no means all of which were returned after 1815. When the d'Orsay train station was converted into the Musée d'Orsay in 1986, the painting collection was split, and the pieces completed after the 1848 Revolution were moved to the new museum. French and Northern European works are in the Richelieu wing and Cour Carrée, Spanish and Italian paintings are on the first floor of the Denon wing.[56]

The Coronation of Napoleon (1806) by Jacques-Louis David. David was permitted to attend the coronation and executed the painting for 24,000 francs.

Exemplifying the French School are the early Avignon Pieta of Enguerrand Quarton; Jean Fouquet's King Jean le Bon, the first known French easel painting; Hyacinthe Rigaud's Louis XIV; Jacques-Louis David's The Coronation of Napoleon; and Eugène Delacroix's Liberty Leading the People, commemorating the July Revolution.[51][44] Northern European works include Johannes Vermeer's The Lacemaker and The Astronomer; Caspar David Friedrich's Tree of Crows; Rembrandt's The Supper at Emmaus, Bathsheba at Her Bath, and The Slaughtered Ox. The Italian paintings, some drawn from Francis I's collection, include Andrea Mantegna's Calvary and Saint Sebastian; Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa and Virgin of the Rocks; and Caravaggio's The Fortune Teller and Death of the Virgin.[56]

Prints and drawings

The prints and drawings department encompasses works on paper and has more than 100,000 items.[59] The origins of the collection were the 8,600 works in the Royal Collection (Cabinet du Roi), which were increased via state appropriation, purchases such as the 1,200 works from Fillipo Baldinucci's collection in 1806, and donations.[44][60] Similar to the paintings department, the collection grew from military campaigns during Napoleon's reign.[60] The department opened for public viewing on 5 August 1797, with 415 pieces on display in the Galerie d'Apollon. The collection is organized into three sections: the core Cabinet du Roi, 14,000 royal copper printing-plates, and the donations of Edmond de Rothschild, which include 40,000 prints, 3,000 drawings, and 5,000 illustrated books. The vast holdings are displayed in the Pavillon de Flore; due to the fragility of the paper medium, only a small portion are displayed at one time.[51][60]

Sculptures

Tomb of Philippe Pot, governor of Burgundy under Louis XI, by Antoine Le Moiturier

The sculptures department comprises work created before 1850 that does not belong in the Etruscan, Greek, and Roman department.[61] The Louvre has been a repository of sculpted material since its time as a palace; however, only ancient architecture was displayed until 1824, except for Michelangelo's Dying Slave and Rebellious Slave.[62] Initially the collection was only 100 pieces, due to focus on Versailles. It remained small until 1847, when Léon Laborde was given control of the department. Laborde developed the medieval section and purchased the first such statues and sculptures in the collection, King Childebert and stanga door, respectively.[62] The collection was part of the Department of Antiquities but was given autonomy in 1871 under Louis Courajod, a director who organized a wider representation of French works.[61][62] In 1986, all works from after 1850 were relocated to the new Musée d'Orsay. The Grand Louvre project seperated the department into two exhibition spaces; the French collection is displayed in the Richelieu wing, and foreign works in the Denon wing.[61]

The sculpture collection's comprehensive overview of French sculpture contains Romanesque works such as the 11th century Daniel in the Lions' Den and the 12th century Virgin of Auvergne. In the 16th century, Renaissance influence caused French sculpture to become more delicate and restrained, as seen in Jean Goujon's bas-reliefs, and Germain Pilon's Descent from the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. The 17th and 18th centuries are represented by Étienne Maurice Falconet's Woman Bathing and Amour menaçant, and François Anguier's obelisks. Neoclassical works includes Antonio Canova's Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss (1787), which demonstrates the period's emphasis on emotion.[51][62]

Satellite museums

Lens

Main article: Louvre-Lens

In 2004, French officials decided to build a satellite museum on the site of an abandoned coal pit in the former mining town of Lens to relieve the crowded Paris Louvre, increase total museum visits, and improve the industrial north's economy.[63] Six cities were considered for the project: Amiens, Arras, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Calais, Lens, and Valenciennes. In 2004, French Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin chose Lens to be the site of the new building, called Le Louvre-Lens. Museum officials predicted that the new building, capable of receiving about 600 works of art, would attract up to 500,000 visitors a year when it opened in 2009.[63] The architectural team of Sanaa of Tokyo, under the direction of Ryue Nishizawa and Kazuyo Sejima, was awarded the project.[64]

Abu Dhabi

Main article: Louvre Abu Dhabi

In March 2007, the Louvre announced that a Louvre museum would be completed by 2012 in Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates. A 30-year agreement, signed by French Culture Minister Renaud Donnedieu de Vabres and Sheik Sultan bin Tahnoon Al Nahyan, will establish a Louvre museum in downtown Abu Dhabi in exchange for €832,000,000 (US$1.3 billion). The Louvre Abu Dhabi, designed by the French architect Jean Nouvel and the engineering firm of Buro Happold, will occupy 24,000 square metres (260,000 sq ft) and will be covered by a roof shaped like a flying saucer. France has agreed to rotate between 200 and 300 artworks through the Louvre Abu Dhabi during a 10-year period; to provide management expertise; and to provide four temporary exhibitions a year for 15 years. The art will come from multiple French museums, including the Louvre, the Georges Pompidou Centre, the Musée d'Orsay, Versailles, the Musée Guimet, the Musée Rodin, and the Musée du quai Branly.[65]

Controversies

The Louvre is involved in controversies that surround cultural property seized during World War II by the Nazis and under Napoleon. After Nazi occupation, over 60,000 articles were returned to France. Nearly 2,000 objects that did not have clear ownership and were claimed by Israelis and Jews were retained by French museums, including the Louvre. In 1997, Prime Minister Alain Juppé initiated the Mattéoli Commission to investigate the matter and "according to the government[,] the Louvre continues to hold 678 pieces of artwork."[66] Napoleon's campaigns acquired Italian and Northern European pieces and antiquities were taken during excavations, particularly in Egypt and the Near East. The Louvre administration has argued in favor of retaining these items despite requests by source nations for their return. The museum participates in arbitration sessions held via UNESCO's Committee for Promoting the Return of Cultural Property to Its Countries of Origin.[67]

The proposed construction of the Louvre Abu Dhabi is contentious because of a 400 million Euro payment to use the name "Louvre". Critics accuse the museum of "using France's artistic heritage for basely commercial ends."[68][69] Henri Loyrette, director of the Louvre, argued that the museum was establishing footholds abroad, and could not ignore museums' "internationalization".[70]

Location and access

A map of the Louvre in the 1er arrondissement or Paris. Metro Lines serving the area are shown, with stations colored red. Note that the RER is not shown. Landmarks are in black.

The museum lies in the centre of Paris on the Right Bank. The neighborhood, known as the 1st arrondissement, is home to the destroyed Palais des Tuileries. The adjacent Tuileries Gardens, created in 1564 by Catherine de Medici and reorganized in 1664 by André Le Nôtre. The gardens house the Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume, a contemporary art museum that was used to store Jewish cultural property from 1940 to 1944.[71]

The Louvre is slightly askew of the axe historique (Historic Axis), a roughly eight-kilometre (five-mile) architectural line bisecting the city, which begins in the Louvre courtyard. The Axe was begun in 1572, when architect André Le Nôtre planted a line of trees from the Louvre's courtyard to the Tuileries.[72] In 1871, when the Paris Commune burned down the Tuileries Palace, it exposed that the Louvre was unaligned to the Axe, despite having appeared along the same line of sight as the Champs-Élysées.[73]

The Louvre can be reached by the Palais Royal – Musée du Louvre Métro or the Louvre-Rivoli station.[74]

Notes

  1. ^ Sandler, Linda (February 25, 2008). "Louvre's 8.3 Million Visitors Make It No. 1 Museum Worldwide". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 2008-04-17.
  2. ^ a b Mignot, p. 32
  3. ^ a b Edwards, pp. 193, 194
  4. ^ In Larousse Nouveau Dictionnaire étymologique et historique, Librairie Larousse, Paris, 1971, p. 430: ***loup 1080, Roland (leu, forme conservée dans à la queue leu leu, Saint Leu, etc.); du lat. lupus; loup est refait sur le fém. louve, où le *v* a empêché le passage du *ou* à *eu* (cf. Louvre, du lat. pop. lupara)*** the etymology of the word louvre is from lupara, feminine (pop. Latin) form of lupus.
  5. ^ Pitt, p. 112
  6. ^ Chaundy, Bob (2006-09-29). "Faces of the Week". BBC. Retrieved 2007-10-05. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ a b Mignot, pp. 34, 35
  8. ^ Sturdy, p. 42
  9. ^ a b Blunt, p. 47
  10. ^ "Structurae [[fr]]: Palais du Louvre (1993)". Structurae Database. Retrieved 2008-01-14. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  11. ^ a b c d Mignot, p. 39
  12. ^ Baedeker, pp. 87-89
  13. ^ a b Edwards, p. 198
  14. ^ Mignot, p. 42
  15. ^ Nore, p. 274
  16. ^ a b c d e Nora, p. 278
  17. ^ a b c Mignot, pp. 68, 69
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  19. ^ Oliver, p. 35
  20. ^ a b c Alderson, p.24, 25
  21. ^ McClellan, p. 7
  22. ^ Mignot, p. 52
  23. ^ a b Alderson, p.25
  24. ^ Mignot, p.69. According to Mignot, Mantegna's Calvary, Veronese's The Marriage of Cana, and Rogier van der Wyden's Annunciation were not returned.
  25. ^ a b Mignot, pp. 52-54
  26. ^ a b c Mignot, pp. 70-71
  27. ^ a b Simon, p. 23
  28. ^ Simon, p. 177
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  32. ^ "The Business of Art: Welcome to The Louvre Inc. - International - SPIEGEL ONLINE - News". Der Spiegel Online. Retrieved 2008-09-25.
  33. ^ Lunn, page 137
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  41. ^ a b Mignot, pp. 451-54
  42. ^ "Decorative Arts". Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  43. ^ Lasko, p. 242
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  46. ^ a b c d e f g h Nave, pp.42-43
  47. ^ a b c "Egyptian Antiquities". Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  48. ^ Mignot, p.158
  49. ^ a b c "Greek, Etruscan, and Roman Antiquities". Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
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  51. ^ a b c d e f Quoniam, p 24
  52. ^ a b "Islamic Art". Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
  53. ^ a b Ahlund, page 24
  54. ^ a b Mignot, pp. 119-121
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  58. ^ "Paintings". Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
  59. ^ Mignot, 495-497
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  61. ^ a b c "Sculptures". Musée du Louvre. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
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  64. ^ Williams, Nicola; Berry, Oliver (2007). Lonely Planet France. Lonely Planet Publications. pp. p. 252. ISBN 1-74104-233-X. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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Works cited

Books. ISBN 9780739118610. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |publisher= at position 11 (help)

See also

External links

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