Assyrian Empire

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The core area of ​​the Assyrians (red). (Orange: approximate extent under Assurbanipal )

The Assyrian Empire was a state of so-called ancient Near East , originating in the north, also known as Mesopotamia called Mesopotamia . It existed for a period of about 1200 years, from the beginning of the 18th century BC. Until its annihilation around 609 BC. Its history is divided into three periods: the Old, Middle and New Assyrian Empire. Both the empire and its first capital were named after Assyria , the supreme god in the Assyrian faith.

The New Assyrian Empire (from the 9th century BC) is considered the first great empire in world history. Its center was on the Tigris . The center of power had shifted from the city ​​of Aššur (today: Kalat Scherkât) only slightly to the north to the cities of Kalach ( Nimrud ) and finally Nineveh . In its greatest expansion under Ashurbanipal , the empire extended in the east via Babylon into what is today Iran , in the west as far as the Mediterranean Sea and over ancient Egypt to Nubia (Assyrian: Meluḫḫa ).

The Assyrians have been around since the 2nd millennium BC. Proven on the middle Tigris . The first settlements on the Großer Zab and the upper Tigris are already around 2500 BC. Assumed. The Assyrians emerged from a mixture of non- Sumerian residents from the even older Halaf and Samarra cultures with Semitic immigrants.

The city ​​of Assur lay on a Tigris crossing , on the trade routes between Babylonia and Anatolia, Elam , the Zagros and Jezireh with northern Mesopotamia. The oldest traces of a settlement go back to the ancient Sumerian times and under the rule of the kings of the Akkadian empire the seat of one of its governors was here. Without the defensive strength of its population, Aššur would have become easy prey for Western Semitic invaders towards the end of the Ur III period and with the collapse of the Empire of the 3rd Dynasty of Ur . The local princes not only secured the city against intruders, but also took on the role previously assumed by the king of Ur as the protector of their merchants and their trading colonies (e.g. Kaniš ) that had advanced far into Asia Minor .

Ancient Assyrian State (until 1380 BC)

Approximate extent of the Old Assyrian Empire under Šamši-Adad I.

The richest source of the ancient Assyrian Empire are the cuneiform documents from the trading post ( karum ) Kültepe in Turkey.

history

The Assyrian list of kings , compiled under Šamši-Adad I to legitimize his accession to the throne, and continued by later rulers, tries to trace the succession of the Assyrian kings back to the establishment of the kingship. We start with “Kings who lived in tents” (Kings 1–17), that is, nomads, about whom nothing else is reported. The name of the first king appears on a tablet from Ebla , which tells of a treaty between the kings of Ebla and Assur. Altogether several genealogies were probably linked together. The first ruler who is attested by his own inscriptions is Ilu-šuma , the 32nd king of the Assyrian king list. A Neo-Assyrian chronicle reports a battle between Ilu-šuma, King of Assyria, and Su-abu ( Sumu-abum ), which provides a first synchronicity with Sumer. Ilu-šuma himself describes himself only as the governor of the Aššur . The previous rulers are to be regarded as largely mythical.

In succession to the Sumerian empires, Aššur gained importance when it conquered the northern territories of Babylonia . It was first conquered by Šamši-Adad I (king of all, 1744 to 1712 BC), who then established an Upper Mesopotamian empire with a residence in Šubat-Enlil as a regional power in northern Mesopotamia ; however, his sons could not continue the empire after his death.

In northern Mesopotamia, an era followed (~ 1700–1500 BC) from which only a few inscriptions are known. The Levant was fought over between the Hittites , Mittani and Egyptians. In the final phase of the ancient Assyrian period, Assur was conquered by Mittani, the city gate of Assur was abducted from Sauštatar to Hanilgabat around 1450 (Šuppililiuma-Šattiwaza Treaty). Assyria was established from 1450 to 1380 BC. A vassal state of Mittanis. During this time, Assyria was again limited to the city of Aššur and its immediate surroundings.

construction

After the king and his administration, the bīt ālim / bīt līmin was the highest authority in the city of Aššur. It corresponded to a city council, but was also responsible for trade. The respective eponym ( limmu ) was chaired . The bīt ālim issued laws and regulations on trade and relations with the karū , but also seems to have at least had a say in relations with other states. The bīt ālim also collected customs on goods exported from Assur, which had to bear the “seal of the city”. The eponym also played an important role in jurisprudence. He was also in charge of collecting taxes. The “emissaries of the city” controlled the trade in the karū .

In research, the ancient Assyrian state is usually assumed to be a city-state with its center in Aššur. Veenhof assumes that Aššur had about 10,000 inhabitants in ancient Assyrian times. Extended families (with the bīt abīni as the center) formed the basis of the economic structure. Members of the large merchant families were able to take on the important office of the eponym ( limmu ).

economy

Assyrian traders set up a network of trading colonies in Anatolia to trade pewter and robes for copper, silver and gold. At the latest under Erišum I , the karum of Kaneš was created, which went up in flames about 150 years later. What effects this had on Assyrian trade is unknown in the absence of appropriate documents.

Silver was the main currency, and tin in Anatolia. The export of gold from Aššur was strictly prohibited. Copper, silver and gold were imported from Anatolia, where a wide-ranging system of trading colonies ( karū ) existed, the most famous of which is Kültepe. The tin that was traded in Assyria came from the east, probably from Uzbekistan . It was transported on to Anatolia.

The Assyrian textile industry was important, but textiles, especially those of finer quality, were also imported from Babylonia. While there were centralized weaving rooms in Ur , Larsa and Mari , in which textiles were manufactured under the supervision of a temple or royal administration, textile production in Assur did not appear to be under centralized control. Sometimes the merchant women and their slaves processed the wool intended for export. In some cases, wool was also imported from Anatolia when there was not enough of it in Assyria or when it was too expensive.

Central Assyrian Empire (1380 BC to 912 BC)

The sources for the Central Assyrian period are comparatively sparse. Main sources for the history, the Assyrian synchronistic history and the Babylonian Chronicle P . Annals start under Arik-dēn-ili , the information is sparse and formular, with the exception of toponyms. One of the first obelisks, the broken obelisk , was made under Aššur-bēl-kala . Business texts are relatively rare.

history

Eriba-Adad I (1380 BC – 1354 BC) liberated Assyria from the rule of Mittani. Under Arik-dēn-ilu , sparse annal texts begin , which inform us more precisely about the Assyrian history.

Aššur-uballiṭ I. (1353 BC – 1318 BC) was able to decisively beat Mittani. He made Šattuara tribute and destroyed the capitals Taidu and Waššukanni . Šattuara's son Wašašatta became a Hittite vassal, but Urḫi-Teššup did not come to his aid when Aššur-uballiṭ attacked again, and he was able to penetrate as far as Ḫarran on the Euphrates. Urḫi-Teššup had still regarded him as an upstart, looked for his successor, the usurper Hattušili III. , the alliance with Assyria and called him brother. Aššur-uballiṭ also established diplomatic contacts with Egypt, despite the protest of Burna-buriaš II. To consolidate his position in southern Mesopotamia, Aššur-uballiṭ wed his daughter to the Babylonian king; when their son Kadašman-Ḫarbe I was killed in an uprising in Babylonia, Aššur-uballiṭ stepped in, probably with Babylonian help, and installed Kurigalzu II as the new ruler.

Overall, the relations between Assyria and its southern neighbor, apart from the conquest of Babylonia by Tukultī-Ninurta I, were largely peaceful. There were some border conflicts, the course of the border was regulated by contract. Brinkman sees a balance of power between the two realms. Economic texts document the trade between Assyria and Babylonia, in addition to textiles, tin was also traded. In addition, there is evidence of a regular exchange of messengers. The main reason for conflict was probably the control of the trade routes into Iran, which ran through Arbail and Arrapha and the Zagros .

Salmānu-ašarēd I (1263-1234 BC) conquered large parts of the Mittani, supported by the Hittites, and set the Grand Vizier Qibi-Aššur as king of Hanigalbat over these provinces . The kings of Hanigalbat were subsequently the second most powerful people in the Central Assyrian Empire. Adad-nārāri II could then finally submit Mittani. It remained part of Assyria until its end in 612. Rowton assumes that the possession of Hanigalbat with its trade routes and the long tradition of building chariots was an important prerequisite for Assyria's rise to world power.

The ancient Orient around 1220 BC Chr.

Under Salmānu-ašarēd I and Tukultī-Ninurta I , the area at the lower Chabur and the Belich was conquered and incorporated into the Assyrian Empire. The border was expanded with fortifications and smaller forts. Bases were also established on the central Euphrates.

Under Salmānu-ašarēd I, relations with Hatti deteriorated noticeably, due to the weakness of Hanigalbat the buffer between the two great powers was no longer available. Hatti's main opponent at the time was Egypt. Only with Tudhalija IV. , The successor of Hattušili III. , relationships relaxed a little at first.

Tukultī-Ninurta I (1233–1197 BC) assumed the title of " king of all " after defeating the Hittites and conquering Babylon . The Tukulti Ninurta epic , a literary work intended to justify the conquest of Babylon, reports on his victories . A state of war existed between Tukultī-Ninurta and Tudhalija IV of Hatti, as evidenced by the Šaušgamuwa Treaty (KUB XXIII). In it, Šaušgamuwa is obliged by Amurru , a brother-in-law of Tudhalija IV., Not to allow any Assyrian traders into his country and not to trade with Assyria. Furthermore, he had to provide soldiers and chariots to the great king when an open war broke out. Under Tukultī-Ninurta, deportations of the population from the subjugated areas are mentioned for the first time - a practice that assumed enormous proportions in the New Assyrian Empire. There is evidence that iron weapons were made in Assyria under Tukultī-Ninurta. About 3 km north of Aššur, the king had the new residence Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta built; but it was given up after Tukultī-ninurta had been killed by his sons in a palace revolution . Weakened by this internal unrest, the Central Assyrian Empire lost Babylon to Elam .

King Aššur-reš-iši I (1132–1115 BC) began a new policy of expansion.

Tukulti-apil-Ešarra I (1114-1076 BC) was able to expand the Assyrian sphere of influence enormously. In the south, rulers of the 2nd Kassite dynasty were weak, so that it was possible to take the city again. In the north the kingdom of the Hittites had perished; this enabled Tukulti-apil-Ešarra to penetrate new areas and expand the Assyrian Empire to the Taurus Mountains and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

His successors could not hold this great empire together. The Aramaeans conquered large parts of northern Syria. The Assyrians were pushed back into their core area in northern Mesopotamia.

Corporate structure

Central Assyrian society is often characterized as feudal. Other authors see it as an oriental despotism , in which the king controls the peasantry by means of a strong bureaucracy and siphons off the excess production. The upper class consisted of the royal family, their high officials (ERÍN. MEŠ ša É.GAL-lí) and the great patrician families (GAL.MEŠ, "magnates") of Assur. In contrast to the ancient Assyrian era, merchants no longer seem to have belonged to the upper class.

The majority of the population probably lived in self-sufficient villages ( ālu ). At least some of them were liable to taxes for a large landowner. Postgate assumes that the term ālāiu refers to such unfree peasants (cf. “villein” in the Middle Ages). According to Postgate, the entire land belonged to the Crown, and the farmers had to do the ilku service in return for using it . Large landowners could, however, provide dependents to do the ilku service for them . Ilku could consist in deliveries in kind to the army ( ḫurādu ); the cuneiform text TR 3005 mentions the delivery of grain, wool and pork fat. The supply of chariot horses (KAJ 253) could Ilku represent. The common form was probably military service.

Slavery still existed. The origin of the slaves is rarely known. Among other things, Lullubeans are documented. Assyrians who had been enslaved, presumably prisoners of war, were ransomed by order of the king. If an Assyrian was in enemy hands for more than two years, his wife was treated as a widow ( almattu ) and was able to remarry . Before that time, his house and fields could be sold to provide his wife with a living if she had no relatives to take care of her. If the husband returned after this period, he could take his wife back into his home, but had no rights over the children she had given birth to another, and he could buy his house back.

Agriculture

Faist characterizes Central Assyria as an agrarian society. Agriculture was mainly used for self-sufficiency. Any surplus was used to supply the temples, the royal administration and the army. Garelli distinguishes three types of property:

  • Land owned by the crown
  • Privately owned
  • Crown land that is managed by private individuals.

Land could be sold, as evidenced by numerous legal documents; but it is not certain that this was true of all types of land ownership. The purchase was recorded in writing ( ṭuppa dannata ).

Livestock was important, especially sheep, but horned cattle were also traded in by steppe nomads such as the Suti . Horses had to be imported from the highlands.

Assyrian bull made of clay, approx. 1200 BC Chr., Approx. 6 cm long and 4.5 cm high

Sesame was mainly grown as an oil plant . Faist assumes that olive oil was imported as early as Central Assyrian times . The most important drink was beer, wine had to be imported from Syria (Karkemiš and Aštarta, Ugarit) and was reserved for the upper class. Wine has also been grown on the Chabur since the 13th century. Honey was also introduced, in Assyria itself only a sweet syrup (LÀL) was produced.

Building material

Mud bricks were the main building material . For larger buildings, especially temples and palaces, suitable wood had to be imported for the ceiling beams. Cedars from Lebanon or Amanus have been documented since Tiglat-Pileser I. They were either transported by the army as booty or came to Aššur as tribute. Gušuru wood (perhaps a conifer) came from Meḫri , probably between the Tigris and the upper Zab , and was used in the construction of the new palace of Tukultī-Ninurta I. Limestone and gypsum were the order of the day in Assyria, basalt and alabaster had to be imported.

Craft

Silex devices were still made for domestic use .

In the textile industry mainly wool was processed. Numerous terms document the multitude of known fabrics and garments. Linen clothes were imported from Karkemiš.

Bronze was alloyed in Assyria itself and then transported in the form of bars ( šabartu ). The copper came either from Anatolia (Ergani) or from Cyprus, an ox skin ingot was found in Dūr-Kurigalzu . The tin (AN.NA BABBAR) may have come from northern Syria or from Hatti (Kestel mine?). Ebony ( GIŠ ašiu ) from Nubia was used to make valuable chests, as was ivory, which came from Syria. Lapis lazuli were obtained from Babylonia, where the stone was obtained either from Badachschan in Afghanistan or from Tajikistan. Lapis-Lazuli was also given to Egyptian rulers as a precious gift (EA 15).

The royal palace employed its own craftsmen who were given the raw materials for their work from the royal magazines.

economy

In contrast to the ancient Assyrian era, silver was rarely used as a means of payment. The cause is suspected to be a shortage of silver. The main means of payment was the metal AN.NA, but there is no full agreement on the translation of the term. It is either tin or lead. Gold, in the form of grains or as spiral bars, was traded from Babylonia and Emar .

trade

Assyria mainly exported textiles during the Central Assyrian period. Silver, tin and bronze were probably mainly used as means of payment. Long-distance trade, as far as it was documented in writing, primarily served to supply the upper class with luxury goods and, according to Faist, did not play a major role economically. Merchants were not only important for the supply of luxury goods, but could also be entrusted with diplomatic missions.

Trade to the west was mainly carried out via Emar and Karkemiš , some fragmentary documents are also known from Ugarit , from here it seems that wine was mainly obtained. Sidon was particularly important for the exchange with Egypt .

administration

In addition to the scribes, the abarakku were among the highest royal officials . Among other things, they were responsible for issuing exotic raw materials and supervising the craftsmen involved in luxury production. The palace also employed trade agents.

army

Those required to serve in the army were equipped by the state and had to return their weapons at the end of their service life. The issue of the weapons was acknowledged in writing. In a text from Tell al-Rimaḥ (TR 2021 +) the issue of a lance ( ulmu ) to a certain Ṣilli-amurri is acknowledged, after the return of the army ( ḫurādu ) he should return the lance and his tablet will be broken (as a sign the settled debt). Postgate assumes the military service lasted at least a year.

Horses for equipping the chariots were obtained from the Zagros (Nairi countries) and perhaps also from the Iranian highlands. The importation of horses was subject to duty, as evidenced by a document from Tell ar-Rimāh. It is commonly believed that the Assyrians took over chariots and horse training from the Mitanni . However, texts on horse breeding and training have also come down to us since Central Assyrian times. Chariots and teams also served as royal gifts ( EA 16, 9–12). Molds were particularly valued. Donkeys were used as pack animals on campaigns.

The most important raw material for weapons and armor was bronze. Iron mail shirts and swords have been exchanged by the Hittites since Adad-nārārī I (KBo I 14). Iron processing has also been documented in Assyria since Tukulti-Ninurta I. This is how arrowheads and sticks were made. Tamara Stech-Wheeler et al. assume that the ironworking technique reached Assyria via Ḫanilgabat.

The army was under the rāb ḫurādi . The rāb kiṣri may have presided over mercenary troops who served year-round.

New Assyrian Empire (911 BC to 605 BC)

Assyria between the 9th and 7th centuries BC Chr.

Succession of rulers

Aššur-nasir-apli II. - a first high point of Neo-Assyrian power:

After his immediate predecessors had made Assyria the supreme power in the Mesopotamian lowlands through numerous campaigns, Aššur-nasir-apli II. (883-859 BC) brought the routes to the Mediterranean, which had already been briefly controlled under Tiglath-Pileser I. , under Assyrian rule. He set up garrisons in these areas and took action against insurrections. His son Salmānu-ašarēd III. (859–824 BC) pushed the border of the Assyrian Empire further towards southern Syria and Israel.

In view of the impending danger, several principalities formed an alliance, including the northern kingdom of Israel and the King of Damascus . At the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC BC this coalition of otherwise rival rulers could stop the Assyrian advance. In the north, Urartu Salmānu-ašarēd III. successful resistance.

In the next 80 years the newly conquered areas could not be held; the subsequent rulers primarily had to settle the internal conflicts that broke out again and again, some of which had already arisen during Shalmanesar's lifetime. The kingdom of Urartu in particular troubled the kings enormously; in its mountainous landscape it was almost impossible to conquer and posed an enormous threat to the Assyrian core empire. The Neo-Assyrian empire had reached a new low in the middle of the 8th century BC.

Tiglat-Pileser III .:

As Tiglat-Pileser III. ascended the throne, the country was weakened by epidemics, civil unrest and the rise of the kingdom of Urartu . To this day it is not exactly clear how Tukulti-apil-Ešarra - its Akkadian name - came to power. Since his coronation was preceded by a military revolt, he probably did not belong to the dynasty ruling until then. Emil Forrer suspects that Tiglat-Pileser was governor . These administrators had greatly expanded their power over time, and the office eventually became hereditary. Immediately after coming to power, Tiglat-Pileser doubled the number of provinces. Perhaps he wanted to prevent a governor from becoming powerful enough to overthrow the ruling dynasty from the throne.

The main interest of Tiglat-Pilesers III. was the access to the Mediterranean Sea and the trading centers there. In several battles he succeeded in conquering the principalities of today's Syria and Lebanon and in 733 BC. To advance to Aram (Damascus) , which he besieged. Damascus had never been conquered by an Assyrian king before, and Tiglath-Pileser III. reports in his annals: “That one (the King of Damascus) fled alone to save his life and passed through the gate of his city like a goose. […] I camped around his city for 45 days and kept him captive like a bird in a cage. ”The city's case is not reported, research agrees that it must have taken place the following year.

Damascus played no role as an opponent of Assyria and Tiglat-Pileser III. was able to expand his territory to Palestine and Gaza on the Egyptian border: "Hanno of Gaza [...] fled to the land of Egypt. Gaza ... I conquered. ”With that, the Assyrian Empire extended from present-day Israel to the Persian Gulf . Now Tiglat-Pileser III. about integrating the conquered territory more firmly into his realm.

Sargon II. - The empire at the zenith of its power:

Winged bull from Khorsabad ( Louvre )
Winged bull from Khorsabad ( Louvre )

Salmānu-ašarēd V , the son of Tiglat-Pilesers, could not long stay on the throne. According to the annals of his successor, he dared to touch the special position of the holy city of Aššur . In the revolt that followed in 722 BC. Salmānu-ašarēd V fell victim to an assassination attempt; it is said that the god Ashur overthrew him for his iniquity. Almost nothing is known about the origin of his successor Sargon II . His name, which translates as "right ruler" and thus represents an overemphasis on legitimacy, suggests research suggests that he probably did not belong to the ruling dynasty. A further indication for this could be that Sargon describes himself as appointed by God, but never mentions his predecessors: “Sargon, [...] the favorite of the great gods, [...] to whom Assyria and Marduk bestowed an unparalleled kingship and whose name they call appointed to the top. "

After Sargon had restored tranquility in the empire, he turned first against Babylon, where a prince named Marduk-apla-iddina II had used the turmoil to sit on the throne. In his magnificent inscription, Sargon reports of a victory against the alliance of Babylonians and the king of Elam: "[...] I defeated Humbanigas of Elam in the suburb of Duril." The Babylonian Chronicle provides a completely different account of this battle : “In the second year of Merodoch-Baladan, Umbanigas, king of Elam, fought a battle in the district of Dur-ilu Sargon, king of Assyria. He devastated Assyria and slew many of them. Merodach-Baladan and his people, who had come to the aid of the King of Elam, did not come to the battle at the right time and went after. ”So Sargon had suffered a defeat, the effects of which he was able to achieve through a clever standstill agreement with Marduk-apla- iddina could restrict.

After the defeat in the south, Sargon II turned to the Mediterranean. He managed to expand his empire to Cyprus and Asia Minor and to conclude an armistice with the Phrygians who lived there . Inevitable, however, was that sooner or later the war against Urartu would break out. The constant correspondence between Sargon and his governors in the north shows how tense the relationship with the kingdom in the north was ; so the Assyrians were informed about troop movements by a whole army of spies until the year 714 BC. . BC Sennacherib , Crown Prince and head of the secret, the key piece of information sent: "To the King [...] The Ukkaen sent me [this message]: The king of Urartu troops were on his campaign against the Cimmerians devastating beaten. ”Now Sargon II saw his chance for the decisive blow. “ I defeated Rusa I of Urartu on the inaccessible mountain Uaus and captured 250 of his royal family. I captured and burned 55 strong walled cities of its eight territories along with eleven of its castles. […] Musasir , who had relied on Rusa of Urartu […] […], I cover with troops like locusts. […] Rusa […] heard that Musasir had been destroyed and that his god had been dragged away, and […] took his own life with the iron dagger of his belt. ”Urartu was able to recover from this tremendous defeat, but posed no threat to Assyria more.

With the victory over Urartu in 714 BC BC Sargon had eliminated the greatest threat to the Mesopotamian heartland. The task now was to avenge the defeat against Marduk-Apla-Iddina II and to recapture Babylonia . 710 BC BC Sargon moved against the Babylonian king, who fled south into the swamps. Sargon devastated the rural areas south of Babylon, while sparing the old residential cities in the north. Sargon entered Babylon and was crowned king. However, he probably did not use this title in the future - probably because of the obligations associated with it - as one of his inscriptions shows: “Palace of Sargon, the great king, the mighty king, the king of all, the king of Assur, the ruler of Babylon. ”Opinions to the contrary in research are likely to be mistaken.

As early as 717 BC BC Sargon ordered the construction of his new residence city Dur Sarrukin near today's Khorsabad . Especially in the last, quiet years of his reign he pushed this plan with all means: “I […] built a city above Nineveh and called Dur Sarrukin its name. […] I planned to make that city inhabited by day and by night. ”The complex, which was built in 706 BC. However, it never became a functioning capital, as Sargon was killed in a campaign a year later and his son Sin-ahhe-eriba relocated the seat of government to Nineveh.

Ashurbanipal:

Within 40 years, Tiglat-Pileser III. and Sargon made Assyria the largest empire in the Middle East. Sargon's successors, Sin-ahhe-eriba and Aššur-ahhe-iddina , were able to maintain and even expand their territory through numerous campaigns and the suppression of rebellions. As Aššur-ahhe-iddina 669 BC BC died on a campaign against Egypt , his son and Crown Prince Ashurbanipal took over the government. Two years later, with the capture of Thebes , the capital of Upper Egypt , this would give the Neo-Assyrian Empire its greatest expansion. The 40-year rule of Assurbanipal (668–627 BC) was a heyday:

"[...] let Ramman his rain going on, opened Ea its underwater caves, the grain was five cubits in his ears, the ear was 6.5 cubits long, the tree planting were the fruit plentiful, are the cattle while throwing success had. During my reign, abundance came down en masse; during my years, blessings plummeted in abundance. […] On my second campaign I steered the way to Egypt […] and went to Thebes , the city of his strength. He saw the approach of my mighty battle, left Thebes and fled […] This city completely conquered my hands, trusting in Aššur and Ištar . I captured heavy booty without number from Thebes. Over Egypt [...] I let my weapons sparkle and [...] returned safely to Nineveh , my residence . "

- Aššur-bāni-apli (667 BC)

But there was also bloody fighting under Ashurbanipal, including a fratricidal war with Šamaš-šuma-ukin , the king of Babylonia, through which the empire was lastingly weakened.

Asarhaddon had already arranged his succession during his reign. As the younger son of Sin-ahhe-eriba, he himself came to the throne only thanks to the intercession of his energetic mother Zakutu . This also influenced him in his succession to the throne. After the death of his eldest son, he appointed the younger Aššur-bani-apli to the throne of Assyria, while his older brother Šamaš-šuma-ukin should ascend the throne in Babylon. However, this regulation should be in the year 652 BC. Turn out to be fatal.

While Šamaš-šuma-ukin had been loyal in the first years, he now allied himself with the King of Elam and turned against Aššur-bani-apli. After a two-year siege, Aššur-bani-apli conquered the starved Babylonia and punished it with all severity:

“At that time it happened that the people of Akkadu [= Babylon], who stood on the side of the Šamaš-šuma-ukin and planned evil, got hungry and ate the meat of their sons and daughters against their hunger; and Aššur , Sin [...], who went before me and subjugated my adversaries, threw Sammuges, the enemy brother [...], into a burning fireplace and destroyed his life. [...] Not a single one escaped. [...] I let dogs, pigs and vultures [...] eat their slaughtered meat. "

After taking Babylon, Ashurbanipal moved against Elam and conquered the capital Susa .

Fall and Fall:

According to the latest research, the New Assyrian Empire was aimed solely at expansion. The conquered areas were bled to death by deportations of residents and taxes until further expansion was the only option to maintain the standard of living of the ruling class. In order to keep the more distant areas under control, more and more Assyrians from the heartland had to be used as soldiers, relocated or withdrawn for administrative tasks. The ever-decreasing productivity of the heartland forced in turn to exploit the conquered areas and thus to further expansions. The resources of administrative staff were probably already exhausted when Thebes was conquered in 667 . This did not lead to an immediate collapse, as demonstrated by the 40-year rule of Assurbanipal. The empire, which had become unstable, was able to withstand a strong king, rich harvests and relatively little unrest at the external borders.

It is not known exactly when Ashurbanipal died. 616 BC A Babylonian army under King Nabopolassar moved to Assyria: 614 BC. The city of Aššur fell in 612 BC. After a long struggle also Nineveh and 608 BC. Finally also the last important Charran fortress . The Assyrian Empire was effectively at an end. The subsequent vengeance of the peoples so long oppressed by the Assyrian Empire was in no way inferior to the cruelty of its former rulers - it even exceeded it: The Assyrians were completely exterminated as a people, the country devastated and plundered.

An Assyrian king is mentioned for the last time in the Babylonian Chronicle for the year 609. However, there are indications that units of the Assyrian army, with the help of the Egyptian army drawn into Syria in 609, were able to survive until the lost battle of Carchemish in 605 BC. Continued to fight against the advancing Babylonians in the former western provinces. The end of Assyria meant the rise of Babylonia to supremacy in Mesopotamia . Nabopolassar and especially his son Nabu-kudurri-usur II were able to establish a neo-Babylonian empire , which in 539 BC Was subjugated by the Persian king Cyrus II .

Relations with neighbors

Babylonia:

In Babylonia ruled v since the 747th King Nabu-nasir by the grace of Tukulti-apil-Ešarra. After the death of Nabu-nasir, turmoil broke out in Babylonia, endangering the southern border of Assyria. Research does not agree on Tiglat-pileser's takeover, but the Babylonian Chronicle provides a relatively detailed report: “Nadinu [...] sat on the throne in Babylon. In the year 2 Nadinu was killed in a riot. […] Shumu-ukin, […] involved in the uprising, sat on the throne. Ukin-zir […] took the throne. In the third year of Ukin-zir moved Tukulti-apil-Ešarra III. to Akkad […] and captured Ukin-Zir. Tukulti-apil-Ešarra III. ascended the throne in Babylon. ”He was crowned King of Babylon under the name Pulu. This was the first time that the thrones of Assyria and Babylonia were united. As Tukulti-apil-Ešarra III. 727 BC When he died in the 3rd century BC, he left his son Salmānu-ašarēd V an empire of enormous proportions, which was relatively stable and solid both internally and externally.

Urartu - danger from the north:

In the mountains north of the Euphrates Plain, the kingdom of Urartu had already developed from several small principalities under the predecessors of Tiglath-pilesers - probably ironically due to the threat to Assyria - and was to increasingly offer resistance to the emerging Neo-Assyrian Empire. So Tiglath-pileser was hit on his way to the Mediterranean on a Urartian army, but he was able to fight back after a violent struggle " . Sarduri II from the country Urartu fell on me and [...] in the country kistan and the country Halpi I hit him until annihilation. ”In the long run, however, this could not break the Urartian resistance.

Building the New Assyrian Empire

Form of rule:

100 years earlier, the kings Aššur-nasir-apli II. And Salmānu-ašarēd III. the Assyrian area similarly expanded, but not able to maintain it in the longer term. The previous simple organization of the Assyrian Empire, which was maintained through joint wars of conquest and spoils of war , was too much shaped by the interests of the individual rulers. To curtail their power, divided Tukulti-apil-Ešarra III. on the one hand, the country into smaller districts and on the other hand entrusted their leadership to loyal governors, sometimes also eunuchs , instead of the nobility. The army was no longer raised and paid for by princes, but by the king, and the obligation of prisoners of war also appears likely. He did not have to share conquests and spoils of war.

He regularly collected taxes to finance it. In doing so, he built a strictly hierarchical bureaucratic apparatus and did not shy away from acts of violence to put down rebellions.

Administration:

The administrative structure of the New Assyrian Empire can be traced back to the time of Tiglat-Pileser III. trace back. Conquered kingdoms were usually converted into provinces under an Assyrian governor ( šaknu or bel paḥete ). District administrators ( rab alani ) and city governors ( ḥazannu ) are also occupied. Deportations were often associated with the conquest . This increased the population of Assyria and broke the local resistance. The deportees were provided with rations.

There were also autonomous vassal kings. Special officials ( qepu , emissaries) were tasked with monitoring the vassal states . Nomads were under Assyrian control (especially the spice trade was closely controlled). The Philistine and Phoenician coastal cities that provided the fleet had a special status, as the Assyrians did not have their own fleet.

Social structure:

Any resident could be asked to do public works ( dullu ša šarri ), such as earthworks or brick making .

Economy:

There were various degrees of craftsmen, masters being called umānu . Work for the king was under the control of a high court official.

Army:

Every Assyrian was obliged to serve in the military, but could buy himself out through payments. In addition, units from subject states were integrated into the Assyrian army. Sometimes mercenaries were also used, such as the Aramaic Itu'eans since Shalmaneser III. For the annual royal war campaigns in autumn there was a special contingent, dikût māti.

Details about the structure, armament and equipment of the Assyrian army are mainly provided by the reliefs in the Principal Reception Suites of the Neo-Assyrian royal palaces.

The infantry consisted of armored lancers, spear throwers, lightly and heavily armored archers and slingshots. Presumably there were special technical units that paved the way in rough terrain and built and operated the heavy siege machines. There were u. a. Battering rams and siege towers. Heavy shields were used to protect the archers. In sieges, local forced laborers were also used for simple work such as building ramps. In favorable terrain, the army could travel 20-25 km per day.

In addition to two-wheeled chariots , the cavalry also included horsemen. Assyrian horsemen have been recorded since Adad-nirari II (911-891), they are described in action against the Arameans . Horses were obtained from Gilzanu , later also from Parsua . Specialists from conquered states also served in the cavalry. So there was under Tiglat-pileser III. a unit of chariot drivers from Samaria .

There was no separate Assyrian fleet, seamen were drawn from the Phoenician and later Cypriot port cities. Inflated goat skins were used to cross larger watercourses. Such river crossings were undertakings that featured prominently in the royal annals.

The opponent's losses were checked by counting heads and recorded on cuneiform tablets / papyri. Nevertheless, the data on troop strengths in Assyrian texts must be viewed with suspicion.

Deportations:

For example, Tukulti-apil-Ešarra III attacked. as a means of mass deportation . While thousands of compatriots were settled in the border areas, most of the tribes living there had to make their way to the Assyrian heartland: "Thousands to the province of the Turtanu , 10,000 to the province of the palace messenger, [...] a thousand to the province of the chief cupbearer, Thousands in Barhalzi Province , 5,000 in Mazamua Province, which I divided up and where I settled. I united them; I treated them as residents of Assyria. "

For the reign of Tukulti-apil-Ešarra alone, the deportation of 370,000 people is expected. In this way, rebellious states were not only defeated, but destroyed. The deported people were in a strange environment, were dependent on Assyrian rations, had no contact with their former compatriots and had no choice but to accept Assyrian rule and integrate into the empire. This policy led to a mixture of the population and also to a standardization of the language. Tukulti-apil-Ešarra III. put down repeated riots. The fate of the rebels is described in great detail in order to intimidate imitators.

Afterlife

Bible

Apart from Assyrian sources, Assyria is mainly known from the Tanakh . It is regarded as a hostile superpower, but the prophecies of many prophets also show a certain admiration. The book of Jonah tells how the people of Nineveh repented after the threat of divine wrath and were thus spared the wrath of YHWH .

Ancient sources

Greek writers have little knowledge of the Assyrians. Above all, Herodotus and Ktesias of Knidos should be mentioned here , whose work Persika is only known from excerpts and is otherwise lost. Strabo (Geographika 16) describes the extension of Syria in a broader sense, which earlier referred to the area between Babylonia and the Gulf of Issus , but Syria also extended from the Gulf of Issus to the Black Sea (16, 2). The two tribes of the Cappadocians , those who live near the Pontus and those who are near the Taurus , would be called "white Syrians" to this day. From the further description it becomes clear that by Syrians he means the ancient people known today as the Assyrians. The Syrians were subjugated by the Medes , these in turn by the Persians. The royal palaces in Babylon and Ninos go back to the Syrians. Ninos in Aturia was supposedly founded by the mythical ruler Ninos , Babylon by his wife and successor Semiramis , who also built numerous other fortresses, cities, roads and irrigation systems. Her successors included Sardanapal and Arbakes .

Sub-Saharan Africa

According to Dierk Lange's theory of migration, lists of Arab kings and chronicles of central West Africa, which initially arose from translations of ancient oriental texts, provide indications of immigration after the collapse of the Assyrian empire in 605 BC. From the naming of Mesopotamian kings it can be inferred that the escape groups saw the Babylonian king Nabopolassar and conqueror Nineveh as the liberator and Assur-uballit II , the last Assyrian king, as the leader of their escape movement. In the area between Lake Chad and Niger, the escape groups established the empires of Kanem , Daura and Kebbi . However, this theory is not considered scientifically proven, as there is no evidence from archeology, palaeography , linguistics or genetics.

language

The Assyrian spoken in northern Mesopotamia was, like the Babylonian of southern Mesopotamia, a variety of the Akkadian language. The Akkadian was used until the first century AD in Mesopotamia, in present-day Syria, in recent centuries increasingly from Aramaic displaced and eventually served more than writing and language of scholars, were drawn up in the official documents received as clay tablets. As a result of the advance of Aramaic in northern Mesopotamia, Assyrian, written in cuneiform , already assumed a position under the Sargonids that Latin had in medieval Europe.

Time calculation

The Assyrians named the years after the respective eponymous officials ( limmu ) and extraordinary events (deaths, drought etc.). These lists of eponyms have been partially preserved and form an important historical source. In addition, the years of reign of the kings ( palu ) were counted.

See also

literature

General literature

Special literature

  • Riekele Borger : The inscriptions of Asarhaddons, King of Assyria. Weidner, Graz 1956 ( Archive for Orient Research. Supplement 9, ISSN  1015-3403 ), (Reprint: Biblio-Verlag, Osnabrück 1967).
  • Stephanie Dalley: Foreign chariotry and cavalry in the Armies of Tiglath-Pileser III. and Sargon II. In: Iraq. 47, 1985, ISSN  0021-0889 , pp. 31-48.
  • Betina Faist : The long-distance trade of the Assyrian Empire between the 14th and 11th centuries BC. Münster, Ugarit Verlag, AOAT 265, 2001.
  • Emil Forrer : The provincial division of the Assyrian Empire . Hinrichs, Leipzig 1920.
  • Jaume Llop Raduà: Aportació a l'estudi de les relacions polítiques i militars entre Assíria i Babilònia durant la segona meitat del segon mil.leni aC Universitat de Barcelona, ​​Barcelona 2001 ( online ).
  • Dierk Lange: The Founding of Kanem by Assyrian Refugees ca.600 BCE: Documentary, Linguistic, and Archaeological Evidence (PDF; 1.6 MB), Boston, Working Papers in African Studies N ° 265.
  • David G. Lyon (Ed.): Cuneiform texts by Sargon, King of Assyria (722–705 BC). Hinrichs, Leipzig 1883 ( Assyriological Library 5, ZDB -ID 502513-8 ), (photomechanical reprint: Zentralantiquariat, Leipzig 1977).
  • Walther Manitius: The standing army of the Assyrian kings and its organization. In: Journal of Assyriology. 24, pp. 97-149, 185-224, online .
  • Walter Mayer: Politics and the art of war of the Assyrians. Ugarit-Verlag, Münster 1995, ISBN 3-927120-26-X ( Treatises on the literature of Old Syria-Palestine 9).
  • Florence Malbran-Labat: L'armée et l'organization militaire de l'Assyrie. D'après les lettres des Sargonides trouvées à Nineveh. Droz, Geneva a. a. 1982 ( Hautes études orientales. 19 = École pratique des hautes études. 4th section: Sciences historiques et philologiques. 2).
  • Duncan Noble: Assyrian chariotry and cavalry. In: State archives of Assyria. Bulletin 4, 1, ISSN  1120-4699 , pp. 61-68.
  • Bustenay Oded: Mass Deportations and Deportees in the Neo-Assyrian Empire . Wiesbaden 1979.
  • Julian E. Reade: The Neo-Assyrian court and army. Evidence from the sculptures. In: Iraq. 34, 1972, pp. 87-112.
  • Simo Parpola (Ed.): The Correspondence of Sargon II. Helsinki University Press, Helsinki 1987, ISBN 951-570-003-5
    • Volume 1: Simo Parpola (Ed.) Letters from Assyria and the West. 1987, ISBN 951-570-003-5 ( State Archives of Assyria 1),
    • Volume 2: Giovanni B. Lanfranchi (Ed.): Letters from the Northern and Northeastern Provinces. 1990, ISBN 951-570-078-7 ( State Archives of Assyria 5).
  • JN Postgate: Taxation and Conscription in the Assyrian Empire. Biblical Institute Press, Rome 1974 ( Studia Pohl. Series maior 3, ZDB -ID 420371-9 ).
  • Harry WF Saggs: Assyrian warfare in the Sargonid Period. In: Iraq. 25, 1963, pp. 145-154.
  • Wolfgang Schramm: Introduction to the Assyrian royal inscriptions. Part 2: 934-722 BC Chr. Brill, Leiden u. a. 1973, ISBN 90-04-03783-7 ( Handbuch der Orientalistik. = Handbook of oriental studies. Dept. 1: The Near and Middle East. = The Near and Middle East. Erg.- Vol . 5: Cuneiform documents. 1: Introduction to the Assyrian royal inscriptions, Part 2).
  • Maximilian Streck : Assurbanipal and the last Assyrian kings until the fall of Nineveh. Part 2: The inscriptions of Ashurbanipal and the last Assyrian kings. Hinrichs, Leipzig 1916 ( Vorderasiatische Bibliothek 7, 2, ZDB -ID 536309-3 ), (photomechanical reprint: Zentralantiquariat, Leipzig 1975).
  • Hayim Tadmor (Ed.): The Inscriptions of Tiglath-Pileser III, King of Assyria. = Ketûvôt Tiglat-Pilêser haš-šelîšî meleḵ Aššûr. Israel Academy of Sciences & Humanities, Jerusalem 1994, ISBN 965-208-111-6 ( Fontes ad res Judaicas spectantes ).
  • Kazuko Watanabe: The adê swearing-in on the occasion of Asarhaddon's succession to the throne. Published by the German Archaeological Institute. Gbr. Mann, Berlin 1987, ISBN 3-7861-1446-3 ( Baghdader Mitteilungen. Supplement 3).
  • Yigael Yadin : The art of warfare in biblical lands in the light of archaeological discovery. Weidenfeld Nicolson, London, 1963.

Web links

Commons : New Assyrian Empire  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files
  • Bibliography. UCL History Department, University College London; Literature list and web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Herrmann children, Werner Hilgemann : dtv-Atlas world history . 40th edition. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-423-03331-2 , pp. 29 .
  2. ^ Klaas R. Veenhof : “Modern” features in Old Assyrian Trade . In: Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient . No. 40/4 , 1997, pp. 340 .
  3. ↑ Hartmut Schmökel : Ur, Assur and Babylon . In: Great Cultures of the Early Period . tape 12 . Phaidon Verlag, Akademische / Athenaion, Kilpper Collection, Stuttgart 1985, ISBN 3-88851-091-0 , p. 59 .
  4. ^ AR Millard: Bible and Archeology , Gießen / Basel 1977, pp. 20/21
  5. ^ Albert Kirk Grayson : Assyrian Royal inscriptions . Wiesbaden 1972, p. 1
  6. ^ Albert Kirk Grayson : Assyrian Royal inscriptions . Wiesbaden 1972
  7. ↑ a b Klaas R. Veenhof: Some Social Effects of Old Assyrian Trade . In: Iraq , Vol. 39/1, 1977, p. 112
  8. ↑ a b Klaas R. Veenhof: Some Social Effects of Old Assyrian Trade . In: Iraq , Vol. 39/1, 1977, p. 115
  9. ^ Mogens Trolle Larsen: Partnerships in the Old Assyrian Trade . In: Iraq , 39/1, 1977, p. 121
  10. ^ Paul Garelli: Les assyriens en Cappadoce . In: Bibliothèque archéologique et historique de l'Institut français d'archéologie d'Istanbul , 19. Adrien Maisonneuve, Paris 1963
  11. ^ Klaas R. Veenhof: “Modern” features in Old Assyrian Trade . In: Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient , 40/4, 1997
  12. ^ AK Grayson: Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles . Locust Valley 1975
  13. ↑ AT Olmstead: Kashshites, Assyrians, and the balance of power . In: The American Journal of Semitic Languages ​​and Literatures , 36/2, 1920, pp. 20-153
  14. ^ JA Brinkman: Materials and Studies for a Kassite History , I. Chicago 1975, Appendix C, pp. 418-123
  15. ^ AJ Brinkman : Notes on Mesopotamian history in the Thirteenth Century BC . In: Bibliotheca Orientalis , 27, Leiden 1970
  16. ^ LD Levine: Geographical Studies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagris . In: Iran 11, 1973, p. 13
  17. ^ JM Munn-Rankin: Assyrian military power 1300-1200 BC . In: Cambridge Ancient History , II / 2, Cambridge 1967, pp. 3-38
  18. ^ MB Rowton: The Background of the Treaty between Ramesses II. And Hattušiliš III. In: Journal of Cuneiform Studies , 13/1, 1959, 11
  19. ^ E. Cancik Kirschbaum: The Central Assyrian Letters from Tall Šeḫ Ḥammad . Berlin 1996
  20. ↑ Faist: Long- Distance Trade of the Assyrian Empire . P. 215
  21. ↑ KBo I; KUB XXXIII, 88
  22. ^ BR Forster: Before the Muses, an anthology of Akkadian Literature . Bethesda 1993, pp. 211-228
  23. ↑ P. Garelli, The problem of the feodal assyrienne. Semitica 17, 1967, 5-22; IM Diakonoff , Agrarian conditions in Middle Assyria. In: Ancient Mesopotamia, Moscow 1969, 204-233
  24. ^ A b J. N. Postgate: Land Tenure in the Middle Assyrian Period: A Reconstruction . In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , University of London 34/3, 1971, 497
  25. ^ JN Postgate: Land Tenure in the Middle Assyrian Period: A Reconstruction . In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , University of London 34/3, 1971, 496-520
  26. ↑ Betina Faist : The long-distance trade of the Assyrian Empire between the 14th and 11th centuries before Christ . AOAT 265, Ugarit Verlag, Münster 2001, p. 72
  27. ↑ Driver, Miles: The Assyrian laws . Pp. 412-415
  28. ^ Faist, Long Distance Trade of the Assyrian Empire , 77.
  29. ↑ P. Garelli: The problem of the féodalité assyrienne . In: Semitica 17, 1967, pp. 5-22.
  30. ↑ a b Faist, Long-Distance Trade of the Assyrian Empire , 57.
  31. ↑ Faist: The long-distance trade of the Assyrian Empire between the 14th and 11th centuries before Christ . P. 44.
  32. ↑ Betina Faist: The long-distance trade of the Assyrian Empire between the 14th and 11th centuries before Christ . AOAT 265, Ugarit Verlag, Münster 2001, p. 61
  33. ↑ JA Brinkman: Finding an “ox skin bar” in Dūr-Kurigalzu . Festschrift Reiner, 1987, pp. 33-36
  34. ↑ Faist: The long-distance trade of the Assyrian Empire between the 14th and 11th centuries before Christ . P. 64 f.
  35. ^ Faist, Long Distance Trade of the Assyrian Empire , 61.
  36. ^ Faist, Long Distance Trade of the Assyrian Empire , 78.
  37. ^ Faist, Long Distance Trade of the Assyrian Empire , 216.
  38. ^ A b J. N. Postgate: Land Tenure in the Middle Assyrian Period: A Reconstruction . In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , University of London 34/3, 1971, p. 499
  39. ↑ a b c d J. N. Postgate: Land Tenure in the Middle Assyrian Period: A Reconstruction . In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , University of London 34/3, 1971, p. 501.
  40. ^ N. Postgate, Mesopotamia 18/19, 1983/84, 233
  41. ↑ E. Ebeling: Fragments of a Central Assyrian collection of regulations for training for the training and acclimatization of chariot horses . Berlin 1951
  42. ^ Tamara Stech-Wheeler et al .: Iron at Taanach and early iron metallurgy in the Eastern Mediterranean . In: American Journal Archeology , 85, 1981, 245-267.
  43. ↑ Hermann Kinder and Werner Hilgemann: Atlas of World History - from the beginnings to the present , p. 35
  44. ↑ Lange: Founding of Kanem (PDF; 1.6 MB), 32–34.
  45. ↑ Ian Morris from Who rules the world - Why civilizations rule or are ruled, ISBN 978-3-593-38406-1 (about Tiglat-Pileser III .: "like a mafia father who discovers legality for himself")
  46. ↑ Andreas Schachner: Pictures of a world empire: art and cultural-historical studies on the decorations of a gate from Balawat (Imgur-Enlil) from the time of Shalmaneser III, King of Assyria . Subartu 20th Turnhout: Brepols 2007, 20th
  47. ^ JN Postgate: The Assyrian army in Zamua . In: Iraq Vol. 62, 2000, pp. 89-108.
  48. ^ Postgate, Neo-Assyrian royal grants and decrees (Studia Pohl, Ser. Maior, 1), 10 ff.
  49. ↑ HF Russell: Shalmaneser's Campaign to Urarṭu in 856 BC and the historical geography of Eastern Anatolia according to the Assyrian sources . In: Anatolian Studies 34, 1984, p. 178
  50. ^ Yigael Yadin: The art of warfare in Biblical Lands in light of archaeological study , New York 1963.
  51. ↑ Stephanie Dalley: Foreign Chariotry and Cavalry in the Armies of Tiglath-Pileser III and Sargon II. In: Iraq , 47, 1985, pp. 31-48
  52. ↑ Shigeo Yamada: The manipulative counting of the Euphrates crossings in the later inscriptions of Shalmaneser III. In: Journal of Cuneiform Studies , 50, 1998, pp. 87-94
  53. ↑ Oded, Mass Deportations , Jan.
  54. ↑ Edzard, Geschichte , 203-4.
  55. ↑ Dierk Lange: Founding of Kanem (PDF; 1.6 MB), 11–18; id., An Assyrian successor state in West Africa: The ancestral kings of Kebbi as ancient Near Eastern rulers (PDF) In: Anthropos , 104, 2, 2009, pp. 359–382.