Political poetry

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Political lyric poetry takes internal social disputes over political power as its theme and, in the voice of the poet, deliberately appears in public with its own partiality. It is a literature prepared with lyrical means, "which deals with the simultaneous events of public life, the political conditions, events and people of their time as their content, to serve them or to fight them, and in earnest or insult, in praise or blame, as a public power strives to influence history. "

Political poetry finds its form in all lyric poem types and display modes: ballad , epigram , Festgesang, Gnomos, of rulers, anthem , hymn , war song, didactic poem, idea poetry, marching song , mnemonic, protest song , patriotic ode, joke song, free verse, popular song , u. a.

Antiquity

A poetry that actually depicts the relationship between citizens and the state, even further with a view to constitutional rights and civic duties, was first created in ancient Sparta in the 7th century BC. At this time Sparta was the center of Greek culture, the cradle of choral poetry, and attracted poets from all over the Aegean region . At the suggestion of the Delphic Oracle, the poet Terpander was summoned from Lesbos to settle political disputes among the Lacedaemonians . At the behest of the legislature Lykurg , the Cretan Thaletas came to Sparta in order to accompany the planned constitutional and land reform with his literary work. The funds were among other Festgesänge that in Karneeischen Games or Gymnopädien were presented. During the Second Messenian War , which was a threat to the state for a long time , Tyrtaios achieved literary fame. The paean and the war paranesis formed the characteristic types of poetry with which the political-religious cohesion in the state, but also the military cohesion in the battle line of the phalanx was evoked. The best-known example of this is Tyrtaios Eunomia-elegy, which was the model for a similar elegy by the Athenian legislature Solon .

Political poetry in Germany

From its beginnings, through all epochs of history, German poetry has shown a tendency towards political engagement. These are texts "that expressly state their position on the political and social problems of contemporary German history - regardless of whether these problems are domestic or foreign, whether they concern the property situation or the existence and effectiveness of individual groups, strata and classes".

middle Ages

The political poetry of the High Middle Ages (12th – 14th centuries) has been passed down mainly in the song manuscripts of the time, the earliest in the Carmina Burana . Their authors were mostly traveling singers who practiced text and lecture. Her subjects were the struggles of the territorial princes in the empire, the crusades and rulers, with both laudatory and reproachful tendencies. In addition to the Old High German Ludwigslied, the earliest songs with political content are individual poems by Spervogel and Reimar the Elder . Archipoeta's imperial hymn (Salve, mundi domine) is still in Latin . The most important political poet of this time is Walther von der Vogelweide , who in the disputes between Ottonians and Staufers alternately took up propagandistic mockery on the various sides, for example in the stanza written against the Pope and the Roman Curia in 1213 “Ahi wie kristenliche nu der babest laughs ”. Controversial reviews about Reich policy of the Hohenstaufen, the church and the crusades ( Akkon-Sprüche ), as well as the disputes between emperor and pope have been received by the poets Ulrich von Singenberg , Reinmar von Zweter , brother Werner , Freidank , Neidhart , the traveling Rumelant or the emphasized church-critical Heinrich von Meissen (called Frauenlob ). After the turmoil of the interregnum, the politics of the Habsburg emperors came under fire, with the schoolmaster of Esslingen standing as a representative . A new type of political agitation songs emerged at the end of the 14th century in Switzerland during the Confederates' wars of independence against the Habsburgs.

Reformation, humanism and peasant wars

With the early reformation initiated by Jan Hus in Bohemia, religious and national-territorial self-determination emerged as issues. On Hussite texts that are directed against the Church and Emperor, poets such as responding Muskatblüt and Oswald von Wolkenstein with anti-Hussite poetry. Literary topoi about pagans and heretics, which were already used in crusade poetry, are now also related to political opponents within the empire. In addition, after the fall of Constantinople (1453), there was a warning of the Turkish threat , for example from Balthasar Mandelreiß or Hans Rosenblüt , who, as a master singer and author of carnival games, represents a new type of poet from the urban bourgeois cultural class. Michel Beheim is considered the most productive political poet of this time, although he worked in the service of the aristocracy, his understandable texts were already addressed to a wide audience. With book printing, the possibilities of reaching a mass audience are expanding. Ulrich von Hutten appears as a vehemently political poet of humanism with his demands for a political reorganization of the empire and his appeals to a national understanding . Spiritual and political songs directed against Rome spread from all currents of the Reformation , for example by Martin Luther ( A 'solid castle is our God ), Thomas Müntzer (Herodes, o du wicked) or Johann Walter (Wake up, wake up, you German Country!). Anti-Protestant, Catholic voices like Thomas Murner also find a wide audience. In circles of the Anabaptist movement persecuted by both denominations, songs of lamentation and martyrs emerge , for example by Leonhard Schiemer , about their fellow believers who were executed. Battle songs, parodies and leaflets spread across the country in large print runs, many of which remain anonymous for fear of being discovered. Increased polarization and politicization resulted from the peasant wars , both from circles of the rebellious peasant and Bundschuh supporters such as Conz Annahans and representatives of the feudal forces such as Lienhart Ott or Schenkenbach. The now emerging Landsknechtlieder are also to be classified politically . The literature of this time produced forms and topoi that developed a new force in the Thirty Years War .

Baroque and Thirty Years War

The devastation of the Thirty Years' War overshadowed 17th century poetry. The political poetry of the epoch reflects the partiality and connects the complaint about the destruction with an awakening love of the country. The defense against France, which is invading the Rhine, and the Ottoman Empire, which is again attacking Vienna, are negotiated as foreign policy issues. Poetry becomes a decisive factor in committed journalism, especially in a huge number of partly anonymous pamphlets, leaflets or polemical pasquilles. It is first and foremost the poet Georg Rodolf Weckherlin , who with his odes in the "Gaistliche und Weltlichen Gedichte" sets the standards for the sharply formulated, political poetry of the time (An das Teutschland; Von dem König von Schweden). Like Weckherlin, Diederich von dem Werder , Georg Philipp Harsdörffer and Paul Fleming stand against the Catholic League and on the side of the Protestant war party. Not infrequently, as can also be found in Simon Dach , Martin Opitz and Andreas Gryphius , the hymns of praise to absolutist rulers place themselves in the tradition of panegyric , sometimes combined with moral reflections on good governance in the sense of the prince mirrors. Satirical social criticism can be found in the epigrams of a Friedrich von Logau .

The Age of Enlightenment

Absolutism and the French Revolution inspired many poets to comment on historical events. Topics included the territorial fragmentation of Germany, especially as the Austrian War of Succession and the Seven Years War made imperial unity less and less realistic, the military interventions by France that led to the loss of the German territories on the left bank of the Rhine, but also the independence of the states of North America. The emergence of a journalistic and media public, which promoted political discourse within the educated class and the bourgeoisie, was characteristic of the epoch. As in the Baroque era, the tradition of the ruler's praise continued, which was now dedicated to the enlightened monarch of a well-ordered state, for example in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing's ode to Friedrich II of Prussia or Johann Ulrich von König's award chants to August the Strong of Saxony. The genre of Vaterlandslieder, which referred to the topos of Germania as the origin of Germany and a future patriotism, flourished again, especially with Johann Peter Uz (Das oprälte Deutschland), Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (The New Century) and the poets in the Göttingen Hainbund . The campaigns of the Prussian King Friedrich II against Austrians, Russians and French inspired the genre of war songs, examples of which are Ewald von Kleist (Ode to the Prussian army), Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim (Prussian war songs in the campaigns of 1756 and 1757 by a grenadier ) and Anna Louisa Karsch with her poems about the victories of Frederick the Great in the Seven Years War. At Gleim's suggestion, Johann Caspar Lavater wrote the Schweizerlieder, a collection of patriotic poems about events and people in Swiss history. In addition, the poetry critical of the regime began in the Enlightenment period against absolutist prince arbitrariness and aristocratic rule. The case of the writer Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart , who had to endure ten years imprisonment for criticizing his sovereign, exemplified his poem Fürstengruft , caused a stir . The political ideas of the Enlightenment found their echo in Sturm und Drang . Klopstock showed himself not only as an advocate of the republican idea of ​​the nation state, but also, like Friedrich Schiller , as an early supporter of the French Revolution, at least until the beginning of the Jacobin terror. Johann Gottfried Herder's rediscovery of folk song-like forms, practically indicated in Gleim's grenadier songs, had a great aesthetic influence on the Sturm und Drang, the lyric poetry of the Wars of Liberation, Romanticism, the Vormärz and the entire 19th and 20th centuries. In the 1770s, with recourse to the Germanic past and in anticipation of a patriotic future, the so-called Bardenlyric was created, represented by Klopstock, Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg and the Austrian Michael Denis . While this poetry, based on the ideal of the skald, was more of a fictional role poetry in its time, forty years later in the wars of liberation it achieved political and practical relevance.

Revolution, Romanticism and Wars of Liberation

Enthusiasm for the ideals of the French Revolution and the Mainz Republic changed to rejection in the face of the Jacobin terror and the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte . In the anti-feudalist-republican spirit there were texts by Gottfried August Bürger or Johann Heinrich Voss , which were still printed in Friedrich Christian Laukhard's breeding mirror anthologies at the end of the 1790s . In addition, a Francophile propagandistic revolutionary poetry developed, the so-called Jacobin lyric, whose representatives include Eulogius Schneider , Niklas Müller and August Lamey . The final change in mood against Jacobinism was most evident in Klopstock's work, for example in the poems “The War of Conquest” or “Public Opinion”. Gleim took a decidedly anti-revolutionary stance with his time poems, which gave their name to a type of political poetry, and in Austria the authors Lorenz Leopold Haschka and Leopold Alois Hoffmann . With the early romantic aesthetics and poetology of Novalis and Friedrich Schlegel , a return to the Christian idea of ​​empire and the universal empire begins. This ideal ended with the defeat of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon in 1806, the signing of the Rhine Confederation Act and the resignation of the imperial crown by Franz II . Napoleon's war policy created satellite states in southern Germany, western and northern Germany were annexed and forced under a ten-year French occupation. The struggle for republican freedom first had to reposition itself as a struggle against foreign rule. The center of the newly emerging war poetry was in Prussia. As early as 1806, Achim von Arnim was distributing his war songs to Prussian troops. Between 1806 and the beginning of the wars of liberation, Ernst Moritz Arndt became an advocate of active resistance with his patriotic songs (Example Des Deutschen Vaterland ), as did Friedrich Schlegel with his lyrical appeals to save the fatherland (vows). Theodor Körner (collection of poems lyre and sword) stands for the poetry wrested from the direct war events of the battles . The poetry of Max von Schenkendorf ( freedom, which I mean ) and the politically moving, late romantic poems by Joseph von Eichendorff (collection: Zeitlieder) sounded more romantic in tone . In 1810, Johann Gottfried Seume wrote the Elegy To the German People , which not only denounced the small-scale fragmentation of Germany and the allegiance of the Duodec rulers against Napoleon, but also, as a vision of the future, already contained the triad of unity, freedom and law that was later included in Hoffmann von Fallersleben's song of the Germans was received and its third stanza forms today's German national anthem. In contrast, the Weimar Classics proved to be downright Biedermeier in terms of political poetry . From quietism in Friedrich Schiller's poem The Beginning of the New Century from 1801 to the remark made by Goethe to Eckermann in the year of his death: “As soon as a poet wants to work politically, he must give himself up to a party, and as soon as he does this, he is he lost as a poet; he must (...) pull the cap of narrow-mindedness and blind hatred over his ears ”.

Pre-March and Liberal Revolution

In the period between Metternich's restoration and the revolution of 1848 , political poetry became the dominant literary genre, which “wanted to actively carry out the epochal contradiction between the late feudal system of rule and the bourgeois desire for emancipation and already deal with the emerging bourgeois-class-specific contradiction between the ideological ideal of society and the unsocial economic one To put practice had "as a" blooming period of German contemporary historical poetry ". Authors and texts can already be related to the emerging political movements of (national) liberalism, conservatism and socialism. The first anthologies of political poetry were also created, for example by Hermann Marggraff in 1843 (Political Poems from Germany's Modern Era) and in 1847 by Arnold Ruge (The Political Poets of Our Time). The patriotic poetry of the Wars of Liberation, expanded to include the striving for national unity, leads partly into the student lyric after the Hambach Festival , partly into the bourgeois liberalism of August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben (non-political poems). Foreign political events such as the French July Revolution , the Polish Uprising of 1831 or the Greeks' struggle for freedom were also topics in the era of national romantic self-assurance. The works of Ludwig Uhland , Adelbert von Chamisso , August von Platen-Hallermünde (Poland songs) or Friedrich Rückert , more strongly influenced by revolutionary gestures, Georg Herwegh (poems of a living person), Robert Eduard Prutz (poems) and Ferdinand are in the bourgeois liberal to conservative spectrum Freiligrath (recent political and social poems). Heinrich Heine , who wrote at an external and internal distance from Germany, wrote poems with both Bonapartist and early socialist content. The Rhine Crisis of 1840, triggered by efforts by France to reoccupy Germany on the left bank of the Rhine, sparked a resolute patriotic partisanship by poets for German unification, so the poems of Nikolaus Becker (you shouldn't have it, the free German Rhine), Max Schneckenburger (The Watch on the Rhine) and Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben (The German Song). The associated political hopes for national unity persist even after the failure of the bourgeois revolution of 1848.

Industrialization and Empire

The other political poetry of the 19th century also remained stylistically in the traditions of folk, church and soldier songs. The revolution of 1848 , the weavers' uprising and the emerging socialism movement inspired poets to take sides with the left, including Friedrich von Sallet , Ludwig Seeger , Heinrich Heine (poems), Adolf Glaßbrenner , Alfred Meißner , Ludwig Pfau , and Georg Weerth . With Georg Herwegh (Bundeslied) and Karl Henckell the tradition of starts working seal that also Jacob Audorf belongs (Workers' Marseillaise), mostly with clear partisanship for the ADAV . While leftists and liberals were critical of the emerging hegemonic power of Prussia, parts of the patriotic bourgeoisie saw it as the political future. Traces of a renewed restoration can be found in the poems of Emanuel Geibel (Zeitstimmen, An Georg Herwegh), as early as the 1840s with a pro-Prussian and later imperial attitude that made him the most popular public poet of the second half of the century. The wars of unification of the 1860s, which led to the re-establishment of the empire, also accompanied Theodor Fontane literarily in several of his ballads, for example about officers of Frederick the Great or in the positive portrayal of Bismarck and his politics. The social question came back on the agenda with naturalism and shaped poets like Arno Holz (Book of Time). The humorous and satirical monthly magazines such as Charivari , Kladderadatsch , Münchener Fliegende Blätter or Simplicissimus , which offered many poets the opportunity to publish everyday political poetry , were characteristic of journalism in the second half of the century . From 1900 this also found its place in young political cabaret, such as the Überbrettl or the Elf Executioners , for whom Frank Wedekind also worked, who was briefly imprisoned for a song critical of the Kaiser. Another lyrical tendency of this time is homeland poetry, the conservative orientation of which is exemplified in the poetry of Hermann Löns , who died as a volunteer just a few weeks after the outbreak of the First World War.

The First World War , as a result of which the Second German Empire perished, became a reflection surface for poets of all styles. The basic patriotic mood at the beginning of the war led to a social wave of poetry production - around 50,000 war poems were received by the newspapers every day at the beginning of the war and between 1914 and 1916 over 220 volumes of poetry with war poetry were published. Serious war tributes were written by bourgeois poets close to symbolism such as Richard von Schaukal (Brazen Sonnets), Richard Dehmel (Lied to all), Rainer Maria Rilke (Five Chants), Hugo von Hofmannsthal (Austrian answer) and some representatives of the George Circle . In the case of the poets who were on duty at the front, the initial enthusiasm was increasingly joined by the gloom of war, for example with Walter Flex ( wild geese rushing through the night ) or in the expressionism of Georg Trakl (Grodek). Conversely, under the impression of the war , Ludwig Thoma switched from the left opposition to the national conservative camp. The aesthetic spectrum of poems critical of war ranges from the futuristic short poem by August Stramm (Patrol) to the symbolist long poem Stefan Georges (The War). Representing the Dadaism is Hugo Ball with one of his first bruitistischen sound poems (dead suit) or somewhat earlier parody of a drinking song (Dance of Death 1916). This text leads over to the variety songs of the Weimar Republic.

Weimar Republic, Communism and NS

The Weimar Republic failed because of the consequences of the Versailles Treaty , the decline of liberalism, the Bolshevik and right-wing national fight against parliamentarism and ultimately because of the economic decline of the middle class and rural population after the global economic crisis . “These developments are of decisive consequence for political poetry. It cannot sensibly preserve its liberal-bourgeois tradition, neither in the right nor in the left.” Workers' poetry got caught up in the pull of the KPD and Stalinism , while national conservative poetry and homeland poetry fell into the Area of ​​influence of the NSDAP . The revolutionary pathos of Expressionist poets, readable in 1919 in Kurt Pinthus' anthology Menschheitsdämmerung (Chapter: Appeal and Outrage ), moved to the left, as in Johannes R. Becher ( preparation ) or Walter Hasenclever ( The Political Poet ). The magazine Die Aktion , published by Franz Pfemfert , was turned into a "weekly for revolutionary socialism" after the defeated November Revolution in 1919. At the same time, communist songs like those by Oskar Kanehl ( Stand up, Prolet ) emerged, which propagated class and street struggle for the revolution. Erich Mühsam ( Revolution. Combat, march and ridicule songs ) appeared as an anarchist and a republican councilor . The worker's song book Mit Gesang wird geht war from 1922 was already in line with the KPD. Workers' battle songs also found their way into the SA songbooks with text changes , for example the Leuna song became the song of November 9, 1923 . Around 1920, Dietrich Eckart's Sturmlied ( Germany awake ) was the basic type of the later National Socialist marching song. The folk song tradition of the Bundestag youth was also taken up and instrumentalized for their own purposes by the mass organizations of the Socialist Youth and later the Hitler Youth . In the 1920s, Kurt Tucholsky , who was close to the USPD and his cabaret couplets, mainly criticized the bourgeois party camp and Bertolt Brecht ( Hauspostille ) approached the KPD in his Marxist orientation. The Malik-Verlag , the Weltbühne and Die Rote Fahne were the main forums for left-wing literature. In 1928 the Association of Proletarian Revolutionary Writers was founded on the model of the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP). This basic pattern of totalitarian professional organizations was adopted by fascism. As a bourgeois-liberal representative of the everyday poetry of the New Objectivity , Erich Kästner warned in his poems ( Do you know the country; far right to sing ) of the danger of National Socialism . The political extremism that began in 1930 can be seen in the SA battle songs by Horst Wessel ( Die Fahne hoch ) and Arno Pardun ( Volk ans Geweh r) as well as on the communist side in Erich Weinert ( Thälmann-Lied, Roter Wedding ). The takeover of power by the NSDAP and the book burning in 1933 drove many poets into exile; in Moscow Johannes R. Becher and Erich Weinert committed themselves to Stalinism. Nonetheless, during the 1930s, some of the inner emigration, there were resistance bourgeois-conservative writers, such as the Christian-influenced authors Gertrud von Le Fort ( hymns to Germany ) or Werner Bergengruen ( The Eternal Emperor ) who had converted from Prussian Protestantism to Catholicism. . They put the idea of ​​the Christian-occidental German Empire against the ideology of the Nazi leader state. The Reichsschrifttumskammer was founded as a totalitarian association of authors of the Nazi state in 1933 , in autumn that year 88 writers signed the pledge of loyal allegiance to Adolf Hitler, including former Expressionists such as Gottfried Benn and Hanns Johst , but also authors of local and ethnic literature such as Börries von Münchhausen , Agnes Miegel or Lulu von Strauss and Torney . Many publishers switched to Nazi literature, and Das Innere Reich became the dominant literary magazine . Like Benn, Friedrich Georg Jünger ( Mohn ) , who came from nationalist Kampfbund circles, initially welcomed the fascist takeover of power, but subsequently also distanced himself from the politics of National Socialism. Among the National Socialist authors who committed to the Führer cult at an early stage were Will Vesper , Herybert Menzel , Heinrich Anacker , but also Austrians such as Josef Weinheber and Franz Tumler . Fritz Sotke and Bodo Schütt continued the Bundischen travel songs in the soldier songs of the Second World War . Blood and soil , racism, anti-Semitism, conquering living space and fighting at the front became the predominant propaganda themes of the war years from 1939 to 1945.

Germany divided: FRG and GDR

After the Second World War, the political poetry located between 1948 and 1989 in left-wing political space. Authors who came from Allied captivity, returned from exile as socialists, or survived the Holocaust as persecuted Jews shaped the themes in the second half of the 20th century: anti-fascism, pacifism during the Cold War, flight and displacement, rubble literature, construction of socialism, anti-capitalism and anti-Americanism. The first authors 'associations emerged, informally in the FRG with Group 47 and an aesthetic reference to Western modernism, in the GDR officially with a writers' association based on the Soviet model and oriented towards socialist realism . State poets adopted panegyric approaches for Stalinist hymns, such as Louis Fürnberg (song of the party) Johannes R. Becher (On the death of JW Stalin) or Kurt Barthel . As literary elite that served Literature Institute in Leipzig. For West German literature, Paul Celan put the confrontation with the Holocaust on the literary agenda with his poem Death Fugue . The repression of Nazi crimes and the ruling capitalism in the economic miracle FRG was the first to address Hans Magnus Enzensberger in his poetry volumes ( Defense of the wolves, national language ) during the transition into the 1960s and thus set the model of protest poetry , for which also over the course of the decade Erich Fried stood with his didactic thought poetry, and which increased as a result of the student movement from 1968, for example with Yaak Karsunke ( Kilroy & others ) and with Alfred Andersch ( outraged, the sky is blue ). The suppression of the Prague Spring intensified cultural policy in the GDR. Authors whose poetry was not in line with the party line were now increasingly monitored by the State Security and expatriated in the 1970s, including Peter Huchel , Rainer Kunze , Wolf Biermann and Thomas Brasch . Romanian German literature suffered the same political persecution: poets such as Rolf Bossert , Dieter Schlesak or Richard Wagner from Transylvania and the Banat left for Germany because of state repression . In the FRG, the left-wing extremist terror of the Red Army parliamentary group depoliticized poetry, sometimes tinged with irony like Peter Rühmkorf's . Socialist ideas borrowed from the folk of the American civil rights movement were mainly still cultivated by songwriters such as Franz Josef Degenhard or Konstantin Wecker . In the GDR, which was increasingly falling into an economic and social crisis, actions by the State Security were also directed against rock bands with nonconforming texts, for example the group Renft . Apart from state cultural policy, a dissident, avant-garde scene emerged whose centers were in Berlin (East), Leipzig and Dresden. Experimental lyric poetry, cryptograms and deconstruction critical of language became signs of criticism of the system, for example with Bert Papenfuß , Stefan Döring or Andreas Koziol from the scene in Prenzlauer Berg. Punk bands like Schleim-Keim , some of whose texts were anarchic systemic criticism of the conditions in the GDR, were observed by the state security. The end of the GDR, German reunification and the liquidation of the East German economy met with shock and rejection from authors who wanted to hold on to the two-state system or who still believed in better socialism, reflected in poems by Günter Grass or Volker Braun ( The property ) .

literature

  • Alwin Binder : Categories for the Analysis of Political Poetry. In: Der Deutschunterricht 24 (1972) H. 2. pp. 26–45
  • Alwin Binder and Dietrich Scholle: Ça ira. German political poetry from the Middle Ages to Vormärz. Selected and edited under the aspect of criticism of rule. Two volumes. Part I: teaching models and analyzes. Frankfurt am Main 1975; Part II: Text and workbook. Frankfurt am Main 1975.
  • Heinz Ludwig Arnold (ed.): Political poetry. Text + criticism 9 / 9a (July 1973) Ingrid Girschner-Woldt: Theory of modern political poetry. Berlin 1971
  • Walter Hinderer (Ed.): History of political poetry in Germany. Wuerzburg 2007
  • Rochus von Liliencron : The historical folk songs of the Germans from the 13th to the 16th century. Leipzig 1867-69
  • Dieter Lamping : We live in a political world. Göttingen 2008
  • Ulrich Müller: Studies on the political poetry of the German Middle Ages. Göppingen 1974
  • Robert Eduard Prutz : The political poetry of the Germans. Leipzig 1845
  • Albrecht Schöne : On political poetry in the 20th century. Goettingen 1965
  • Peter Stein: Political Consciousness and Artistic Willingness to Shape Political Poetry 1780–1848. Hamburg 1971
  • Hans-Georg Werner: History of the political poem in Germany from 1815 to 1840. Berlin 1972
  • Benno von Wiese : Political poetry of Germany. Berlin 1931

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Prutz, Robert E .: The political poetry of the Germans. Leipzig 1845
  2. ^ Binder, Alwin: Categories for the Analysis of Political Poetry. In: Der Deutschunterricht 24 (1972)
  3. ^ Lamping, Dieter. We live in a political world. Poetry and politics since 1945. Göttingen 2008. p. 117
  4. ↑ Denkler, Horst: Between July Revolution (1830) and March Revolution (1848/49). In: Hinderer, Walter (ed.): History of political poetry in Germany. Würzburg 2007. p. 192
  5. ^ Petzet, Christian: The heyday of German political poetry from 1840 to 1850. Munich 1903. P. 16.
  6. ^ Kiesel, Helmuth: Stefan Georges war poetry. Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, July 30, 2017. http://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/buecher/stefan-georges-kriegslyrik-hochiesterlich-seherische-verkuendigung-15126540.html
  7. ↑ Alexander von Bormann, Weimar Republic. In: Walter Hinderer (ed.): History of political poetry in Germany. Würzburg 2007 p. 275.