Arnolf of Carinthia

Seal of Arnolf: left around 890, right around 896

Arnolf von Kärnten (also Arnulf , Arnold ; * around 850; † December 8, 899 in Regensburg ) from the noble family of Carolingians was king of Eastern Franconia from 887 and Roman emperor from 896 to 899 .

Arnolf's predecessor Karl III. ("The fat one") united for a short time all three partial kingdoms and thus the empire of Charlemagne under his rule. In view of the impending incapacity to rule Charles, Arnolf was able to overthrow him with the help of the Bavarians , Franks , Saxons , Thuringians and Alemanni and take over the dignity himself. Arnolf limited himself to the eastern empire of his grandfather, Ludwig the German , while other greats claimed the royal dignity in the remaining parts of the Frankish empire . From 888 Arnolf was able to consolidate his rule over Lorraine as well as imperial Italy . With his victory on the Dijle near Löwen in 891, the Norman raids on Eastern Franconia came to an end. The stability thus achieved in the north promoted the rise of the Liudolfingers , who a few decades later made the royal family in the empire. Arnolf's pact with the Hungarians , who were to become the greatest threat to Eastern Franconia in the 10th century, darkened his image for posterity. In Rome, Arnolf was crowned emperor in 896. During his time, Regensburg reached the height of its importance as the center of power in Eastern Franconia.

Life

origin

Family tree of the Carolingians from the second half of the 12th century. Ekkehard von Aura , Chronicon universale, Berlin, State Library, Ms. lat. Fol. 295, fol. 80v

Arnolf came from the Carolingian family , who had held the Franconian royal dignity since 751. He was an illegitimate son of the East Franconian King Karlmann with a noblewoman named Liutswind , whose origin is uncertain. He was a great-great-grandson of Charlemagne and grandson of Ludwig the German . His mother is attested as a nobilissima femina (noble woman) with Regino von Prüm and Notker I. , which has led to a classification among the Luitpolders in research. But they have also been assigned to the Ebersbergers and Sighardingers . Later Karlmann turned away from Liutswind; before 861 he married a daughter of Margrave Ernst , whose name was unknown . This marriage remained childless.

According to Brigitte Kasten , an illegitimate descent in the Carolingian era was not a disadvantage and not an exclusion criterion for the royal rule. The "legal argument of illegitimacy" was "less a cross-generational norm formation than primarily a variably managed strategy of maintaining power" in the succession to power. According to recent research, the monarchical authority of an illegitimate ruler was based less on his paternal ancestry than on his ability to integrate himself into aristocratic society. Among the historians, Arnolf's illegitimate birth took a back seat. Matthias Becher , on the other hand, tries to prove that Arnolf was born in wedlock. Becher suspects “that Arnulf was perhaps only born at a point in time when Ludwig the German, as the father of Karlmann, had not recognized Karlmann's marriage to the daughter of the rebellious Margrave Ernst - perhaps only retrospectively”.

Ludwig the German sent his son Karlmann to the Bavarian Marche in 856 to bring this important region under his control. However, Karlmann pursued such an independent policy that Ludwig saw it as an uprising. In 858, Karlmann made peace with Rastislav of Moravia, whom the East Franks had been fighting for years . The following years were marked by rebellion and compromise between father and son. It was not until 865 that Ludwig became permanently reconciled with Karlmann. After Ludwig's death Karlmann received Bavaria, Pannonia and Carantania as well as the empires of the Slavs in 876 , whereupon he probably assigned his son Arnolf a domain in Carantania and Pannonia in the same year. After Regino von Prüm, this also included the Moosburg . This is the basis of the hypothesis that Moosburg was Arnolf's birthplace. However, given the Bavarian origins of Arnolf's mother, Heinz Dopsch suspects that he was more likely born in Bavaria, perhaps in Regensburg.

Disempowerment of Charles III. and Arnolf's rising to the king

The rule of Ludwig the German was unusually long at 50 years. As a result, his sons only came to power at a relatively old age. With his death in 876 a rapid succession of changes of rulers began in the Eastern Empire. Similar to the western empire, the number of Carolingian kings and sons of kings decreased due to several unexpected deaths. The older sons of Ludwig the German, Karlmann and Ludwig the Younger , died in 880 and 882 respectively. Ludwig the Younger had previously lost his two sons Ludwig († 879) and Hugo († 880). This enabled Charles III. "The fat one", the youngest son of Ludwig the German, for a short time to unite all three partial kingdoms and thus once again the entire Franconian Empire under his rule. The rapid change of rulers as well as Karl's long stays in Italy and in the western empire impaired the continuity of rule in the east from the perspective of the East Franconian greats . Karl's marriage to the Alemannic Richgardis remained childless, so that with Arnolf and Bernhard from the line of Ludwig the German only two illegitimate royal sons remained. Apparently, Karl strictly refrained from favoring Arnolf as his successor, as he did not mention him in any of his documents. In May 887 he adopted Ludwig , who was no more than six years old , the son of Boso von der Provence , who died in January . At that time he had been suffering from severe attacks of illness and increasing infirmity for some time. He evidently suspected that he did not have much longer to live, because from around 885 onwards his diplomas contained numerous provisions for his soul memory in a striking form. The disease, the threats posed by the Normans, Slavs and Moravians as well as the unresolved question of succession shook Charles's authority in the empire.

When an imperial assembly was supposed to meet in Tribur in November 887, the inability of Charles to govern had already become clear to the greats. They stayed away from the meeting and refused to consent. A boycott of this magnitude was tantamount to leaving the rulers - the de facto termination of loyalty. The reason for this can traditionally be seen in the common assessment of Charles “the Fat” as a weak and lethargic ruler. According to Simon MacLean (2003), however, it was not a personal failure of Charles or his illness that was decisive for his overthrow, but rather the cause lay in structural deficiencies in an insufficiently institutionalized ruling apparatus; a long-prepared conspiracy of aristocratic circles suggested in the sources is just as incorrect. In 2009, Achim Thomas Hack examined the king's itinerary , his readiness for consensual rule with the great and the documents handed down from the last 13 months before the fall; he could not find any impairment of the exercise of power of Charles.

Because of his age and his political and military qualifications, the East Franconian greats placed more trust in Arnolf than Bernhard. Therefore they paid homage to him as their new king. Contemporary historians saw this step as a turning point. The Bavarian continuation of the Fulda Annals noted that many petty kings ( reguli ) emerged in “Europe” . In the year 888 six non-Carolingian pretenders reached for the kingship: in western France the Robertine Odo , in Hochburgund the Welf Rudolf , in Italy Berengar of Friuli and Wido of Spoleto , in Provence Ludwig III. , in Aquitaine Ramnulf of Poitiers . All except Wido paid homage to Arnolf, who in turn recognized them in their spheres of power. He did not raise any claims to power beyond the East Franconian Empire.

Arnolf had to subjugate the remaining supporters of the emperor partly by force, partly through threats, honors or concessions. Karl's last document is dated November 17th, Arnolf's first from November 27th, 887. According to Hagen Keller , Arnolf's actual election did not take place until mid-December, 887 in Forchheim . With his election in Forchheim, Arnolf established the tradition of a permanent place for king elections. He chartered there on December 11th and 12th. The fallen Karl died alone and left on January 13, 888 in Alemannic Neudingen . With his de facto restriction to Eastern Franconia, Arnolf cleared the way for the establishment of non-Carolingian ruling families in the other parts of the entire Franconian empire. In early 888 he received the greats from Bavaria, Eastern Franconia, Saxony, Thuringia and Alemannia as well as numerous Slavs in Regensburg. In the second half of the year he gradually began to stage himself as the undisputed overlord of the entire empire. The reguli accepted by him should respect his more formal sovereignty. As a result, he managed "as the recognized head of the descendants of Charlemagne on the basis of a secured partial kingdom [...] to maintain a loose supremacy over the others who now also called themselves kings".

Bernhard, the illegitimate son of Charlemagne, rebelled against Arnolf in 890 from Alemannia with ecclesiastical and secular greats. Well-known participants in this uprising are Abbot Bernhard von St. Gallen, a priest Isanrich and a Udalrich, who was the owner of several Alemannic counties and the son of a nepos (nephew) of Ludwig the German. The uprising was suppressed, and Bernhard's supporters lost offices and some of their property. Bernhard himself was able to escape to Italy via Raetia . There he was killed by the Rhaetian margrave Rudolf in 891.

Power structure and power practice

Politics towards worldly and spiritual greats

Older research on constitutional history saw the Carolingians at the head of a ruling association hierarchically oriented towards the person of the king since the 19th century. From today's perspective, this is an overestimation of the power of the king, who was not the only dominant ruler. Rather, it was his job to bring order into the complicated structure of rule through decrees and their implementation. The Carolingian king largely lacked an institutional system of rule. He had to win the other rulers to participate by consensus (" consensual rule "). Despite the lively written and verbal exchange via messengers, problems could only be resolved in face-to-face meetings with the participation of all important people, given the size of the empire and the poor traffic conditions. The consensus was generated in confidential discussions with a limited number of participants. The king was able to influence these negotiations in his favor through gifts, promises and threats. He had to reward his followers for their loyal service. A large number of donation documents for Bavarian nobles have come down to us from Arnolf. With the establishment of consensus, the ruler demonstrated his ability to integrate. The group of nobles who had a say in his decisions was relatively small. Of the 150 to 200 ecclesiastical and secular officials in the East Franconian Empire, only a fraction were involved in important political decisions. The relationship networks to the king were subject to constant change. A dominant advisor cannot be identified at Arnolf. Liutward von Vercelli , who under Charles III. had assumed an extraordinary position of trust no longer played a role after its fall. Only once - in the summer of 888 - can it be found with Arnolf, and this in a completely insignificant position. Probably the closest confidante among the secular greats was Luitpold of Bavaria . He first became Count of Karantanien in 893 and then assumed a leading position in the entire Bavarian brand area.

The East Franconian Empire was the king's sphere of influence, but like the Western Empire, it was not determined by reference to his person or to the Carolingian family. According to the understanding of the great, an empire represented an independent unit that was ultimately subject to the disposal of the noble ruling class. This was basically entitled not only to overthrow the ruler, but also to bring about a change of dynasty. Leaving the rulers and "invitations" to take over power did not only occur sporadically in the late Carolingian era. When in the year 888 the West Franconian Great Arnolf offered to rule there because they did not want to accept the Carolingian heir to the throne because of his underage, he refused. Instead, he invited the non-Carolingian pretender Odo to a meeting and concluded an alliance of friendship with him in August 888. In November 888, Odo was crowned King of West Franconia for the second time in Reims with a crown he had received from Arnolf, having been crowned in February following his election as king.

Of Arnolf's 176 traditional documents, 72 were issued in the first two years of government from November 27, 887 to December 8, 889. Already from the first hundred days (November 27, 887 to February 23, 888) 18 royal documents have come down to us. No other early medieval ruler has received such a large number of documents from the first three months. Geoffrey Koziol thinks that previous research has underestimated the importance of the Carolingian document system. The Carolingian documents are not to be regarded as mere legal acts in administrative action, rather they are to be valued as important acts of representation of power and central media for securing power. In the case of succession to power, they were important as a means of legitimation. They would have served to build relationships with the greats and the monasteries of the empire. In particular, the first and last documents of a king were important for establishing and losing legitimation.

At 27 percent, the proportion of secular recipients is significantly higher than with Ludwig the German, Ludwig the Younger or Karl III. Arnolf, who came to power through rebellion, tried to win favor with secular recipients with the help of numerous diplomas. In the south-east of the empire in particular, a large number of donations for ecclesiastical and secular greats have been handed down from his first year. In the Arengen , the introductions to his documents, one can read explicitly from the proven crebrum servicium (numerous services) or obsequium (obedience) of the beneficiaries.

130 clergy can be identified among the recipients. 53 documents were issued for monasteries. St. Gallen was particularly favored with six certificates; Reichenau and Fulda received four each, Lorsch and Metten three each. Corvey , Gandersheim , Prüm , St. Maximin near Trier , St. Arnolf in Metz , Ötting and Kremsmünster were each awarded two certificates. The episcopal churches and dioceses form the second largest group of recipients with 37 documents. Ten documents were sent to archbishops and bishops, 22 to individual churches or chapels. Arnolf especially equipped church institutions outside of Bavaria in order to secure their support. A focus here was on Alemannia (St. Gallen and Reichenau) and Lorraine.

Arnolf tried to achieve a balance of power between the individual interest groups in the Reich. At the beginning of his rule he relied primarily on the Conradines , who were wealthy in eastern Franconia and Lorraine. The climax of this policy, with which Arnolf wanted to push back the influence of the Babenbergs , was the occupation of the diocese of Würzburg with the youngest Conradin, Rudolf . This made the Konradines the most powerful noble family in the empire. However, from about 895 onwards, Arnolf partially reversed their massive favoring since 892; they had to postpone their eastward ambitions.

The synods were of particular importance for close cooperation between the king and the bishops . Between 873 and 887 there was no meeting of bishops despite various efforts. Under Arnolf the number of synods and their resolutions increased; in his day six synods met from 888 to 895. The king played an important role in convening these meetings of bishops. Arnolf was able to use them to represent power. According to Wilfried Hartmann , the bishops tried to have a good relationship with him from 888 at the latest. Arnolf reached the height of his authority in 895 at the Synod of Tribur, which he presided over. The bishops celebrated him as ruler by God's grace.

Itinerary and central locations

The efficiency of rule depended essentially on the personal presence of the king with a very small group of prominent rulers. In order to establish the contact necessary for building consensus, the king had to seek personal encounter with the great as often as possible. Too long a stay in one place threatened alienation between the ruler and the greats of distant regions. The Regensburg continuer of the Fulda Annals commented critically that Arnolf had stayed in Regensburg too long. The Carolingian kings mainly traveled from Pfalz to Pfalz. In addition to current political requirements, the ruler's state of health also determined the itinerary . Unlike his predecessors, Arnolf left the East Franconian Empire for only two campaigns against the Moravians (892 and 893) and his two Italian campaigns (894 and 895/96).

Under Arnolf, the spatial focus shifted in the East Franconian Empire from 888 onwards. In Charles III. preferred Alemannia, Arnolf was only to be found in the early years of his reign. Only on the way back from Burgundy in the spring of 894 was Arnolf once again in Alemannia. Bavaria, the focus of his father's rule, was given central importance. Regensburg developed under Arnolf into an outstanding center of power. About a third of his certificates were issued there. As a meeting place, it appeared next to Rhine Franconia. Four imperial assemblies took place in Regensburg (887/888, 895, 897 and 899). In the immediate vicinity of Regensburg's St. Emmeram Abbey, Arnolf began building a new royal palace. According to Peter Schmid , Arnolf wanted to create "an ideal center of his empire" in Regensburg with the royal palace, the veneration of St. Emmeram as an imperial patron and the endeavor to establish the church of the saint as a Carolingian burial place. He stayed in Regensburg most frequently with 22 stays; he can be traced there in every year of his reign and made the city the preferred place of his rule. He spent the winter there three times and celebrated Easter six times there. Frankfurt follows a long way behind with 11 stays. In contrast to his grandfather Ludwig, to whom the Rhine-Main area with the center of Frankfurt was equally important as king next to Regensburg , Arnolf concentrated primarily on Bavaria. However, unlike his father Karlmann, he did not call himself rex Baiuvorum (King of Bavaria).

A comparison of the document practice of the East Franconian king with his itinerary shows that his sphere of activity with regard to his personal contacts was by no means limited to the central political landscapes. He only visited Saxony once, but petitioners kept coming from there with their wishes to him in Rhine Franconia.

Composition of the chancellery and court chapel

A deed of gift from Arnolf, issued on April 15, 890 in Regensburg. Munich, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv , Kaiserselekt 73 =  document: Kloster Niederaltaich documents (790–1801) 13 (KU Niederaltaich 13, color image of D. 77 with front and back) in the European document archive Monasterium.net .

With the fall of Charles III. his office also disappeared. According to Mark Mersiowsky , there were “hardly any continuities from him to Arnolf”. When his predecessor fell, Arnolf was unable to fall back on his own law firm. Much of the work involved in issuing the certificate was therefore delegated to the recipient. As head of the office, the Regensburg deacon Aspert exerted a great influence on the office's business from 888 to 891. After Aspert's appointment as Bishop of Regensburg in July 891, the notary Engilpero achieved greater importance in the documentary system by March 893. The actual document business was done in the office by numerous occasional writers. Therefore, the design of the certificates was different. The documents issued after Arnolf's coronation show an "imperial stylization". As a result of his stroke in 896 and his hasty return from the Rome train, the changes remained small in the long term.

The court chapel at the royal court was responsible for pastoral care and for holding religious services. From Charles III. Arnolf had taken on numerous court chaplains. Several members of the court orchestra were promoted to East Franconian bishoprics. In 890 Solomon became Bishop of Constance and Abbot of St. Gallen. The court chaplain Hatto became abbot of Reichenau in 888 and archbishop of Mainz in 891 . Arnolf raised people in leadership positions who had been far from him at the beginning of his reign. The Swabian Abbey of Kempten was transferred to Freising Bishop Waldo , Solomon's brother, in 889. From such elevations into clerical offices, Arnolf hoped that officials would be loyal and that their families would bond with him as ruler. Hatto von Mainz and Waldo von Freising are often found in the vicinity of the ruler. They accompanied Arnolf on his Italian march in early 894 and also on the second Italian train in 895/96 for the coronation of the emperor.

Normans

In the course of the 9th century Normans invaded the Franconian Empire repeatedly . In 881 Maastricht, Tongeren and Liège were plundered. The few defensive successes were achieved mainly by regional forces under the leadership of nobles and bishops, while Charles III. was militarily unsuccessful against the Normans. The only way Karl could get the invaders to withdraw from their base in Asselt (north of Roermond ) in the summer of 882 was with rich gifts. Contemporaries interpreted the gifts as tribute payments and as evidence of his poor qualification as a ruler. Arnolf had taken part in a campaign by Charles against the Normans in the summer of 882.

In the summer of 891 Arnolf moved with an army first to Arras and then to Leuven and with his victory on the Dijle was able to end the Norman raids on Eastern Franconia. The Normans finally turned away from his part of the empire and from then on concentrated on the west of France. This enabled the north of Arnolf's empire to consolidate.

Campaigns against the Moravians and pact with the Hungarians

Approximate borders of Moravia under the rule of Moimir I (around 830-846)

Carolingian cavalry from the Psalterium aureum (St. Gallen, Stiftsbibliothek, Cod. 22, p. 140).

The Moravians were among the most dangerous opponents of the East Franconian Empire in the second half of the 9th century. For decades, the Moravian rulers Moimir , Rastislav and Svatopluk I (Zwentibald) tried to break away from Frankish supremacy and build a kingdom. Conflicts arose because both sides were interested in Lower Pannonia . In Forchheim , a peace between Eastern Franconia and the Moravians was concluded in 874, which apparently lasted ten years; in any case, no combat operations are recorded for this period. When he came to power in 876 in Carantania and Pannonia, Arnolf had good relations with the Moravian prince Svatopluk, who had already taken over the sponsorship of Arnolf's son Zwentibold around 870/71. After his election as king, Arnolf was initially interested in a peace with Svatopluk. In the spring of 890 he therefore ceded sovereignty over Bohemia to him. The peace treaty renewed in 891 only lasted a short time. Arnolf's glorious victory over the Normans enabled him to consolidate his royal rule in the East Franconian Empire and to take up the fight against Svatopluk. He wanted to strengthen his position in the east and recapture lost territories. Arnolf undertook campaigns against the Moravian Empire in the summer of 892 and 893. After Svatopluks death in 894 he was able to make peace with his sons.

In the battles against the Moravians and also in distant Italy, Arnolf resorted to the Hungarians as allies. He was therefore later accused of having brought the Hungarians into the Franconian Empire and surrendered all of Europe to the Hungarian looting trains. These allegations are not found in contemporary authors, they were only raised several decades later in retrospect. Heinz Dopsch was able to show that the Hungarians were not yet neighbors of the East Franconian Empire when the alliance was formed in 892 and therefore did not represent any immediate danger. Until Arnolf's death they kept to their alliance obligations, only afterwards began their raids north and south of the Alps.

Saxony

Even under Arnolf, Saxony was one of the areas of Eastern Franconia that were remote from the king. Arnolf only stayed there once, when he made it the starting point of his first major but hapless campaign against the Abodrites in 889 . Arnolf's documentary activity also characterizes Saxony as a periphery . Of 176 certificates issued, Arnolf only addressed 12.5 percent to Saxon recipients. This already means a considerable increase compared to the conditions under Charlemagne or Ludwig the Pious , under whose rule Saxony was only slightly considered with 0.91 or 3.2 percent, but still remained far behind the notifications for addressees in its core areas of Bavaria and Franconia.

Nevertheless, Saxony remained an integral part of the empire even in the late 9th century. The nobility and episcopate in Saxony recognized Arnolf's rule and sought the king's proximity. The bishops were installed by the king, appeared at the imperial assemblies and took part in his campaigns. Arnolf in turn rewarded this loyalty. No other worldly great man in the empire was so lavishly favored as Count Ekbert .

According to Matthias Becher's research , no supremacy of the later royal house of the Liudolfinger can be proven under the East Franconian King Arnolf in Saxony . Instead, in the 9th and beginning of the 10th centuries, various noble families fought for supremacy in eastern Franconia, Saxony and Thuringia. It was not until the year 900 that a Liudolfinger prevailed with Otto the Illustrious . Under Arnolf, the family already enjoyed a high reputation and a strong position in south-eastern Saxony and northern Thuringia, which will have moved Arnolf to marry his son Zwentibold to Otto's daughter Oda. Nevertheless, the relationship between Arnolf and Otto was subject to great fluctuations between distance and proximity, because the Carolingian king temporarily encouraged the advance of the Konradines, who were enemies with the Babenbergs and Liudolfingers, to Thuringia.

Lorraine

Lorraine had been splintered up for many years. The fall of Charles III. tried to use the Welf Rudolf to take over the rule there. Then Arnolf moved from Rheinfranken to Alsace. An Alemannic army division took over the fighting for him. Arnolf was able to secure Lorraine, Rudolf was recognized as king of Hochburgund and was granted the western Alps and their foreland as a rulership. From 895 to 900 Lorraine was subordinated to its own king with Arnolf's son Zwentibold. This was the first time that an individual was in charge of the entire Regnum . Arnolf has not appeared in Lorraine since then. In view of the lack of documents for Lorraine recipients after Zwentibold's accession to power, Johannes Fried assumes Arnolf's disinterest in the Mittelreich .

Italy

In Italy, families originally from Franconia, but now rooted in Italy, fought with the Carolingians for royal dignity. Berengar of Friuli was crowned King of Italy in early 888. Arnolf was able to reach an agreement with him, but another pretender, Wido von Spoleto , refused such a settlement. Arnolf did not accept Pope Stephen V's invitation to Rome . Pope then crowned Wido as the first non-Carolingian emperor, and at Easter Wido's son Lambert was made co-emperor.

In the autumn of 893 Pope Arnolf asked for help against the tyrant Wido. Thereupon Arnolf moved to Italy in early 894. He conquered Bergamo and Pavia . During the conquest of Bergamo, he captured a "great treasure". Although he made a name for himself in all of Northern Italy, at the end of April 894 he left Italy again via Burgundy.

In October 895 Arnolf moved again across the Alps. In view of the large army, King Berengar renounced his kingdom without a fight and submitted unconditionally. But in February 896, the city gates of Rome remained locked to Arnolf. Because of the unexpected military challenge, he met with the entire army for joint consultation. The army then made a pledge of loyalty and agreed to the storming of the city walls by making public confession. The conquest began that same day. After violent disputes over St. Peter , Arnolf was crowned emperor by Pope Formosus in the second half of February 896 . The resistance to his rule was not yet broken. Arnolf was on the way to Spoleto when he had to leave Italy due to illness. He traveled back to Bavaria via Piacenza and the Brenner in May. He left his son Ratold as a deputy in Milan. However, Ratold found no support and very soon followed Arnolf to Bavaria. Arnolf's retreat and the death of the Pope in April 896 rendered the restructuring of power relations in Italy that had begun.

family

With Zwentibold and Ratold, Arnolf had two premarital sons who were born before 889. He also had a daughter of the same name by a woman named Ellinrat. The name of another daughter is unknown. Apparently he had at least three concubines. According to general research, his marriage to Oda is dated to the year 888 or a short time after his ascension to the king. Oda is often counted among the Konradines , as Arnolf and Ludwig described the child in their diplomas as Konrad the Elder, Konrad the Younger and Eberhard as nepotes (nephews) and Oda had the Lahnstein farm at his disposal. Along with the Babenbergs, she was one of the most influential East Franconian families. This marriage was supposed to strengthen Arnolf's rule. In the autumn of 893 she was the only legitimate son, Ludwig the child. Ludwig was considered the future heir to the throne from his birth. The naming with a Carolingian baptismal name in contrast to his brothers makes this clear. Despite Ludwig's birth, Arnolf's illegitimate sons were also to be given royal rule. Zwentibold became king in Lorraine, Italy was apparently intended as a rulership for Ratold. Arnolf furnished his wife Oda with numerous fiscal goods (from the actual imperial property ): He gave her the royal court in Velden an der Vils and another fiscal property in Nierstein in Wormsgau . He also presented Ellinrat with fiscal goods.

Arnolf celebrated the first Christmas together with his wife as an important act of royal representation and exercise of power in Carinthia, and she accompanied him on the Rome train 895/96. A coronation as empress is not specifically recorded. She did not take part in Arnolf's campaigns to Moravia in 893 and Italy in 894. With only six mentions in Arnolf's documents, Oda apparently had no particular influence on the rule.

Arnolf's sons Ratold and Ludwig the child remained unmarried. Zwentibold married Oda, Liudolfingerin , whom his father had chosen for him at Easter 897 . The reasons for this are not known. It is possible that Arnolf wanted to bind Saxony, which was far away from the king, closer to himself through the connection with this influential noble family.

Succession arrangements

Shortly after he came to power, Arnolf held a meeting in Forchheim at the end of May 889 to discuss the state of the empire (de statu regni) . There the king wanted his two illegitimate sons Zwentibold and Ratold to be recognized as his successors. But this aroused concerns among the Franconian and Bavarian greats. According to the Fulda Annals, some Franks took the oath with the proviso that it should only apply if the king did not have a legitimate son. As a result of the birth of Ludwig the child, Arnolf's attempt to make his first-born son Zwentibold King of Lorraine in Worms in June 894 failed. The reasons for this failure are unknown. In May 895 Zwentibold's elevation to King of "Burgundy and the whole Lotharian Empire" (in Burgundia et omni Hlotharico) was successful. Ratold only appears in the sources in addition to the succession regulation of 889 in Arnolf's return from the imperial coronation in 896.

illness

In the summer of 896 Arnolf suffered a stroke shortly after his coronation, after which he returned to Bavaria; in August he took part in an imperial assembly in Forchheim. He was almost killed by a collapsing balcony; Accidents caused by collapsing buildings were not uncommon for early medieval rulers. Probably in November 896 he received an embassy from the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI in Regensburg . He celebrated Christmas in Altötting.

His health seems to have deteriorated again. He had to spend the winter of 896/97 in Bavaria, according to a comment in the Fulda Annals, partly “in remote places” (secretis locis) . Such behavior was unique for a Carolingian ruler. Perhaps he wanted to hide his illness or he was looking for the peace and quiet of recovery. On June 8, 897, he addressed his own welfare in a document for the Worms Church. In the certificate he expressed his hope that such gifts would also be helpful "for the recovery of our body".

Arnolf's illness made active government increasingly impossible. In Italy one had his rivals Lambert and Berengar issue certificates, north of the Alps, trust in the ruler fell noticeably. The number of royal diplomas issued decreased significantly. At the same time, the number of document interveners grew considerably in this phase. In the period before Arnolf's illness, aristocratic rulers only appeared as interveners in around a third, this was the case in around two thirds after 896. Research has concluded that the greats of the empire were able to expand their position of power considerably during this time. Timothy Reuter identified a certain recovery for the emperor in the spring of 897 from the sources. Reuter explains the restriction in the itinerary and also for the recipients of the documents to Bavaria with the military situation at the time. In view of the tense situation, Arnolf made the East Franconian greats swear allegiance to his young son Ludwig in 897.

Arnolf suffered a second stroke in the spring of 899. He became so unable to move that he could only cover the Danube route by boat and not on horseback. In 899, charges of infidelity were brought against his wife Oda. The accusation of adultery was refuted in June 899 in Regensburg by 72 oath assistants. According to Johannes Fried , the allegations could not be negotiated in public without Arnolf's consent. With the public humiliation, according to Thilo Offergeld, Oda, as the mother of the underage king, should be politically excluded from responsibility for future talks about the succession to the throne. Timothy Reuter, on the other hand, does not explain the adultery accusation with the "political elimination" of the Queen, but sees it as a "rather hysterical defense measure in view of the renewed deterioration in Arnolf's health". Apparently Oda was not disregarded, because she intervened in Arnolf's last document for the Ötting monastery. At about the same time as the trial against Oda, the emperor fell ill again. This was attributed to the fact that he had been given "something harmful" (nocuum quoddam) . Three of the alleged perpetrators have been convicted; Graman was beheaded in Ötting , another accused, who remains anonymous in the sources, escaped to Italy. Radpurc, who was considered the leading head of the plot, died on the gallows in Aibling . Timothy Reuter sees an accusation “with undertones of witchcraft and black magic”. Poisoning and sorcery were offenses that were primarily blamed on women in medieval Europe.

At the beginning of 899 the Conradin clan under the leadership of Archbishop Hattos of Mainz tried to obtain recognition of Arnolf's underage son Ludwig in secret negotiations in St. Goar without the terminally ill emperor . The aim was the removal of King Zwentibold, because as a ruler capable of acting, he would have reduced the influence of the Conradines on the underage King Ludwig. A procedure against Zwentibold was secretly agreed.

The seriously ill emperor besieged the rebellious Isanrich, son of the margrave Aribo, from a ship in Mautern in the summer of 899 . Isanrich had made a pact with the Moravians and thus prompted Arnolf to intervene. At first he could be captured, but he escaped and fled to the Moravians. From Mautern Arnolf returned to Regensburg. He never left the city until his death.

Death and succession

Arnolf died at the age of about 50 after several strokes on December 8, 899. The thesis made before 1945 that the Carolingians had a hereditary disease, which was responsible for the downfall of the dynasty, was refuted by Achim Thomas Hack . The day of death of the emperor and his burial place are passed down very differently. The date of death is of great importance for the liturgical memory of the dead. On the Reichenau, July 14th was the day Arnolf died, which Franz Fuchs attributes to a confusion with the Bavarian Duke of the same name . In the Book of the Dead of St. Maximin in Trier, the emperor was commemorated on August 17th. According to Reginos von Prüm's report on the year 899, Arnolf died on November 29th and was buried in Ötting (Altötting). Most southern German necrologies mention December 8th; Franz Fuchs agrees with this dating. From the late Middle Ages until the dissolution of the monastery, November 27th was celebrated in St. Emmeram as the anniversary of Arnolf's death. Fuchs justified this with the fact that in the corresponding necrology the original date, December 8th, was verifiably erased by shaving and in the 14th century November 27th was inserted as the date of death in its place. The reorganization of the Arnolf memoria go back to Abbot Albert von Schmidmühlen (1324-1358). Fuchs thinks that Arnolf was buried in St. Emmeram, because the simultaneous statement made by the Bavarian continuer of the Fulda Annals is more credible due to its spatial proximity. In addition, no claim was made to the last East Franconian emperor and his grave in Altötting. Accordingly, Arnolf was buried like other East Franconian Carolingians in the nearest venerable monastery.

Arnolf's widow Oda was evidently without any major influence. After his death, she only intervened once in Ludwig's diplomas. Only one of her whereabouts after Arnolf's death is known, Ötting. Her grave has remained unknown.

Eight weeks after Arnolf's death, six-year-old Ludwig was elected and crowned king in Forchheim on February 4, 900 . In Lorraine in 899/900 the nobility of Zwentibold broke away and joined King Ludwig. In August 900 Zwentibold was killed in a battle on the Meuse. Ludwig the child was under the influence of a noble faction around Hatto von Mainz . Thilo Offergeld was unable to identify any signs of independent rule at Ludwig in his investigation into the children's kingdom. With Ludwig's death on September 24th, 911, the Carolingian rule in Eastern Franconia ended.

Surname

Arnolf is known today by the nickname “von Kärnten” because his ascent took place in Carantania and the ruler had a close relationship with this region throughout his life. The name form Carinthia did not exist in the 9th and 10th centuries. The area was then called Carantania. In the course of the High Middle Ages this name changed to Carinthia. In contemporary sources, Arnolf is referred to several times as the Duke of Carantania. The Salzburg annals also call him Arnolf von Karantanien.

The name "Arnolf / Arnulf" has been handed down since the 5th century and means "eagle wolf". The first name bearer among the Carolingians, the canonized Bishop Arnulf von Metz , was also the progenitor of the family.

In 90 percent of the king's documents the name form "Arnolf" occurs, the variant "Arnulf" only in six percent. The other four percent use the form “Arnolf” in the intitulatio and the variant “Arnulf” in the subscriptio in the signum line or in the dating. A similar finding can also be found in the historiography. At Notker von St. Gallen the name form "Arnold" can be found.

The diplomats Theodor Sickel , Engelbert Mühlbacher and Paul Fridolin Kehr preferred the more documentary Arnolf. In the middle of the 20th century the "Arnulf" shape was predominant. Since the publication of Rudolf Schieffer's Carolingian book in 1992 and the studies that have been published since then, the form “Arnolf” has predominated.

effect

Early middle ages

According to a traditional research opinion, since Ludwig the German, written form has generally lost its importance for the practice of rule and as a means of communication. The capitularies as important documents for the ruling organization disappear from the East Franconian Empire and are not otherwise replaced. Contrary to this common view, David Steward Bachrach and Bernard S. Bachrach have shown in a recent study that the late Carolingian rulers in Eastern Franconia relied heavily on written documents, especially for the purpose of taxation.

Hardly any self-statements have been handed down from the East Franconian Carolingians. As one of the few types of sources, the diplomas can provide information about their self-image. However, these are formulated by chancellery lists, not by the kings themselves. Nevertheless, they are most likely to express the self-image of their exhibitors. In the introductions to the documents (Arengen) the care for the subordinates and loyal followers as well as the duty to be generous towards them are emphasized. Unlike Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, Arnolf had no contemporary biographer.

176 documents have survived from the twelve years of Arnolf's reign. This results in an average of 14.8 certificates per year. The output is therefore relatively large for a Carolingian. Little more than four documents per year from Ludwig the German from 50 years of reign have come down to us, and from Charles the Bald twelve. Under Arnolf's successor, Ludwig the Child, the number of diplomas fell sharply: only 77 certificates were available from his twelve years.

Holy Bishop Erhard , who was the founder of the monastery and was buried in Niedermünster, celebrates mass at the portable altar raised by the ciborium. Uta Codex. Munich, Bavarian State Library, Clm 13601, fol. 4r.

Liudprand von Cremona, Antapodosis (excerpt from Book III, Chapters 32–34) in a Northern Italian manuscript from the second half of the 10th century: Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 6388, fol. 51r.

The year 887 was perceived as a deep turning point in contemporary historiography. The main line of the Fulda Annals stopped reporting when Arnolf came to power. The death of Charles III. only a few months later it was no longer recorded. Due to its Bavarian origins, the so-called “Regensburg continuation” of the Fulda Annals, which reports on the period from 882 to 897 or 901/02, is the essential information base for Arnolf's reign. The chronicle of Reginos von Prüm extends from the birth of Christ to the year 906. In the statements made by this Lorraine chronicler about Arnolf's reign, however, the spatial distance and the more west-facing representation must be taken into account. At the beginning of Arnolf's reign, the historiographical poem by an unknown Saxon author, known as Poeta Saxo , was written in 888/89 . This poet gave Arnolf special rulership qualities because he had the same name as the ancestor of the Carolingian family, Bishop Arnulf von Metz. He hoped for a long reign and remembered Charlemagne, who had doubled the size of the empire.

The Arnulf ciborium is the only surviving early medieval "travel altar". It is one of the most important examples of late Carolingian goldsmithing. An inscription that Arnolf designates as rex (king) indicates that it was made before his coronation as emperor, between 887 and 896. Due to the stylistic features, an earlier date around 870 was also discussed by art historical research. Instead of Arnolf, Karl the Bald was assumed to be the client. It remains doubtful whether the foundation was intended for the Regensburg Emmeramskloster. In the early 11th century the founder's memoria took off. The ciborium was presented in the so-called Uta Codex , an evangelist made for the Regensburg women's monastery in Niedermünster .

About fifty years after Arnolf's death, the Italian historian Liudprand of Cremona wrote his "Book of Retribution" (Liber antapodoseos) . The work goes back to the eighties of the 9th century and thus also deals in detail with the last Carolingian ruler Arnolf of Carinthia. For Liudprand, Arnolf is the typical tyrant. He rapes nuns, desecrates wives, profane churches. In his Antapodosis , the historian devotes a separate chapter to Arnolf's death, which he considers shameful. The emperor's serious illness is interpreted as just retribution by the heavenly judge for wicked actions. Arnolf died from vermin; that is God's punishment for summoning the Hungarians.

High and late Middle Ages

Late medieval portrait of Emperor Arnolf in a manuscript of the Liber Augustalis by Benvenuto da Imola, completed in 1387 : Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, clm 313, fol. 63r.

Liudprand's story about Arnolf's shameful death by vermin became the common view of his death in late medieval historiography by Martin von Troppau , Vinzenz von Beauvais and Thomas Ebendorfer . After the Liber Augustalis of Benvenuto da Imola , completed in 1387 , Arnolf was bitten by lice while he was still alive. In St. Emmeram one could not believe in such a terrible death of the pious emperor. Since the early 11th century, the local monks celebrated him as the second founder of their monastery. This led to the fact that the author of the Middle High German Imperial Chronicle from the middle of the 12th century considered Arnolf to be a contemporary of St. Emmeram . In the early 17th century, the Carthusian monk Franz Jeremias Grienewaldt grappled with Liudprand's account of Arnolf's death with great scholarship. In St. Emmeram, Arnolfs was remembered for centuries on the day of his death. The funeral celebrations ended in 1810 with the dissolution of the monastery.

At the end of the 15th century, Andreas von Regensburg had stylized Arnolf as the “most famous ruler of Europe” ( Arnolfus regum Europe famoissimus ). The verdict was well received in the following Bavarian historiography.

Modern

Research history

The Carolingian rule in the East Franconian Empire was hardly perceived as an independent epoch in older medieval research. For a long time, Arnolf's reign was seen either as an era of decline compared to the time of Charlemagne or as the prehistory of the emergence of the “German” empire. Maximilian von Gagern published the first biographical account in 1837 under the title Arnulfi imperatoris vita ex annalibus et diplomatis conscripta . Due to the richness of detail, the three-volume history of the East Franconian Empire (1887/88) by Ernst Dümmler is still irreplaceable. Dümmler proceeded in strict chronological order and comprehensively evaluated the written sources for each year. The detail of his presentation may have been one reason why historiography has barely researched the second half of the 9th century for more than a hundred years. Dümmler had previously dedicated his Berlin dissertation (De Arnulfo Francorum rege commentatio historica) from 1853 to Arnolf.

German historiography identified a German national feeling in the composition and origin of the revolutionaries of 887. Martin Lintzel attached great importance to the year 887 for the beginnings of German history. It was discussed for a long time whether the initiative to depose Charles III. from Arnolf himself or from the nobility of the East Franconian tribes. In his 1941 habilitation lecture in Leipzig, Walter Schlesinger assigned Emperor Arnulf and the emergence of the German state to the Carolingian on the way from Franconian to German history. After Schlesinger, Arnolf could hardly become king of his own accord on the basis of his modest starting position in Carantania. The big names are clearly described in the sources as "Franconia, Saxony and Thuringia, plus Bavaria and Alemanni". In Arnolf's turning away from the West Franconian Empire and in the spatial restriction of power, Schlesinger saw "a German popular consciousness" emerge. He described the situation at that time with the words: "A German people's consciousness is preparing to shape a German state." Schlesinger expressly turned against Gerd Tellenbach , who had recently taken a different view of the driving forces and now responded to Schlesinger's lecture in the Historical journal responded. In the 9th century, Tellenbach also saw "the German idea [...] in the making". However, he did not see Arnolf as a hopeless outsider, but as a successful military leader. Arnolf only got the big ones through his advance on the Rhine to turn away from Charles III. can move. Tellenbach did not yet trust the Saxons, Franks and Alemanni to form a uniform or even common will; rather, he proceeded from a gradual recognition of Arnolf "by the tribes or tribal members". In the further discussion, the research tended more towards Tellenbach's point of view.

Since the 1970s, through the studies of Joachim Ehlers , Bernd Schneidmüller and Carlrichard Brühl on the beginnings of German and French history, the view that the "German Reich" was not created by a single outstanding event, but as a result a long-term development that began in the 9th century and which was not even complete in the 11th and 12th centuries. At the same time, Schlesinger's thesis of the dynamic of an early German Volkstum that had been in effect since the end of the 9th century is overtaken.

The Herzogstuhl am Zollfeld

Karolinger Museum in Moosburg

December 8, 1999 marked the 1100th anniversary of Arnolf's death. On this occasion the scientific colloquium between Kaiser Arnolf and the East Franconian Empire took place in Regensburg from December 9th to 11th, 1999 . The 14 conference contributions were published in 2002 with two further articles by Franz Fuchs and Peter Schmid . According to Rudolf Schieffer (2002), Arnolf was not at the beginning of German history and can also not be counted “among its conscious pioneers”.

Afterlife in Carinthia

Carinthian historiography traces the Herzogstuhl back to the time of Arnolf of Carinthia. This most famous monument in the country still stands on the Zollfeld today . In the local Carinthian tradition, Moosburg is considered the birthplace of the Carolingian ruler. In 1988 Robert Svetina set up a Carolingian Museum there; In 1992 the Moosburger Hefte became a “magazine for the care of the memory of Emperor Arnulf of Carinthia”, and the Kaiser-Arnulfs-Festival takes place there every July. In Klagenfurt , the square in front of the building of the office of the Carinthian provincial government is called Arnulfplatz.

swell

• Paul Kehr (editor): The documents of the German Carolingians 3. The documents of Arnolf (= MGH Diplomata regum Germaniae ex stirpe Karolinorum. Vol. 3). Weidmann, Berlin 1940 ( digitized version ).
• Sources on the Carolingian Empire history. Part 3: Yearbooks of Fulda, Regino: Chronik, Notker: Taten Karls (= selected sources on German history of the Middle Ages. Freiherr-vom-Stein-Gedächtnisausgabe. Vol. 7). Newly edited by Reinhold Rau. 4th edition, expanded by a supplement compared to the 3rd. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2002, ISBN 3-534-06965-X (Latin text and German translation).

literature

• Matthias Becher : Arnulf von Kärnten - name and ancestry of an (illegitimate?) Karolinger. In: Uwe Ludwig, Thomas Schilp (eds.): Nomen et Fraternitas (= Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Supplementary volumes to the Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Vol. 62). de Gruyter, Berlin a. a. 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-020238-0 , pp. 665-682.
• Roman Deutinger : Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian period (= contributions to the history and source studies of the Middle Ages. Vol. 20). Thorbecke, Ostfildern 2006, ISBN 978-3-7995-5720-7 .
• Ernst Dümmler : History of the East Franconian Empire. Third volume. The last Carolingians, Konrad I. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1960, p. 297ff. (Reprint of the 2nd edition, Leipzig 1888; digitized version ).
• Franz Fuchs and Peter Schmid (eds.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium December 9-11, 1999 (= Journal of Bavarian State History . Supplement, Vol. 19). Beck, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-10660-9 ( review by H-Soz-u-Kult ) and ( review by Sehepunkte ).
• Achim Thomas Hack : Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The example of the Carolingians (= monographs on the history of the Middle Ages. Vol. 56). Hiersemann, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-7772-0908-1 .
• Hagen Keller : To the fall of Charles III. About the role of Liutwards von Vercelli and Liutbert von Mainz, Arnulf von Kärnten and the east Franconian greats in the deposition of the emperor. In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages . Vol. 22, 1966, pp. 333-384 ( digitized version ). Reprinted in: Eduard Hlawitschka (Ed.): The election of the king and succession to the throne in the Frankish-Carolingian era (= ways of research . Vol. 247) Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 1975, pp. 432–494.
• Rudolf Schieffer : The Carolingians. 5th updated edition. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-17-023383-6 , pp. 187ff.

Lexicon article

• Walter Schlesinger :  Arnulf. In: New German Biography (NDB). Volume 1, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1953, ISBN 3-428-00182-6 , p. 395 f. ( Digitized version ).
• Wilhelm Störmer : Arnulf "von Kärnten" . In: Lexicon of the Middle Ages (LexMA). Volume 1, Artemis & Winkler, Munich / Zurich 1980, ISBN 3-7608-8901-8 , Sp. 1013-1015.

Web links

Commons : Arnolf von Kärnten  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

• Literature by and about Arnolf von Kärnten in the catalog of the German National Library
• Publications on Arnulf von Kärnten in the Opac der Regesta Imperii
• Images of Arnolf's diplomas in the imperial certificates in images : 889 for Fulda ( original 1 ; original 2 ); 890 for Count Choppo ; 897 for Corvey Monastery ; 898 for the diocese of Passau and the bishop Wolfhelm von Münster.

Remarks

1. ↑ Gerd Althoff: Amicitiae and Pacta. Alliance, unification, politics and prayer commemoration in the early 10th century. Hanover 1992, p. 329. Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143–186, here: p. 150.
2. ↑ Michael Mitterauer : Carolingian margraves in the southeast. Frankish imperial aristocracy and Bavarian tribal nobility in Austria. Graz u. a. 1963, p. 218.
3. ↑ Brigitte Kasten: The sons of kings and the rule of kings. Studies on participation in the empire in the Merovingian and Carolingian times. Hannover 1997, pp. 509-514.
4. ^ Brigitte Kasten: Chances and fates of "illegitimate" Carolingians in the 9th century. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 17–52, here: p. 52.
5. ^ Geoffrey Koziol: The Politics of Memory and Identity in Carolingian Royal Diplomas. The West Frankish Kingdom (840-987). Turnhout 2012.
6. ^ Matthias Becher: Arnulf von Kärnten - Name and descent of an (illegitimate?) Karolinger. In: Uwe Ludwig (Ed.): Nomen et Fraternitas. Festschrift for Dieter Geuenich on his 65th birthday. Berlin 2008, pp. 665–682, here: p. 670.
7. ^ Matthias Becher: Arnulf von Kärnten - Name and descent of an (illegitimate?) Karolinger. In: Uwe Ludwig and Thomas Schilp (eds.): Nomen et Fraternitas. Festschrift for Dieter Geuenich on his 65th birthday. Berlin 2008, pp. 665–682, here: p. 678.
8. ↑ Regino von Prüm, Chronicon a. 880.
9. ↑ Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the Southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143-186, here: pp. 150f.
10. ^ Rudolf Schieffer: Karl III. and Arnolf. Karl Rudolf Schnith, Roland Pauler (ed.): Festschrift for Eduard Hlawitschka on his 65th birthday. Lassleben 1993, pp. 133-149, here: p. 139 ( online ).
11. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 467.
12. ^ Simon MacLean: Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century. Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge 2003, pp. 191-198.
13. ↑ Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, pp. 266-268.
14. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 471.
15. ↑ Annales Fuldenses to 888.
16. ↑ Joachim Ehlers: The emergence of the German Empire. 4th edition. Munich 2012, p. 11.
17. ↑ Rudolf Schieffer: The Carolingians. 5th updated edition. Stuttgart 2014, p. 186.
18. ^ Hagen Keller: On the fall of Charles III. About the role of Liutwards von Vercelli and Liutbert von Mainz, Arnulf von Kärnten and the east Franconian greats in the deposition of the emperor. In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages . Vol. 22, 1966, pp. 333-384, here: pp. 370ff. ( Digitized version ).
19. ^ Rudolf Schieffer: Karl III. and Arnolf. In: Karl Rudolf Schnith, Roland Pauler (Hrsg.): Festschrift for Eduard Hlawitschka for his 65th birthday. Lassleben 1993, pp. 133-149, here: p. 148 ( online ).
20. ↑ See Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hannover 2001, pp. 488-492.
21. ^ Rudolf Schieffer: Karl III. and Arnolf. In: Karl Rudolf Schnith, Roland Pauler (Hrsg.): Festschrift for Eduard Hlawitschka for his 65th birthday. Lassleben 1993, pp. 133-149, here: p. 142 ( online ).
22. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, pp. 261, 307.
23. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 263.
24. ↑ Roman Deutinger was fundamental for the new perspective: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006.
25. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 236.
26. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 312.
27. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 555.
28. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 51. Adelheid Krah: Deposition proceedings as a mirror image of royal power. Investigations into the balance of power between royalty and nobility in the Carolingian Empire and its successor states. Aalen 1987. Konrad Bund: overthrow and deposition of rulers in the early Middle Ages. Bonn 1979.
29. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 413f.
30. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Kaiser Arnolf and the church. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 221-252, here: p. 223.
31. ^ Geoffrey Koziol: The Politics of Memory and Identity in Carolingian Royal Diplomas. The West Frankish Kingdom (840-987). Turnhout 2012.
32. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Kaiser Arnolf and the church. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 221-252, here: p. 224.
33. ^ Rudolf Schieffer: Karl III. and Arnolf. In: Karl Rudolf Schnith, Roland Pauler (Hrsg.): Festschrift for Eduard Hlawitschka for his 65th birthday. Lassleben 1993, pp. 133-149, here: p. 140 ( online ).
34. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Kaiser Arnolf and the church. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 221-252, here: pp. 225ff.
35. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 547ff. Matthias Becher: Rex, Dux and Gens. Investigations into the development of the Saxon duchy in the 9th and 10th centuries. Husum 1996, pp. 169-173.
36. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Hagen Keller: Late Antiquity to the End of the Middle Ages. The time of the late Carolingians and Ottonians. Crises and Consolidations 888–1024. Stuttgart 2008, p. 65.
37. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Kaiser Arnolf and the church. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 221-252, here: p. 252.
38. ^ Ludger Körntgen: Ottonen and Salier. Darmstadt 2002, p. 27.
39. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 385.
40. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 348.
41. ↑ Thomas Zotz: Konrad I and the genesis of the Duchy of Swabia. In: Hans-Werner Goetz (Ed.): King Konrad I. On the way to the “German Empire”? Bochum 2006, pp. 185–198, here: p. 188.
42. ^ Peter Schmid: Regensburg. City of kings and dukes in the Middle Ages. Kallmünz 1977, pp. 438-442.
43. ^ Peter Schmid: Regensburg. City of kings and dukes in the Middle Ages. Kallmünz 1977, pp. 325-328.
44. ^ Peter Schmid: Regensburg. City of kings and dukes in the Middle Ages. Kallmünz 1977, pp. 53-58.
45. ^ Peter Schmid: Regensburg. City of kings and dukes in the Middle Ages. Kallmünz 1977, p. 440. Peter Schmid: Kaiser Arnolf, Bavaria and Regensburg. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 187–217, here: p. 214.
46. ^ Peter Schmid: Kaiser Arnolf, Bavaria and Regensburg. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 187–217, here: p. 207.
47. ^ Peter Schmid: Regensburg. City of kings and dukes in the Middle Ages. Kallmünz 1977, p. 438.
48. ^ Peter Schmid: Kaiser Arnolf, Bavaria and Regensburg. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 187–217, here: p. 216.
49. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 378.
50. ↑ Mark Mersiowsky: Carta edita, causa finita? On the diplomacy of Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002. pp. 271–374, here: p. 373.
51. ↑ Mark Mersiowsky: Carta edita, causa finita? On the diplomacy of Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002. pp. 271–374, here: p. 343.
52. ↑ Mark Mersiowsky: Carta edita, causa finita? On the diplomacy of Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002. pp. 271–374, here: p. 372.
53. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Kaiser Arnolf and the church. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 221-252, here: p. 232.
54. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Kaiser Arnolf and the church. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 221-252, here: p. 237.
55. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Kaiser Arnolf and the church. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 221-252, here: p. 235.
56. ↑ Gerd Althoff: The Ottonians. Royal rule without a state. 2nd expanded edition, Stuttgart et al. 2005, p. 14.
57. ↑ With regard to the abundance of material, Walther Vogel has not been replaced to this day: The Normans and the Franconian Empire until the founding of Normandy, 799–911. Heidelberg 1906, here: p. 359ff. (on the raids of the Normans in 890/91, digitized version ).
58. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Ludwig the German. Darmstadt 2002, p. 118.
59. ^ Martina Hartmann: Lotharingien in Arnolfs Reich. The kingship of Zwentibold. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 122–142, here: p. 123.
60. ^ Charles R. Bowlus: The Military Organization of the Carolingian Southeast (791-907). In: Early Medieval Studies . Vol. 31, 1997, pp. 46–69, here: p. 66. Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the Southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143–186, here: p. 171.
61. ↑ Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the Southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143–186, here: p. 174.
62. ↑ Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the Southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143-186, here: pp. 178ff.
63. ↑ Matthias Becher: Between King and "Duke". Saxony under Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 89–121, here: p. 106.
64. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Ludwig the German. Darmstadt 2002, p. 96. Sabine Krüger: Studies on the Saxon county constitution in the 9th century. Göttingen 1950, p. 12.
65. ^ Elfie-Marita Eibl: On the position of Bavaria and Rhine Franconia in the kingdom of Arnulf of Carinthia. In: Yearbook for the History of Feudalism. Vol. 8, 1984, pp. 73-113, here: pp. 109ff.
66. ^ Ernst Schubert: History of Lower Saxony from the 9th to the end of the 15th century. In the S. (Ed.): History of Lower Saxony. Volume 2. Part 1: Politics, Constitution, Economy from the 9th to the end of the 15th century. Hannover 1997, pp. 3-904, here: pp. 67ff.
67. ↑ Matthias Becher: Between King and "Duke". Saxony under Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, p. 89–121, here: p. 110. Gerd Althoff: Noble and royal families in the mirror of their memorial tradition . Studies on the commemoration of the dead of the Billunger and Ottonians. Munich 1984, pp. 65, 71f., 390.
68. ↑ Matthias Becher: Between King and "Duke". Saxony under Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 89–121, here: p. 98.
69. ^ Matthias Becher: Rex, Dux and Gens. Investigations into the development of the Saxon duchy in the 9th and 10th centuries. Husum 1996, p. 158ff.
70. ^ Ernst Schubert: History of Lower Saxony from the 9th to the end of the 15th century. In the S. (Ed.): History of Lower Saxony. Volume 2. Part 1: Politics, Constitution, Economy from the 9th to the end of the 15th century. Hannover 1997, pp. 3–904, here: p. 95.
71. ^ Matthias Becher: The Liudolfinger. Rise of a family. In: Matthias Puhle (Ed.): Otto the Great, Magdeburg and Europe. Volume 1: Essays. Mainz 2001, pp. 110–118, here: p. 116.
72. ↑ Matthias Becher: Between King and "Duke". Saxony under Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 89–121, here: p. 121.
73. ↑ Bernd Schneidmüller: The Welfs. Reign and memory (819–1252). Stuttgart 2000, pp. 72-92.
74. ↑ Johannes Fried: The way into history. The origins of Germany up to 1024. Berlin 1994, p. 439.
75. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 264. Cf. in detail on this battle Jörg Jarnut : Die Eroberung Bergamos (894). A decisive battle between Emperor Wido and King Arnulf. In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages . Vol. 30, 1974, pp. 208-215 ( digitized version ).
76. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 248.
77. ↑ Andrea Esmyol: Beloved or Wife? Concubines in the early Middle Ages. Cologne et al. 2002, p. 157.
78. ↑ Matthias Becher: Between King and "Duke". Saxony under Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 89–121, here: p. 91 (with further references).
79. ↑ Classical view from Friedrich Stein: History of King Konrad I of Franconia and his house. Nördlingen 1872, pp. 82–86 ( digitized version ) and then widely represented in historical studies. The view that Oda comes from the Conradin clan is contested by Timothy Reuter: The Uota Trial. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 253-270, here: p. 257. Donald C. Jackman: The Konradiner. A Study in Genealogical Methodology. Frankfurt am Main 1990, pp. 135-139.
80. ↑ Matthias Becher: Between King and "Duke". Saxony under Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 89–121, here: p. 92.
81. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 520.
82. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 283f.
83. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 279.
84. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hannover 2001, pp. 566-569.
85. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 293.
86. ↑ Annales Fuldenses to 889.
87. ↑ Annales Fuldenses, Continuatio Ratisbonensis to 895.
88. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 290.
89. ↑ Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, pp. 130f. Timothy Reuter: The Uota Trial. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 253-270, here: p. 264.
90. ↑ Annales Fuldenses to 897. Quoted from Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 360.
91. ↑ Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, p. 161.
92. ↑ DD. Arn, no.153.
93. ↑ Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, p. 72. Franz Fuchs: Arnolf's death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 423 ( online ).
94. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 374.
95. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 521.
96. ↑ Timothy Reuter: The Uota Trial. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 253–270, here: p. 265.
97. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 521.
98. ↑ Johannes Fried: The way into history. The origins of Germany up to 1024. Berlin 1994, p. 442.
99. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hanover 2001, p. 524.
100. ↑ Timothy Reuter: The Uota Trial. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 253–270, here: p. 270.
101. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 280.
102. ↑ Annales Fuldenses to 899.
103. ↑ Timothy Reuter: The Uota Trial. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 253-270, here: p. 266.
104. ↑ Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, p. 371.
105. ↑ Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, p. 162.
106. ↑ Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, p. 168.
107. ^ Franz Fuchs: Arnolfs death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 425 ( online ).
108. ^ Franz Fuchs: Arnolfs death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 429 ( online ).
109. ^ Franz Fuchs: Arnolfs death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 418 ( online ).
110. ↑ Alois Schmid: The ruler's graves in St. Emmeram in Regensburg. In: German Archive for Research into the Middle Ages. Vol. 32, 1976, pp. 333-369, here: p. 350 ( digitized version ).
111. ↑ Hagen Keller: Ritual, Symbolism and Visualization in the Culture of the Ottonian Empire. In: Early Medieval Studies. Vol. 35, 2001, pp. 23-59, here: p. 32.
112. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 277.
113. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 280.
114. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hannover 2001, pp. 528-535.
115. ^ Thilo Offergeld: Reges Pueri. The royalty of minors in the early Middle Ages. Hannover 2001, pp. 519, 639-641.
116. ↑ Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the Southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143–186, here: p. 144.
117. ↑ Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the Southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143–186, here: p. 159.
118. ^ Matthias Becher: Arnulf von Kärnten - Name and descent of an (illegitimate?) Karolinger. In: Uwe Ludwig (Ed.): Nomen et Fraternitas. Festschrift for Dieter Geuenich on his 65th birthday. Berlin 2008, pp. 665-682, here: pp. 665f.
119. ^ Foreword by the editors. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, p. VI.
120. ↑ Gerd Althoff, Hagen Keller: Late Antiquity to the End of the Middle Ages. The time of the late Carolingians and Ottonians. Crises and Consolidations 888–1024. Stuttgart 2008, p. 32.
121. ↑ Bernard S. Bachrach, David S. Bachrach: Continuity of Written Administration in the Late Carolingian East c. 887-911. The Royal Fisc. In: Early Medieval Studies. Vol. 42, 2008, pp. 109-146.
122. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 44.
123. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Ludwig the German. Darmstadt 2002, p. 125.
124. ^ Roman Deutinger: Royal rule in the East Franconian Empire. A pragmatic constitutional history of the late Carolingian era. Ostfildern 2006, p. 326.
125. ↑ Compare with the respective sources Matthias Becher: Between King and "Duke". Saxony under Emperor Arnolf. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 89–121, here: pp. 106f.
126. ↑ Heidrun Stein-Kecks: Totus palatii ornatus. The ciborium from the treasure of Arnolf of Carinthia. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 389–434, here: p. 397.
127. ^ Rita Otto: On the historical position of the Arnulf Ciborium and the Codex Aureus from St. Emmeram in Regensburg. In: Journal for Art History. Vol. 15, 1952, p. 1–16, here: p. 15. Viktor H. Elbern: The goldsmith's art in the early Middle Ages. Darmstadt 1988, p. 79f.
128. ↑ Heidrun Stein-Kecks: Totus palatii ornatus. The ciborium from the treasure of Arnolf of Carinthia. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 389–434, here: p. 398.
129. ↑ Heidrun Stein-Kecks: Totus palatii ornatus. The ciborium from the treasure of Arnolf of Carinthia. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 389-434, here: p. 402.
130. ↑ Liudprand of Cremona, Antapodosis 1.36.
131. ^ Franz Fuchs: Arnolfs death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 416 ( online ). Achim Thomas Hack: Age, Illness, Death and Rule in the Early Middle Ages. The Carolingian example. Stuttgart 2009, p. 165.
132. ^ Franz Fuchs: Arnolfs death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 426 ( online ).
133. ^ Franz Fuchs: Arnolfs death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 427 ( online ).
134. ^ Franz Fuchs: Arnolfs death, funeral and memoria. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 416-434, here: p. 417 ( online ).
135. ^ Klaus Oschema: Pictures of Europe in the Middle Ages. Ostfildern 2013, pp. 226 and 231 (with all other references).
136. ↑ Critical to these predominant perspectives, Simon MacLean: Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century. Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge 2003, pp. 1-22.
137. ^ Wilfried Hartmann: Ludwig the German. Darmstadt 2002, p. 14f. Simon MacLean: Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century. Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge 2003, pp. 7f.
138. ↑ Martin Lintzel: The beginnings of the German Empire. About the Treaty of Verdun and the uprising of Arnulf of Carinthia. Munich 1942, p. 88ff.
139. ↑ On this older controversy, see Simon MacLean: Kingship and Politics in the Late Ninth Century. Charles the Fat and the End of the Carolingian Empire. Cambridge 2003, pp. 6f. Rudolf Schieffer: Emperor Arnolf and German history. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 1–16.
140. ^ Walter Schlesinger: Emperor Arnulf and the emergence of the German state and people. In: Historical magazine. Vol. 163, 1941, pp. 457-470, here: p. 464.
141. ↑ Gerd Tellenbach: Kings and tribes in the time of the German Empire. Weimar 1939, pp. 31-40.
142. ↑ Gerd Tellenbach: On the history of Kaiser Arnulf. In: Historical magazine. Vol. 165, 1942, pp. 229-245.
143. ↑ Gerd Tellenbach: On the history of Kaiser Arnulf. In: Historical magazine. Vol. 165, 1942, pp. 229–245, here: p. 234.
144. ↑ Gerd Tellenbach: On the history of Kaiser Arnulf. In: Historical magazine. Vol. 165, 1942, pp. 229–245, here: p. 237.
145. ↑ Cf. on this with further references to literature Rudolf Schieffer: Kaiser Arnolf und die deutsche Geschichte. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 1–16, here: p. 5.
146. ↑ See: Joachim Ehlers: The emergence of the German Empire. 4th edition, Munich 2012. Carlrichard Brühl: Germany - France. The birth of two peoples. Cologne et al. 1990. Bernd Schneidmüller: Nomen patriae. The emergence of France in political-geographical terminology (10th – 13th centuries). Sigmaringen 1987. Bernd Schneidmüller: Reich – Volk – Nation: The emergence of the German empire and the German nation in the Middle Ages. In: Almut Bues, Rex Rexheuser (ed.): Medieval nationes - modern nations. Problems of nation building in Europe. Wiesbaden 1995, pp. 73-101.
147. ↑ Joachim Ehlers: The emergence of the German Empire. 4th edition, Munich 2012, p. 73.
148. ^ Rudolf Schieffer: Kaiser Arnolf and German history. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 1–16, here: p. 16.
149. ↑ Heinz Dopsch: Arnolf and the Southeast - Karantinien, Moravia, Hungary. In: Franz Fuchs, Peter Schmid (ed.): Kaiser Arnolf. The East Franconian Empire at the end of the 9th century. Regensburg Colloquium, December 9-11, 1999. Munich 2002, pp. 143–186, here: p. 156.
150. ^ Moosburger Museumhefte. Journal for the care of the memory of Emperor Arnulf of Carinthia and his time as well as for the history of the Moosburger Basin, 1992ff.

predecessor	Office	successor
Charles III	King of Eastern Franconia 887–899	Ludwig the child
Charles III	King of Lorraine 887–895	Zwentibold
Lambert of Spoleto	Roman emperor 896–899	Louis the blind

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