Beaver fur

Beaver fur stretched to dry

Formerly, the beaver was considered the "king of fur animals" because of its fur. Until the middle of the 20th century, beaver fur was even used as a means of payment in North America, and all goods in trade with the Indians were based on the value of beaver fur. The beaver was the main object of the fur trade there. For many years it was only the soft undercoat of the beaver from which the tall, broad-brimmed, so-called castor hats were made, and less so than the overall fur. But even in 2019, for example, when there was little demand from the clothing industry, hatters dominated sales at an auction.

Apart from the various uses by the local population, the skins have been used for clothing purposes since around 1830, where they found their way into the European fur industry. Bibergeil is extracted from the animal's glandular sacs , a common and dearly paid drug around 1850, and today mainly a component of some perfumes .

This article deals with the skins of the North American beaver, usually called Canadian beaver in trade, and of the European beaver as a commodity.

history

Portrait of a Man in a Beaver Hat ( Jan van Eyck , c. 1435)

Medieval mentions indicate that beaver pelts were among the items of trade, including international ones, at that time, albeit in smaller quantities than the skins of some other types of fur. The Arab poet Nezāmi names the smooth beaver among the numerous furs that Alexander the Great was worshiped by the ruler of the kingdom of Serîr . Another Arab, the geographer Ibn al-Faqih (10th century) writes: " As for the Slavic merchants, they bring fox and beaver pelts with them from the extreme Slavic lands and bring them to the Mediterranean Sea ." According to Abu Abdallah Jâqût (* 1179; † 1229) Biber (qundus) is obtained from the Slavic north, also from Ibn Hauqal . Dimeshqi notes that beavers (qundus) and sable are introduced southward via the Black Sea and Sea of ​​Azov . The Indo-European name of the beaver found its way into Arabic through the fur trade. The Germanic bëbru- (ahd. Bibar), old Slavic bebrъ is preferred by some Arabic writers to the oriental name kelb el-mâ "dog of water".

In the Icelandic Heimskringla , Thore Hund, Karli and 105 comrades travel to the Drina in 1026 . They first bought a lot of gray , beaver (bjôrskinn) and sable fur at a “market” . However , they later renounced peace and armied in the country .

The Bibergeil , which was said to have particularly great healing powers, was already very popular at the time.

The beaver is mentioned as fur in Charlemagne's dress code . In the Middle Ages , the price of beaver fur was just below the highest rated lynx and black fox . Twelve pelts were calculated for a complete fur. The fact that this resulted in a considerable weight may have been a major reason why the skins were later used almost exclusively for trimmings, collars and linings. The dyeing of pelts to improve their appearance, usually darkening, was generally frowned upon in Germany until after the end of the Middle Ages. In 1485, the Wroclaw furriers had this confirmed again by the city council, with the express reference to beaver pelts. Neither the local furriers nor foreigners were allowed to offer colored skins or fur goods at the fairs.

The sailors also brought beaver pelts with them from their voyage of discovery to the Chukchi in 1788 on behalf of the Russian trader Ivan Schelichows . They paid the population of the islands at Cape Saint Elias eight to nine strings of melting pearls for the beavers, five corals each for an otter skin and for beaver tails. "With great interest to study the habits and customs of the natives, their clothes mainly from beaver, sable, Vielfraß- and marble skins existed," said Emil Brass . The first ship of the Shelikhov under the helmsman Pribyloff came to Okhotsk back with a cargo of 2,000 beaver skins, 40,000 Sea otter and 6000 blue fox fur . This first of his trips made Shelichov the richest man in Okhotsk.

The first official tribute that Atlasov sent as a merchant from Kamchatka to Yakutsk consisted of 3200 sable skins, four otter skins and ten sea ​​otter skins ("Kamchatka beaver "), ten gray fox skins , 191 red fox skins and seven beaver skins.

In Siberia the beaver was one of the most numerous animals and the most important suppliers of fur. There was a special guild of beaver trappers, the "Bobrowniki". The animals were hunted so heavily that at the beginning of the 20th century only small remnants were left in remote swamp areas. The remaining stocks have been under strict protection there since 1924 and the stocks are slowly increasing.

While in western countries the use of beaver pelts for clothing purposes did not begin until around 1850, in Russia and China they were used for this purpose even earlier. As early as the end of the 17th century, large quantities of black skins were exported from Canada to Russia as Castor de Moscovie. Large quantities then went from Moscow to China via Kiachta. From 1817 to 1819, for example, 19,000 American beaver pelts came to Kiachta, and from 1841 to 1843 there were 30,827. Brass wrote in 1911 that almost nobody goes there today . In earlier centuries, the skins in Mongolia were often made into fur hats.

American fur trader with beaver-trimmed coat (1870)

The Beaver Wars , also known as the French and Iroquois Wars , were an uninterrupted series of conflicts that took place in eastern North America between 1640 and 1701 between the Iroquois Confederation and its neighboring tribes allied with France. The name Beaver Wars for one of the bloodiest conflicts in the history of North America shows the importance of fur at the time in the American economy and especially for the indigenous population. The Iroquois tried to extend their territory to the territory of the neighboring tribes, mainly Algonquians, in order to be able to act as an intermediary in the fur trade between the French and the western tribes. The expansion of the Iroquois under the leadership of the Mohawk tribe and the expulsion of the inferior tribes changed the tribal geography throughout North America.

Around 1700 all beaver pelts in Canada had to be delivered to the respective ruling trading company there, initially at a fixed average price of 4½ francs per pound, later they divided the goods into different types and paid different prices. The most expensive, at 18 francs, were the completely white ones, of which the tobacco shop Emil Brass wrote in 1911 that " they have become much rarer and I only saw two white beaver pelts out of about ½ million ". The next price level was " the fine black" Castor die Moskovy ", which even then went to Russia for fur-making and cost 6 francs per pound. All other types, by far the majority, were used for felt hat production ”.

Originally, hats were made from whole beaver skins, which because of their considerable weight were only worn as warm winter headgear. By shearing off the hair and separating the hard awns from the soft underhair in a stream of air, very light felt hats, weighing down to 42 grams, could be made. The variety “Castor gras”, fat beaver, was best for matting. These were already processed pelts that the Indians had worn or used as blankets for so long that the guard hairs fell out and the wool hair was completely greasy. For them, 4½ to 5 francs was paid for half a kilo. The next quality was "Castor demi gras", beaver pelts that had not been worn for so long and cost 3½ francs and finally fresh pelts at 2½ francs. Far higher prices were obtained from the English in Boston and New York , and so a lively, but strictly forbidden, surreptitious trade developed in the English territory, “ in which not only the merchants but also the Jesuits and, according to Father Lahontan, himself Governor of the country, de Barre, actively involved ”. One coat made about three quarters of a kilo of hair; over a dozen hats could be made out of it. Guard hairs are unsuitable for felting; they still supplied gloves, stockings and paintbrushes.

Moccassins with beaver rim (1975)

After the beaver was almost exterminated in parts of Canada around 1900, and in large parts severely decimated, effective protection and protection laws were enacted at the last minute and the beaver was released again where it had once lived. Already in 1961 the permit to catch 33,400 beavers was granted, which increased in the following years. Catching beavers and other fur animals forms the livelihood of some Indians, who also use beaver meat as food. In the meantime the beavers have multiplied so much that the population is closely monitored and they are also caught to protect the tree population. The catch itself is strictly regulated.

The beaver became an official emblem of Canada, on March 24, 1975 it received royal recognition through the act to provide for the recognition of the beaver (castor canadensis) as a symbol of the sovereignty of Canada .

In earlier centuries in North America, beaver fur was used as a means of payment. The Hudson's Bay Company , which has the beaver as a heraldic animal and has called its trading house in London " Beaver House ", had the following exchange rates in the 17th and 18th centuries, all based on beaver fur (see also fur trade in North America ):

Number of skins	Equivalent		Number of skins	Equivalent
15 beaver skins	a shotgun		5 beaver pelts	a woolen blanket
3 beaver skins	a dozen knives		2 beaver skins	a pound of tobacco, etc.
2 beaver skins	an axe		a black fox was equal to 20 beaver skins.

Even then, contemporaries were astonished by the enormous prices that the Indians had to pay for European goods, but this is an already somewhat improved, regulated list. It is even less realistic to read that for a shotgun as many beavers had to be piled up as it was long. Which is said to have led to the fact that the rifles exchanged for the Indians grew longer every year.

The breeding of beavers in enclosures has been tried several times, also in America. In 1898, a large area of ​​marshland was fenced in at Green Lake in the north of the Canadian province of Saskatchewan and occupied with five pairs of beavers. In 1902 150 skins were sold. Around 1925, the American Mark Weaver (* 1893; † 1981) began to breed beavers, 35 years later he had farms in the states of Washington, Oregon, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Wyoming and California with around 5000 breeding animals without any fur sold. He also did not believe that he would be able to regularly bring his production to market in the foreseeable future. He was trying to create mutations that he thought would have a bright future. He had already achieved a gold and a purely black kind. However, there has been a move towards releasing farmed animals back into the wild, as feeding the animals and the need for large, fenced-in areas has proven to be very difficult. After all, more than 20,000 Canadian beavers were kept in 60 farms in 1965. Particular emphasis was actually placed on mutation colors, as their skins could be sold at higher prices.

The fur

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  Left eastern, right western Canadian beaver

• 

  Detuned beaver fur

Deglazed and stained

There are no notable differences between the American and European beavers. The two species of beaver can be up to 1.40 m long, the average fur length is 75 to 95 cm. The differences in size between the sexes are small. The head is short with a short, thick neck, the ears are small.

The undercoat is remarkably dense and fine. It becomes thicker from the back to the sides and the dewlap. The coloration of the American beaver generally varies between light to dark chestnut brown (sometimes with chocolate brown or brownish-red tints), with the dewlap being somewhat lighter and more gray. The undercoat is dark brown in the back, more gray-brown to blue-gray on the sides.

The European beaver fur is usually quite a monochrome brown (from light brown or almost sand-colored to dark brown or reddish black-brown), the awn is a little lighter, light brown in the area of ​​the dewlap, which takes up about half the length of the hair. The guard hairs are dark brown at the base, the short fine tip is again darker in color. The undercoat, which is completely covered by the guard hair, is usually lighter than the guard hair, dark brown on the back and gray-brown to blue-gray on the sides. The hair, which is shorter and more dense in the dewlap, is distributed almost in tufts. The back and head have shorter hairs.

In Voronezh -Schutzgebiet were before 1986 more uniformly melanistic populations were established (in half black animals in two other Russian territories Khopyor River and the Pechora ).

White albinotic and black melanistic pelts are very rare. Gold-colored, blue and multi-colored ones with a white skull and a gray back are also known. A piebald population with white spots, belly and paws exists on the Asas River in the Russian Republic of Tuva (southern Siberia).

Canadian beavers have a slightly thicker and longer-haired undercoat than European beavers. They are usually darker, those from the western and central USA lighter, southern reddish. The hair change takes place gradually, as in other fur animals living in water.

The fur is very resistant, the durability coefficient for the beaver is given as 80 to 90 percent for skins with awn hair, 70 to 80 percent without awns. In shorn pelts, as with shorn nutria, the fur curls with age, i.e. the tips of the upper hair fold over.

The quality of winter fur is only slightly better than summer fur. The fur only has its full value after the age of three.

The hair: The beaver fur is very dense with 23,000 hairs per square centimeter (humans: up to 600 hairs per cm²). The guard hairs, which are directed diagonally backwards, are about five to six centimeters long, the lower hair two to three centimeters. The awns are not very strong, but tight. They are narrowed near the skin (0.064: 0.03 mm) and widen upwards (0.18: 0.06 mm), on the back they are five to six centimeters long. The cuticle has wavy lines with strong serrations in the middle and lower hair part. The tightly standing, curled wool hair is two to three centimeters long. All hair is arranged in tufts. The hair density is 12,000 on the back and 23,000 per cm² on the stomach.

European beaver

The cutting of two beaver hats (the right and left halves are swapped and sewn together in the fur sides and the darts are sewn up) (1895)

The European beaver , the largest rodent in the ancient world, once populated an area from Western Europe to the Urals . Due to the progressive cultivation, the regulation of rivers and lakes, but also as a result of constant hunting to get possession of the fur, but also the beaver horn, which was used as medicine, the populations have been exterminated. There are now some small populations again in Germany. The European beaver is strictly protected by the Federal Species Protection Ordinance.

Compared to the Canadian beaver, the European beaver is a little smaller and the fur of less good quality, apart from the very small numbers from Siberia, which probably correspond to the North American beavers. In 1974, for example, 2000 skins were offered in the Leningrad auction, and 100 at a Norwegian auction in 1976. The Russian offer had grown steadily since then; in 1987 it was 15,000 skins.

Schedels Warenlexikon from 1814 differentiated for Russia into large varieties, Bjelomeszdrye, and into small ones, called Koptscherye, and Järzi. The local trader sorted them into Siranian, Obysche and Chulymsche without bellies, and into young beavers, koshloki, which were traded piece by piece, and also into beaver bellies that were sold in sacks.

The skins are delivered open, but also in bag form with the hair facing outwards.

Canadian beaver

Tanned Canadian beaver fur

The Canadian beaver and its subspecies inhabit the northern forest belt of North America. The pelts are stretched to dry by the Indian or the trapper in an oval, almost circular shape. According to a Frankfurt tobacco shop, the pelts of the beavers caught by the Indians could also be recognized by the particularly loving pretreatment, the leather of the pelts was white, the ear holes were sewn up.

In addition to the fur and the beaver horn, the meat and, as a delicacy, the beaver tail were also popular.

The American rancher Nathaniel Kimball Boswell in a coat of plucked beaver (1919)

trade

Raw assortments from Hudson's Bay and Annings Ltd., London

a) Sizes : Exexlarge, exlarge, large, medium, small, extra small

b) Grades : I, I & No. 2, II, III, IV; the individual grades are divided into flat & rubbed, slightly damaged, good damaged, badly damaged, burnt, pieces; cubs (young animal skins)

c) Colors : black (black), dark brown (dark brown), pale (pale)

The specified sizes correspond to:
Ex ex large ("blankets")	66 inches and above
Ex large	61-65 inches
Large	56-60 inches
Large medium	51-55 inches
medium	47-50 inches
Small	39-46 inches
Extra small	underneath
The sizes given are the result of adding the length and width of the skins. In the case of skins with a “fishtail”, that is, with an unusually drawn tail, the tail is not measured. With "diamond shaped" heads, the corners are not measured.

d) Come
Canada - Northern	Hudson Bay Fort George Eskimo Bay East Maine Fort	fine varieties, particularly dark to extra dark, silky
	Moose River York Fort	slightly lighter than previous varieties
Canada - Eastern	Labrador Prov. Québec  (PQ) New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Lake Superior	smaller, silky, dense; something brighter; good quality, but lacks the silky texture and density of the Hudson Bay origins.
Canada headquarters	Manitoba Saskatchewan Alberta	coming close to the eastern varieties, but lighter and with longer awns not quite as full (smoke) in quality and less silky than Hudson Bay
Canada - Western	British Columbia	similar to the central origins, but the pronounced coastal beavers are strawier and longer in the hair
Canada - Far North	Mackenzie River	smaller, less silky, less dense than other Canadian varieties
Alaska	especially blue in the undercoat, awn playing a little more into the gray; a small percentage of the seizure is oversized.
USA - Eastern	These origins are known for particularly fine, blue (dark, not reddish) goods that are not quite as large as central and western varieties. This includes the New England States, New York State , Pennsylvania , Michigan . In Michigan, the area known as UP ( Upper Peninsula ) should be emphasized as a supplier of good furs. It is roughly equivalent to the Lake Superior variety (Canada).
USA headquarters	Good in size; paler in color, particularly suitable for dyeing and blending (darkening). The fully mature product has a strong quality.
USA - Western	Washington and Oregon beavers are of fine quality. Beaver from California , due to climatic conditions, poor quality and color.
USA - Southern	Larger deliveries come from Texas , Louisiana and Alabama . They are all of a good size and of great quality. The hard awn and the little undercoat are typical of the southern origin. The color is light to red.

Refinement, processing

André Citroën (1878–1935), his wife with beaver trimmings (plucked) on the body, cuffs and collar

• 

  Actress Greta Garbo in a light-colored, plucked beaver coat (1939)

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  Beatrix of the Netherlands in a phantom beaver coat (1964)

Before they started to remove the discolored and hard guard hair for fur processing, only the beaver hair was used. The wool was felted and processed into so-called " castor hats ", which were particularly popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. Or the undercoat was combed out for this purpose, and clerical clothing and court robes were then shortened from the skins. If only the hair was used, the sloping hides were used for bag work or for making sieves.

In the manufacture of the castor hats, the poisonous mercury nitrate was used in the staining of the pelts to enable the hair to become matted. The English expression "mad as a hatter" - "crazy like a hatter" (see also hat maker syndrome ) goes back to this application. The "crazy hatter" also became popular in the German-speaking world through the figure of the hatter in Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland .

In the middle of the 19th century, skins of young beavers were generally more expensive than skins of older animals, although the latter are larger. On the one hand, the skins of younger animals are finer and shinier, and on the other hand, they took on the color better with the fur processing industry at that time . In 1903 it is reported that slightly colored or spotty skins were also dyed black or seal brown. At the time, fashion no longer favored a technique of drawing white tips into these colored skins with good success.

A Frankfurt tobacco shop reported from the 1960s that some of the beaver pelts bought raw had an almost white leather, they were "very lovingly pretreated, the ear holes are sewn together" and light as a feather. These specimens were caught by Indians. Some of them still had the names of the Indian trappers.

Today, beaver fur is subjected to a wide variety of finishing processes, all of which cannot be listed, especially since, depending on the fashion and advancing fur-finishing technology, new processes are constantly being developed.

• Guard beaver
  • Prepared beavers, without changing the structure of their fur (natural). In this condition, the beaver is sorted for any further refinement stages.
• Pointed beaver
  • Slightly shorn guard beaver (Hochschur), in which the reddish awning tips fall off, the undercoat remains covered. The length of the awn, which varies between the flanks and the middle of the fur, is equalized. Fully and densely awned goods are processed naturally, poorly colored goods are dyed. Mainly used for trimmings. Only about 20 percent of the seizure can be used for dressing up purposes.
• Deep-sheared beaver, velvet beaver
  • Here the awn is shorn off to the undercoat. Also used for trimmings.
• Plucked beavers, velvet beavers
  • Here we should actually speak of plucked and sheared beavers, as usually after plucking, i.e. after removing the hard awning hair, a certain shearing is also carried out to equalize the hair length. Here, the woolen hair tips that tend to become matted are cut off.
• Velvet beaver or "natural beaver"
  • The classic beaver finishing, in which the velvety beaver fur is created through plucking and finishing.
• Phantom beaver
  • In some of the fur refined as a guard beaver, it can be seen that the undercoat on the flanks (sides) is bluish. This effect is intensified by deep shearing after plucking, so that at the end the so-called “phantom fiber” with a dark brown back and bluish-gray sides results.

Skins from which the awns were only partially plucked and usually only the outermost long tips shaved off were called epilated beavers (1911).

Beaver pelts have always been processed, plucked, sheared or plucked and sheared mostly without the hard guard hair. Based on the designation of other types of fur that have been freed from awns, such as velvet mink or velvet bisam, they are now often sold as velvet beavers. Grannige beavers (pointed beavers) were mostly used for trimmings, especially for men's trimmings on so-called furs , until before the Second World War .

At the World Exhibition in Paris in 1889 , a women's jacket from the S. Révillon company was shown, in a plucked natural seal with a shawl collar made from a yellowish plucked beaver .

Until around 1980, the velvet or at that time still simply called natural beaver, unthreaded pelts were mainly processed into jackets and coats. Today these parts, which at that time were mostly made by exhaust , are almost no longer offered.

Drawn outlet cuts on a beaver skin (sketch)

When leaving out the beaver fur is cut into V- or A-shaped strips about 6 mm wide and sewn together so that a, now narrower, fur of the desired length is created. Since the beaver fur does not have the trapezoidal shape of most other types of fur, but rather is oval, the outlet calculation is a particular challenge for the furrier.

In 1965, the fur consumption for a fur board (so-called coat “body” ) made of large skins (blankets) was given as nine to twelve skins for a beaver coat , and 16 to 20 from smaller ones. A sheet with a length of 112 centimeters was taken as a basis and an average width of 150 centimeters and an additional sleeve part. This roughly corresponds to a fur material for a slightly exhibited coat of clothing size 40 to 42 from 2014. The maximum and minimum fur numbers can result from the different sizes of the sexes of the animals, the age groups and the origin. Depending on the type of fur, the three factors have different effects. For beavers it is also noted that the fur sizes are very different, for the large 45 to 70 inches, the small 40 to 44 inches. The unit of measurement of inches is determined by measuring the length and the greatest width (1 inch = 2.54 centimeters).

A few years ago, more and more people began to process hides using braiding or weaving techniques. Here, narrow strips of fur are wound around the threads of fishing net-like scarf nets. These products, which are then hairy on both sides, are now occasionally made of beaver fur for smaller pieces of fur, such as scarves and vests, right up to jackets.

A large part of the skins is dyed. Light-colored, sheared varieties are also blinded, in this case the hair is only colored superficially or darkened by brushing with a brush.

As with almost all types of fur, the remains of the beaver are also used. The fur sides used to be put together to make good fur linings. However, these were particularly heavy and hard in the leather ("stubborn").

Similar types of fur, beaver-like refinements

Jacket made of plucked, deep-sheared, dyed beaver (2011)

The fur of the beaver is most likely to be confused with that of the beaver rat, the nutria fur , both in its natural state as well as plucked or sheared. In living animals, it is easy to differentiate between them: the beaver has the characteristic flat tail, the trowel and the nutriat a rat's tail, both of which are almost hairless. Unprocessed, they can be distinguished by their shape, the beaver fur is significantly larger and more oval than the rectangular nutria fur. Otherwise, what is particularly noticeable is the considerably greater density of undercoat in beavers, which can be clearly felt when brushing the skin with the hand.

The sea ​​otter skin was known as the Kamchatka beaver or sea beaver .

Especially in times when beaver fur was particularly valued, the decayed fur was imitated by refining other types of fur; even llama fur served as a less permanent beaver imitation. The corresponding trade names, such as

• Beaver rabbit fur (awns removed by shearing and machining)
• Biberette rabbit fur ( awns also removed by shearing and machining , originally an imitation of beaver fur, later an independent color)
• Beaver lamb (high-sheared, brushed, ironed)
• Biberinos , formerly lambskin finishing , machined and dyed
• Biberol , formerly for high- shorn lambskin
• Biberon , formerly for shorn lamb
• Bibus, Bibuslamm formerly for sheared lamb (the different refiners refer to the different refinement products with special names, hence Biberon, Bibus etc.)

Conversely, the black colored beaver previously served as an imitation of the seal fur, which was still more valuable at the time .

The beaver fur in art

The pharmacist Wolfardt with a fur hat and beaver trimmings (1526)

BM Kustodiev: Portrait of Isidore Samoilowitsch Zolotorevskii, architect and sculptor, with a lush beaver collar (1922)

Almost more popular than the fur itself is Gerhart Hauptmann's novel , “ Der Biberpelz ” , in the German-speaking world . The fact that precisely this skin was chosen for the story shows the special value that was assigned to it around the 1880s, the time of the action. After all, the Spree skipper Wulkow wants to pay 60 thalers for a worn but unfortunately stolen Biberrock.

In his comedy “Die pious Marta”, written around 1615, Tirso de Molina has Marta say:

"
Those are suitors in flannel and beaver milk beards who, in order not to freeze
with you, walk around with you in thick fur."

Beaver fur in the performing arts is not as clearly identifiable as it is in literature. The painter or sculptor must have a considerable amount of skill and attention to detail so that a professional can determine the fur as a beaver. Alexander Tuma thinks he can see a beaver fur in the painting by Bernhard Strigel , which shows the pharmacist Wolfardt (see illustration). Also with the patrician Konrad Rehlinger the Elder, portrayed by the same painter . Ä. with a floor-length screw he sees beaver fur as the material.

Numbers and facts

Detailed trade figures for North American tobacco products can be found at

• Emil Brass: From the realm of fur. Publishing house of the "Neue Pelzwaren-Zeitung and Kürschner-Zeitung", Berlin 1911
• Emil Brass: From the realm of fur. 2nd edition, published by the "Neue Pelzwaren-Zeitung and Kürschner-Zeitung", Berlin 1925
• Milan Novak et al, Ministry of Natural Resources: Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America. Ontario 1987 (English). ISBN 0-7778-6086-4
• Milan Novak et al, Ministry of Natural Resources: Furbearer Harvests in North America, 1600-1984. Appendix to the above Wild furbearer management and conservation in North America. Ontario 1987 (English). ISBN 0-7729-3564-5 .

• For the year 1671 , the customs books and annual lists of Archelansk ( Arkhangelsk ) show various items of incense for imports, including the following types (Through the Dutch and English middlemen, partly also via the London auctions, the tobacco products from Canada came from the areas of Hudson's Bay Company mainly to Arkhangelsk and Petersburg for import, some of which was exported to China.):

2999 beaver skins

three boxes of beaver pelts

10,859 large and small beaver pelts

42 tanned elven skins

two black fox skins

nine otter skins

• On September 27, 1763 there were 1308 small and large beaver pelts on the incoming goods of two Dutch ships to Archelansk. One day later, the rest of the fleet with 14 Dutch ships apparently arrived, with 35,707 large and small beaver pelts and a barrel of beaver pelts on their cargo.

In the same year, 1,242 large and small beaver skins, five tons of beaver skins and 11,230 large and small beaver skins were unloaded.

• On January 24, 1672 , the first auction of the Hudson's Bay Company, 3,000 pounds of beaver pelts were offered for 36 to 55 shillings. per lb. sold.
• In 1674 the price of Canadian beaver pelts was set at 4½ francs for the pound, after which the export rose from 550,000 pieces annually to 2½ million.
• 1729 . Hudson's Bay Company import list (each to London):

62,160 beaver pelts at 4 to 6 ₤ per pound

For the years

1723 in March 39,614, in November 19,330 pieces of 4 ₤ (English) to 5 ₤ 8 shillings. per pound

1724 in March 36,240, in November 15,320 each of 5 ₤ 6 shillings. up to 6 ₤ 6 sh. per pound

1725 in March 21,190, in November 17,890 pieces of 4 ₤ 2 shillings. up to 5 ₤ 10 sh. per pound

1726 in March 39,600, in November 5680 pieces, highest price 10 ₤ per piece

1727 in March 29,490, in November 5940 pieces, highest price 7 sh 10 shillings. per piece

1728 in March, - in November 9520 pieces, highest price 7 ₤ per piece

• In 1733 the Hudson's Bay Company introduced from the forts Albany, Moose River & East Maine:

8663 whole parchment beavers (dried beaver pelts), 3902 half parchment beavers, 2292 coat beavers (the more highly paid pelts removed by Indians for hat felt production), 1060 half coat beavers.

• 1743 , Hudson's Bay Company import list:

5980 coat-beavers à 4/8 = ₤ 2415, 780 damaged coat-beavers à 4/8 = ₤ 270, 9520 parchment beavers = ₤ 4165, 4070 beavers = ₤ 762.18, 4760 damaged beavers = ₤ 1918, 1640 cubs = ₤ 248. However, the main auction did not take place until March. Twice as much of the total amount of goods was sold, but it is not known whether this also applies to beaver pelts.

In 1743 , 15,000 old coat beavers (the higher-paying pelts worn by the Indians for hat felt production) and 112,088 Castor de Parchment (dried beaver pelts) were imported from Canada in the French port of La Rochelle .

• In November of the same year , the Hudson's Bay Company was on an auction list

5980 old coat beaver à 4/8 d. per lb. , ₤ 2415, -

780 damaged beavers à 4/8, ₤ 270, -

9520 Parchment beaver, ₤ 4165, -

Cub beaver, ₤ 762.18

4760 damaged parchment beavers, ₤ 1918.17

1640 damaged cub beavers, ₤ 248.9

also 140 pounds of bibergail

• Import of beaver pelts from the Hudson's Bay Company to London in the years 1752 to 1890, ^{(after Henry Poland , London)} 1891-1910 and 1923 :

year	Coat- beaver	Parchment beaver
1752	10.143	33,675
1753	9,061	29,041
1754	7,295	22,270
1755	7,441	27,775
1756	7,825	25,042
1757	9,846	26,388
1758	8,000	22,886
1759	7,000	20,110
1760	9,900	23,126
1761	13,300	30,446
1762	13,000	36,265
1763	9,353	24,881
1764	10,500	23,088
1765	14,450	30,450
1766	10,400	28,536
1767	10,500	23,436
1768	6,300	17,950
1769	6,750	18,761
1770	9,500	25,273
1771	9,900	22,427
1772	8,350	19,851
1773	5,700	17,689
1774	4,600	19,472
1775	4,050	16,668

year	Coat- beaver	Parchment beaver
1776	4,900	15,964
1777	5,700	25,597
1778	4,300	20,033
1779	2,900	17,320
1780	7,070	26,867
1781	6,360	35,763
1782	2,050	18,752
1783	1,500	13,100
1784	2,500	15,500
1785	3,200	24,350
1786	3,950	25,095
1787	3,800	37,100
1788	2,900	38,320
1789	4,900	41,690
1790	3,600	41,530
1791	5,276	49,738
1792	3,600	49,930
1793	4,724	42,242
1794	4,024	39,517
1795	3,664	51.123
1796	2,516	48,697
1797	2,901	44,516
1798	2,595	43,418
1799	1,728	39,995
1800	1,668	35,037

year	Coat- beaver	Parchment beaver
1801	1.406	33,253
1802	2,150	37,187
1803	1,642	32,127
1804	1,668	31,737
1805	1,862	28,083
1806	1.011	20,732
1807	1,050	29,759
1808	1,684	32,884
1809	1,425	32,025
1810	1,274	28,720
1811	1,060	15,524
1812	1,525	41,873
1813	672	18,066
1814	462	17,356
1815	698	10,380
1816	-	11,243
1817	651	27,815
1818	551	25,493
1819	480	17,356
1820	281	15,683
1821	297	20,565
1822	210	59,847
1823	706	46.202
1824	1,309	76,060
1825	800	66,000

year	Coat- beaver	Parchment beaver
1826	1,652	61,400
1827	472	51.125
1828	-	57,200
1829	-	73,860
1830	-	25,718
1831	-	87,000
1832	lbs.	70,100
1833	264	32,203
1834	1,074	98,288
1835	860	78.908
1836	239	51,788
1837	304	82,927
1838	165	61,868
1839	198	56,288
1840	220	55,431
1841	322	50,900
1842	372	40,305
1843	184	39,086
1844	409	38,252
1845	484	41,111
1846	190	65,189
1847	211	26,892
1848	137	40,845
1849		65,558
1850		66,069

Man with Beaver Skin, Great Lakes (1938)

Beaver-trimmed jacket, former Gwich'in Chief , Alaska (2004)

year	beaver
1851	62,130
1852	52,430
1853	60,691
1854	62,914
1855	72,425
1856	76,825
1857	86,414
1858	94.053
1859	106,797
1860	107,745
1861	105,562
1862	109,636
1863	127,674
1864	118.118
1865	155,880
1866	150.192
1867	145.654
1868	158.110
1869	129,039
1870	173.181
1871	174,461
1872	157.764
1873	105,369
1874	139,393
1875	129,976

year	beaver
1876	126,959
1877	145.706
1878	147.263
1879	132.099
1880	120,863
1881	119,698
1882	118,728
1883	104,459
1884	119,549
1885	102,589
1886	83,589
1887	102,745
1888	33,061
1889	73,355
1890	64,246
1891	56,591
1892	52,654
1893	46.054
1894	42,058
1895	49.131
1896	48.157
1897	42,492
1898	32,908
1899	42,429
1900	40,246

year	beaver
1901	43,367
1902	47.129
1903	34,305
1904	29,656
1905	48,255
1906	49,402
1907	34,596
1908	29,803
1909	34,217
1923	6,500

• In 1775 46,460 beaver skins (Castor skins) came from England via Petersburg to Kiachta, one year later
• In 1776 there were 27,700 and 27,316 beaver pelts. On average, the best quality Canadian beavers were traded for 70 to 90 rubles in Petersburg, and the lower qualities for 20 to 25 rubles. If the skins were then resold in Kiachta, the best quality yielded up to 20 rubles for ten pieces. In addition to the official trade, there was also a considerable black market, which far exceeded the sales of the regular trade. For regularly traded fur there was a tax of 23 percent of the value, plus seven percent as a special levy for maintaining the customs houses. Due to the enormous length of the border and the wandering nomads, it was almost impossible to stop the trafficking.
• Around 1800 (?) Russia fulfilled its subsidy obligations towards Austria by sending a consignment of tobacco products to Vienna, consisting of:

1009 rooms = 40,360 pieces of sable hides worth 28,907 rubles

1 room = 40 pieces of sable hides worth 400 rubles

519 rooms = 2076 marten skins worth 5190 rubles

120 black fox skins worth 565 rubles

300 beaver pelts worth 2708 rubles

1000 wolf skins worth 530 rubles

75 elen skins worth 75 rubles

• Importation of American beaver pelts to London in the years 1763 to 1891: ^{(after Henry Poland, London)}

year	piece
1763	75.040
1764	88,000
1765	66,664
1766	92,295
1767	75.905
1768	55.064
1769	91,388
1770	97.182
1771	95,288
1772	107,829
1773	94,681
1774	98,827
1775	97.148

year	piece
1776	92,612
1777	120,800
1778	109,000
1779	97,000
1780	101,500
1781	91,500
1782	116,000
1783	105,000
1784	126,600
1785	121,000
1786	116,000
1787	140,000
1788	127,000
1789	164,823
1790	161,500
1791	173,500
1792	165,000
1793	172,000
1794	152,800
1795	144,000
1796	130,000
1797	56,000
1798	110,000
1799	114,200
1800	129,200

year	piece
1801	116,500
1802	140,000
1803	93,200
1804	110,000
1805	91,300
1806	106,000
1807	114,000
1808	94,200
1809	101,800
1810	101,100
1811	80,000
1812	93,000
1813	70,000
1814	97,000
1815	57,500
1816	40,600
1817	55,000
1818	55,000
1819	51,000
1820	56,000
1821	58,300
1822	65,652
1823	10,016
1824	2,616
1825	9,677

year	piece
1826	5,923
1827	4,906
1828	12,581
1829	9,388
1830	7,332
1831	12.002
1832	5,753
1833	17,871
1834	13,641
1835	3,318
1836	4,460
1837	17065
1838	10,559
1839	9,024
1840	975
1841	6,587
1842	5,638
1843	12,022
1844	7,361
1845	2,433
1846	4.181
1847	2,692
1848	709
1849	416
1850	1,829

year	piece
1851	800
1852	850
1853	3.211
1854	3,204
1855	6,681
1856	12,256
1857	10,087
1858	12,050
1859	18,120
1860	28,040
1861	8,458
1862	9.004
1863	9,192
1864	14,035
1865	6,998
1866	4,779
1867	8,931
1868	5,292
1869	8,945
1870	52,526
1871	40,891
1872	55.134
1873	63,781
1874	60,694
1875	48,983

year	piece
1876	37,670
1877	44,057
1878	33,258
1879	36,861
1880	52,641
1881	58,241
1882	49,995
1883	33,266
1884	21.308
1885	20,670
1886	14,611
1887	27,272
1888	21,667
1889	23,963
1890	17,798
1891	11,693

• Import of American tobacco products to London by CM Lampson & Co. 1891–1909 and 1923 (from 1907 CM Lampson & Co., Huth & Co.):

year	beaver
1891	11,499
1892	11,312
1893	17,885
1894	23,395
1895	18,630

year	beaver
1896	16,155
1897	16,610
1898	19,263
1899	13,365
1900	15,948

year	beaver
1901	17,655
1902	15,334
1903	16,504
1904	16,668
1905	17,993

year	beaver
1906	16,267
1907	16,999
1908	22,114
1909	23,703

year	beaver
1923	4,100

• 1773 . Originally there was a pure exchange trade at the trading post. The standard value was the beaver fur. The tariffs changed over time. In 1773 the deliverers to the American trading post received:

For 1 beaver fur (1: 1) each = ½ pound white glass beads, ¼ pound colored glass beads, 1 brass kettle, 1½ pound bacon, 2 pounds sugar, 1 pound Brazilian tobacco, 1½ pound tobacco leaves or rolls, 1½ ounces cinnabar , 2 Garters, 12 awls, 12 dozen buttons, 2 combs, 2 red feathers, 20 fishing hooks, 4 fire steels, 20 flints, 1 file, 1 pair of gloves, 2 glasses, 2 hatchets, 8 falcon bells, 2 ice chisels, 8 knives, 2 mirrors, 12 sewing needles, 2 fishing lines, 2 powder horns, 6 simple rings, 3 simple rings with stone, 2 saber blades, 4 spoons, 1 shirt, 1 pair of shoes, 2 wool. knitted belt, 6 thimbles, 2 tobacco boxes, 2 pliers or 1 ball of twine

for 1 ¼ fur = 1 pair of stockings

each for ½ fur = 1 yard of wool, 1 yard of flannel or 1 handkerchief

For 2 skins each = 1 pound of thread, 1 yard of cloth or 1 suitcase

for 3 skins = 1 pair of trousers

For 4 skins each = 1 gallon of brandy, 1 pistol or 1 hat with border

for 6 skins = 1 wool blanket

for 12 heads = 1 shotgun

Against this was calculated:

each for one beaver fur = three sable fur, two otter fur, one fox fur, one wild cat fur

• In 1863 the following tariff applied:

each for 1 beaver skin = 1 measure of powder, 18 lead balls, 8 shotgun charges, 10 flints, 1 ax, 1 fire steel, 1 scalping knife, 1 horn comb, 8 awls, 12 brass buttons, 25 brass rings, 6 clay pipes, 1 small mirror, 6 ounces tobacco, 1 boy's skirt, 6 cubits of ribbon, 1 handkerchief, 1 ounce of red paint or 1 measure of rum

Beaver stamps from North West Co. and Hudson's Bay Co. (introduced at HBC in 1854)

for 2 heads = 1 file or 1 tobacco pouch with a burning glass

for 3 skins = 1 ax or 1 cotton shirt

for 5 skins = 1 boy's skirt

for 9 skins = 1 pair of pants (1 piece)

for 10 skins = 1 simple wool blanket

for 12 skins = 1 striped woolen blanket or 1 sailor skirt

for 16 heads = 1 copper kettle

for 20 heads = 1 shotgun

In contrast, the following was calculated: 1 beaver fur for 3 sable fur , 1 lynx fur or 1 otter fur or 4 beaver fur for 1 silver fox fur

The profit on individual items was enormous. If sables or silver foxes were used to pay for, various of the negotiated goods brought in exactly the same amount of pound sterling when they were later sold as they had once cost in pence when they were bought.

• American beavers were also traded at the Russian trading center of Kiachta because their own attack did not meet the demand:

1775 = 46,460 skins; 1776 = 27,700 skins; 1777 = 27,136 skins.

The most beautiful skins in Kiachta were the skins from the Hudson's Bay, for which 7 to 20 rubles were paid.

In Petersburg, the average price of the most beautiful pelts from the Hudson's Bay was 70 to 90 rubles, of the lesser Canadian varieties 30 to 75 rubles for 10 pelts, and the small or young animal pelts 20 to 35 rubles.

• In 1797 the Northwest Company brought 106,000 beaver pelts and a lot of bibergail for sale. In the same year the company sent 13,364 beaver pelts directly to China for sale via the United States.

“ Pro pelle cutem ”, the motto on the Hudson's Bay Company sign

• 1855 Import of beaver pelts to London:

From the lands of the Hudson's Bay Company			From Alaska, Oregon, Canada etc.
piece	Value ₤		piece	Value ₤
69,376	25,480		6,078	4,780

• 1875 import of beaver pelts to London:

From the lands of the Hudson's Bay Company			From Alaska, Canada and the Northwest US, bought from retailers and sold in London
piece	Value ₤		piece	Value ₤
270.903	293,850		65,941	48,647

• Between 1907 and 1909 the world average production of beaver pelts was around 80,000 in America, around 1,000 in Asia, and only a few in Europe.
• 1924 , the Hudson's Bay Company put 12,007 beaver pelts for sale at the March / April auction; no offer has been made for the January and October auctions.
• 1924 . Beaver skins. From the Hudson's Bay Company auction price lists:

Auction 28./29. January 1924
17,406 skins	Y (York)	MR-FM (Mooseriver Factory- [FM?])	FG (Fort George)
I.	135 / -	140 / - 142 / -	150 / -
I medium ʅ I small ʃ	60 / -	96 / - 98 /, - 58, -	76 / -
II	122 / - 124 / -	130 / -	135 / -
II medium	70 / -	84 / - 86 / -	82 / -
II small	48 / -	50 / - 52 / -	82 / -
III	-	90 / -	-
III medium	-	-	-
III small	-	42 / -	-
Damaged	95 / -	106 / - 114 / -	125 / -
Damaged medium	64 / -	72 / -	66 / -
Damaged small	32 / -	38 / -	66 / -

Auction March 31 and April 1, 1924
12,007 skins	YF & c. (York Fort)	Can. & c. (Canada)
I.	115 / -	134 / -
I medium ʅ I small ʃ	66 / - ʅ ʃ	70 / -
II	107 / - 109 / -	111 / - 114 / -
II medium	68 / - 70 / -	68 / - 70 / -
II small	42 / - 43 / -	44 / - 47 / -
III	78 / -	82 / -
III medium	-	58 / -
III small	31 / -	38 / -
Damaged	95 / -	98 / -
Damaged medium	70 / -	76 / -
Damaged small	35 / -	38 / -

The world production of beaver pelts for fur production was (estimates)
1864	(Lomer)	-
1900	(Larisch-Schmidt)	85,000
1923/24	(E. Brass)	20,000
1930	IPA - International Fur Exhibition	150,000
1950	The fur trade 1953, No. 1, Lübstorff	425,000

• In 1925 , the tobacco wholesaler Jonni Wende offered: Biber: Plucked and high-sheared, 80 to 250 Reichsmarks in size.
• In 1947 , the Hudson's Bay Company presented the British heir to the throne, Elizabeth II, with a “precious light-colored beaver coat in the latest fashionable form with a wide back and additional bishop's sleeves ; the skins for it came from the River District. "
• In 1963 the population of beavers in the Russian Federal Soviet Socialist Republic and the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic had increased to such an extent that a trial hunt was organized in the 1963/64 season. The plan was to catch 1,400 specimens, the actual yield was 537. The main reason for the low result was assumed to be the inexperience of most of the hunters in beaver hunting. In the four territories in which the hunters had previously received guidance, the result was better or in line with planning.
• In 1972 the number of fur attacks in North America was around 500,000, and in 1968 around 600,000 (including over 400,000 from Canada).

annotation

1. ↑ The specified comparative values ​​( coefficients ) are the result of comparative tests by furriers and tobacco shops with regard to the degree of apparent wear and tear. The figures are ambiguous; in addition to the subjective observations of shelf life in practice, there are also influences from tanning and finishing as well as numerous other factors in each individual case. More precise information could only be determined on a scientific basis.
   The division was made in steps of ten percent each. The most durable types of fur according to practical experience were set to 100 percent.

See also

Commons : beaver skins  - collection of images

Commons : Beaver skin clothing  - Collection of images

Commons : beaver fur processing  - collection of images

• Other types of fur
• fur
• Furrier

Individual evidence

1. ↑ North American Fur Auctions May 30 to June 25, 2019 . In: Pelzmarkt - Newsletter of the German Fur Association July 2019, Frankfurt am Main, p. 3.
2. ↑ ^{a b c d e f} Paul Schöps in connection with Kurt Häse Friedrich Hering and Fritz Schmidt : The beaver and his fur . In: Das Pelzgewerbe 1956, No. 6, Vol. VII / New Series, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin, Leipzig, pp. 222-235.
3. ↑ ^{a b c d} Friedrich Lorenz: Rauchwareenkunde. 4th edition. Verlag Volk und Wissen, Berlin 1958, p. 51 (used here for fur objects since around 1850).
4. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, p. 22. Table of contents . Primary source: Ibn Jûsuf Nezāmi, Iskandernâmeh , edition of the Chamse, Bombay 1887, p. 400.
5. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, p. 38. Primary source: Ibn al-Faqih. Edited by JM Goeje, p. 270.
6. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, p. 38. Primary source: Abu Abdallâh Jâqût: Geographical Dictionary, published by von Wüstenfeld, Leipzig 1866 ff., I, p. 113.
7. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, pp. 38–39 (full name in Schier “Abu-l-Qâsim Ibn Hauqal”). Primary source: MJ de Goeje: Bibliotheca geographorum Arabicorum , Volume II, Leiden 1873, p. 281.
8. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt 1951, p 38. Primary Source: Dimeschqi: cosmography . Edited by Frähn and Mehren, p. 145.
9. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, p. 38. Primary sources z. B .: Abdallâh Muhammed el Idrîsî, ed. by A. Jaubert, Paris 1836 ff., I., p. 50; Ibn Fosslân (Fadlân), ed. by Chr. M. Frähn, Petersburg 1823, p. 57; see. Jacob, Merchandise, p. 45.
10. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, p. 38. Primary source: Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar . Edited by G. Vigfusson, Christiana 1887, p. 319; see. Norwegian royal stories , translated by Felix Niedner, Jena 1925, volume 2.
11. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, p. 38. Several primary sources.
12. ↑ ^{a b c d} Gustav Hinze: The beaver . Akademie-Verlag Berlin, 1950, pp. 182-189.
13. ^ Fritz Wiggert: Origin and development of the old Silesian furrier trade with special consideration of the furrier guilds in Breslau and Neumarkt (original text) . Breslauer Kürschnerinnung (Ed.), 1926, p. 112.
14. ↑ Brass, pp. 193-194.
15. ↑ Reinhold Stephan: On the history of the smoking goods trade in antiquity and the Middle Ages and the development of the Russian-Asian region from 16.-18. Century. Inaugural dissertation University of Cologne 1940, p. 94. Primary source: Juri Semjonow: Die Eroberung Sibiriens , Berlin 1937, p. 222.
16. ↑ Bruno Schier: Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main 1951, p. 38. Primary sources: Juri Semjonow, Die Eroberung Sibiriens . Berlin 1937, p. 33; Josef Kulischer : Russian Economic History , Jena 1925, p. 273 f .; Wedenskij, Anika Stroganow: A trading house from the 16th to 17th centuries = monuments to the economic and social history of Russia , Moscow 1924.
17. ↑ Reinhold Stephan: On the history of the smoking goods trade in antiquity and the Middle Ages and the development of the Russian-Asian region from 16.-18. Century . Inaugural dissertation University of Cologne 1940, p. 87. Table of contents .
18. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Christian Franke / Johanna Kroll: Jury Fränkel's Rauchwaren-Handbuch 1988/89 . 10. revised and supplemented new edition, Rifra-Verlag Murrhardt, pp. 185–191.
19. ↑ Emil Brass: From the realm of fur . Publishing house of the "Neue Pelzwaren-Zeitung and Kürschner-Zeitung", Berlin 1911, pp. 597–603.
20. ↑ ^{a b c d} Emil Brass: From the realm of fur , 2nd improved edition. Publishing house of the "Neue Pelzwaren-Zeitung and Kürschner-Zeitung", Berlin 1925, pp. 42–43, 64.
21. ↑ Reinhold Stephan: On the history of the smoking goods trade in antiquity and the Middle Ages and the development of the Russian-Asian region from 16.-18. Century. Inaugural dissertation University of Cologne 1940, p. 131. Secondary sources KR v. Baer: News from Siberia and the Kyrgyz steppe . St. Petersburg 1845, p. 208. Cf. also instruction on Russian trade, such as that in outgoing and incoming goods, carried out throughout Russia in 1674. In Büschings Magazin for the recent history u. Geography , Part 3, Hamburg 1769, p. 349.
22. ↑ N. Dawaa, M. Not, G. Schünzel: About the fur animals in the Mongolian People's Republic (MVR) . In: Das Pelzgewerbe , 1971, No. 1, vol. XXI, new series, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin, Vienna, p. 8.
23. ^ Paul Larisch , Josef Schmid: Das Kürschner-Handwerk II. Part, self-published Paris 1903, p. 13.
24. ^ Paul Larisch , Josef Schmid: Das Kürschner-Handwerk II. Part, self-published Paris 1903, p. 2.
25. ↑ Without indication of the author: In Memoriam Mark Weaver . In: Fur Review , London, June 1981, p. 29. Quote: Mark, and subsequently his large family of descendents, have spent the equivalent of many lifetimes perfecting, first the breeding of Beaver in captivity and their mutations. It has been an exceedingly difficult undertaking which has caused so many heartbreaks and disillusionment that less, dedicated people would had given up or stayed with traditional farming. It is therefore particularly disappointing to his sons that Mark did not survive just a little longer to see matched bundles of prime mutated Beaver manufactured into unit garments.
26. ↑ Without the author's indication : Beaver breeding in the long term . In: Die Pelzwirtschaft Heft 11, Berlin November 1960, p. 474.
27. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Heinrich Dathe and Paul Schöps with the collaboration of eleven specialist scientists: Fur Animal Atlas . VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1986, pp. 115-120.
28. ↑ Paul Schöps; H. Brauckhoff, Stuttgart; K. Häse, Leipzig, Richard König , Frankfurt am Main; W. Straube-Daiber, Stuttgart: The durability coefficients of fur skins in Das Pelzgewerbe , Volume XV, New Series, 1964, No. 2, Hermelin Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin / Frankfurt am Main / Leipzig / Vienna, pp. 56–58.
29. ^ D. Johann Heinrich Moritz Poppe: Johann Christian Schedels new and complete wares lexicon. First part A to L, fourth edition , Verlag Carl Ludwig Brede, Offenbach am Mayn 1814. Keyword “Biber”.
30. ↑ Bernd Klebach: The Brühl, the Niddastraße, the fur center, memories of 35 years of tobacco industry. Self-published, June 2006, p. 16.
31. ^ ^{A b} Hudson’s Bay and Annings Ltd. (Ed.): The HBA Book of Furs , undated, approx. Before 1967? (English).
32. ^ FA Brockhaus : General Encyclopedia of Sciences and Arts. Published by JS Ed and IG Gruber, Leipzig 1841. Third Section O – Z, keyword “Fur”.
33. ↑ Corrosion-doctors: Mercury mad hatter (English) last accessed on April 10, 2012.
34. ^ Christian Heinrich Schmidt: The furrier art . Verlag BF Voigt, Weimar 1844, pp. 6-7.
35. ^ Paul Larisch, Josef Schmid: Das Kürschner-Handwerk II. Part, self-published Paris 1903, p. 54.
36. ↑ Bernd Klebach: The Brühl, the Niddastraße, the fur center. Memories of 35 years of tobacco industry . Self-published, June 2006, p. 16.
37. ↑ Paul Cubaeus, Alexander Tuma: The whole of Skinning. 2nd edition, A. Hartleben's Verlag, Vienna, Leipzig 1911. p. 306.
38. ↑ Paul Larisch, Joseph Schmid: Das Kürschner-Handwerk 1st vol. No. 1, self-published, Paris 1902, p. 33.
39. ↑ Paul Schöps among others: The material requirement for fur clothing . In: Das Pelzgewerbe Vol. XVI / New Series 1965 No. 1, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin et al., Pp. 7-12. Note: The information for a body was only made to make the types of fur easier to compare. In fact, bodies were only made for small (up to about muskrat size) and common types of fur, and also for pieces of fur . The following dimensions for a coat body were taken as a basis: body = height 112 cm, width below 160 cm, width above 140 cm, sleeves = 60 × 140 cm.
40. ↑ ^{a b c} Alexander Tuma: Pelz-Lexikon. Fur and rough goods. XXII. Tape. Publisher Alexander Tuma, Vienna 1949.
41. ↑ ^{a b} Without mentioning the author: Vom Biber and his use . In: Kürschner-Zeitung No. 21 of July 21, 1926, Verlag Alexander Duncker, Leipzig, p. 744d.
42. ↑ ^{a b} Alexander Tuma: The history of the skinning . Verlag Alexander Tuma, Vienna 1967, p. 219.
43. ↑ digitized versionhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3Dausdemreichederp00bras~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3D~PUR%3D
44. ↑ Reinhold Stephan: On the history of the smoking goods trade in antiquity and the Middle Ages and the development of the Russian-Asian region from 16.-18. Century. Inaugural dissertation University of Cologne 1940, pp. 125–128. Primary source: Kilburger: Lessons from Russian trade such as those with outgoing and incoming goods were driven through all of Russia in 1674. In Büschings Magazin for the recent history u. Geography , Part 3, Hamburg 1769, p. 245 ff.
45. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 396.
46. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 395.
47. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 268.
48. ↑ See also HMR: The Furs we wear. Paragraph The Decline in Demand For Beaver Fur Skins. In The Museum of the Fur Trade. Vol. 9, Spring 1973, No. 1, Chadron / Nebraska, p. 6. Primary source, quotation: “This dispatch from Winnipeg November 9, 1877 to the New York Evening Post shows that the fur trade was still lively operation in Western Canada in the 1870's. ”(English).
49. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 268.
50. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 268.
51. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there) pp. 398-405, import list of the Hudson's Bay Company to London in the years 1752-23 , import list of the Hudson's Bay Comoany in London 1891-1910 and in 1923, pp. 414-416.
52. ↑ Reinhold Stephan: On the history of the smoking goods trade in antiquity and the Middle Ages and the development of the Russian-Asian region from 16.-18. Century. Inaugural dissertation at the University of Cologne 1940, p. 127. Primary source: Kilburger: Lessons from Russian trade such as those with incoming and outgoing goods in 1674 were driven through all of Russia . In Büschings Magazin for the recent history u. Geography , Part 3, Hamburg 1769, p. 245 ff.
53. ↑ Reinhold Stephan: On the history of the smoking goods trade in antiquity and the Middle Ages and the development of the Russian-Asian region from 16.-18. Century. Inaugural dissertation University of Cologne 1940, p. 128. Primary source JG Krünitz: Ökonomisch-Technologische Encyclopädie 128 u. Part 129, Berlin 1820/21, Article Russia . Rheinisches Conversations-Lexikon, Cöln 1835, 10th volume, p. 268, article Russia .
54. ↑ Reinhold Stephan: On the history of the smoking goods trade in antiquity and the Middle Ages and the development of the Russian-Asian region from 16.-18. Century. Inaugural dissertation University of Cologne 1940, p. 126. Primary source KR v. Baer: News from Siberia and the Kyrgyz steppe . St. Petersburg 1845, p. 133.
55. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there) pp. 406–413, import of American tobacco products to London in the years 1752-1890 .
56. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), pp. 417-420.
57. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), pp. 345–346.
58. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), page 169.
59. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), page 272.
60. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 425.
61. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 426.
62. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), p. 427.
63. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), page 544.
64. ↑ Brass 1925 (see there), pp. 446, 450 Published by PR Poland & Son, 110 Queen Victoria Street, London, EC 4.
    Note: The Mooseriver Factory is located on the southern part of Hudson Bay.
65. ↑ Jonni Wende company brochure, Rauchwaren en wholesale, Hamburg / Düsseldorf / Leipzig / New York, August 1925, p. 4.
66. ^ Ferdinand Wagner: Beaver hunt in the Soviet Union. In: Das Pelzgewerbe 1966 No. 5, Vol. XVII / New Series, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin et al., Pp. 223-224.