Science communication

Science communication encompasses all aspects of the communication of scientific work and scientific results, both within science and in communication between science and the public. In the field of public relations, science communication is used to a limited extent as a synonym for science PR. The actors in science communication are the scientists themselves, the scientific institutions and their employees in the field of public relations, the science journalists and special institutions such as science centers, planetariums or science museums.

Science communication uses classic media in text, image and moving images as well as online media. Part of the communication takes place in the education sector. This happens on the one hand as an aspect of teaching in schools or universities, on the other hand in the context of special formats such as school competitions, children's universities or in the field of activity of school laboratories.

Explanation of terms and sub-areas

Actors in science communication

The term science communication is used in different ways in the literature. In more recent science communication research, the term encompasses all types of communication of scientific content and scientific work, including science journalism and science PR as well as direct communication between researchers and the public.

Some authors in the field of public relations define the term more narrowly, namely restricted to the aspect of public relations and as a synonym for scientific PR. In this narrower sense, science communication is the management of public communication in science , and as such an important part of science management or science marketing . In the area of applied research and with regard to technology transfer, there are also parallels to innovation communication .

Where science communication is aimed exclusively at stakeholders within the scientific specialist public, it is referred to as internal science communication (English scholarly communication ). This area includes scientific publications in specialist journals as well as direct communication at conferences or in direct exchange.

To science communication will target audiences outside of academic life itself, it is external science communication (English science communication ). Science communication as a branch of public relations is called science PR. Due to the growing scientific competition and the reliance on third-party funding, there is a stronger focus on communication target groups from politics ( politicization ) and business ( economization ) as well as the media as an intermediary ( medialization ).

Mass media science communication in the form of science journalism is aimed at the general public using various media . The transfer of knowledge on the other hand is aimed at institutions outside of science with the aim of transferring scientific knowledge into practice. Science communication as part of knowledge management is a sub-area of knowledge communication.

Actors, content, communication goals

The different actors in science communication have different communication goals and convey different content against this background. In terms of content, one can differentiate between three levels of science communication, each of which leads to a different orientation in analysis, strategy and implementation:

Macro level: communication about the overall system of scientific functions and services for society,
Meso level: Communication of scientific institutions about their own tasks and achievements,
Micro level: Communication of individual scientists on research topics and projects (plans and results).

At these three levels, all actors in science communication can pursue different communication goals:

Communication of science: target group-oriented communication of scientific content,
Communication for science: interest-based science communication, whereby the concrete interest lies beyond the mere transfer of knowledge,
Communication about science: critical examination of scientific topics with reference to other areas of society such as economy or politics.

Science journalists

Science journalists report on scientific content and institutions in various media. Originally, they saw themselves primarily as translators between science and the public, with the aim of making research results and scientific content generally known in an understandable form, but from around the 1980s onwards the change towards today's self-image of many science journalists, which made journalism in the Comes to the fore. According to this, the science journalist is not part of the science system, but critically accompanies its developments from an outside perspective, analogous to the control function of journalists in other departments such as politics or economics. Just like journalists in general, science journalists see themselves as neutral and not guided by interests.

Science communication by science journalists covers different areas. Science journalistic reporting is based on current developments in the various research areas and processes them, for example, for the science pages of the daily newspapers or for science magazine programs on radio and television. Another form of reporting is based on topics of acute social relevance. Examples of current topics, which are also communicated through scientific topics, are the Fukushima nuclear disaster , global warming or the COVID-19 pandemic . There are also science communication formats for fun and entertainment, such as the TV show Clever! or, for younger viewers, the program with the mouse . Another area of advice formats, for example on health or psychology, is the direct benefit of the scientific findings for the recipients. In the area of target group-oriented science journalism, on the other hand, special interest media address target groups who have a particular interest in science in general or in parts of science.

Institutional actors in research

The public workers at institutions of research operation work in the press offices or at institutes of universities , in other research institutions and their umbrella organizations or companies which operate research. A significant part of their work consists of scientific public relations work for their institutions, i.e. scientific PR.

The main goals of science PR are "attention, legitimation, follow-up communication and above all (follow-up) financing". As with all systematic communication activities - as is always the case with any form of public relations - it is also about "communication of interests". Since the underlying resources are always limited, the actors in science communication in the science PR sector are in competition with other societal actors.

In terms of content, these actors communicate research results from their institutes, as well as organizational developments such as the approval of research funds or personnel - in particular the awarding of prizes and other honors to members of the institution. At universities, the recruitment of new students and thus a positive presentation of developments in the field of teaching play an important role.

At many institutes, this specific public relations work is accompanied by a broader form of science communication, in which on the one hand the general field of research and on the other hand the addressing of young people for the purpose of promoting young talent is in the foreground.

Employees in this area either come from the field of public relations or journalism or are scientists themselves.

Science centers, museums, planetariums

German Museum Munich as an example of a technology museum

Institutions for which science communication is one of the defining tasks, such as science centers, museums with a scientific focus or planetariums, communicate scientific content in accordance with the profile of the institution: a botanical garden, for example, primarily communicates biological content, a technology museum technology-related and a planetarium astronomical content. The term science center primarily refers to institutions that focus on modern content and interactive communication, while in the case of classic museums, the focus is on historical or natural history aspects.

Individual scientists

For individual scientists, internal science communication is particularly relevant to their careers. Before reaching a permanent position, which in science typically precedes a long phase with temporary contracts at different institutes, applications for advertised positions are an indispensable part of a career, and the number and quality of published specialist articles and presentations at conferences are used as an assessment criterion for these applications. Scientists aiming for an academic career are therefore required to communicate their research results as effectively as possible within the specialist community.

Stephen Hawking is an example of a well-known scientist who has addressed the public directly with non-fiction books.

In addition, many scientists are also involved in external science communication - partly as part of the institutional communication of their institutes, partly primarily as individuals. Blogs and other social media have made it easy as a scientist to communicate directly with the public. A historically unique portfolio of formats for external science communication is available to you today. Scientists who are particularly successful in communicating are awarded in Germany, for example, by the Communicator Prize of the German Research Foundation (DFG).

Scientists themselves, however, mostly act as “PR laypersons”, unless they have become a PR practitioner themselves or have acquired relevant experience in the course of their activities in scientific PR. It is characteristic of “communication” or “PR laymen” that they do not differentiate between public relations and other systems of everyday journalism such as journalism, advertising or propaganda.

The institutionalization and professionalization of science communication leads to a change in your communication behavior at all levels. The image of deficient communication of science, the scientist and the ivory tower is outdated today, as scientific institutions and scientists are quite active in external science communication. For scientists themselves, however, science communication remains risky and ambivalent due to the internal scientific and public reputational risk . On the one hand, they are looking to gain reputation, "have discovered public visibility as a means of self-assertion in the media society and try to influence their public image through scientific PR". On the other hand, they fear a loss of reputation, especially within science, where traditionally “participation in public communication was seen as a violation of the norms of the scientific community”. The participation and use of new media of science communication 2.0 by scientists is so far insignificant in Germany. In their public communication, scientists are increasingly controlled by their scientific institutions.

Media: word, text and image

Conveying scientific content with words, texts and images is one of the classic formats of science communication. In the online age, new variants of text and image formats have appeared.

Classic text-dominated formats

Typical lead story for a popular science article

Classic reports on science topics as part of external science communication can be found in newspapers or magazines , often in a separate science section. In addition to general reporting, there are special-interest journals on scientific topics, in German for example Spektrum der Wissenschaft , Bild der Wissenschaft and PM Magazin .

As in general in media work , it is part of science PR to use press releases to send notifications, particularly about research results, to journalists. Platforms such as those of the Informationsdienst Wissenschaft (idw) , AlphaGalileo within the European framework, or EurekAlert from the American Association for the Advancement of Science help with dissemination . As a rule, the press releases are also made directly available to the public as current reports via the web presence of the institution concerned.

The area of scientific public relations includes printed products such as flyers, brochures, annual reports or summarizing works on the history of your own institution.

The major science organizations also provide their own research magazines out how the "Helmholtz perspectives" of the Helmholtz Association , the "Fraunhofer magazine" of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft , the magazine "leibniz" of the Leibniz Association and the science magazine "MaxPlanckResearch" of the Max Planck -Society . These magazines contain presentations of the research results from those institutes, but naturally differ from journalistic products in the absence of critical external reporting.

As in other areas, books are the most suitable format for further presentations. In popular science books , scientific content is processed in a generally understandable, but ideally nonetheless informative manner. The authors are usually scientists or science journalists. Special forms are illustrated books as books in which the illustrations are the most important element. Picture and children's books are especially suitable for younger readers .

Classic public relations tools are also used in science communication. A newsletter allows subscribers to be informed about one's own work and interesting developments at regular intervals. Such a newsletter can be distributed in printed form by post or electronically by e-mail or via the WhatsApp service .

Conference poster by Knud Jahnke, Mauricio Cisternas, Katherine J. Inskip and the COSMOS group for a poster session of the General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union 2009

In the context of internal science communication, specialist articles are the most important medium for communicating one's own results and for obtaining an overview of a given subject area (reviews, synonymous with systematic reviews ). Depending on the scientific field, monographs and specialist books also play an important role in communicating one's own research to the scientific community. In the scientific training company, knowledge is still conveyed through textbooks .

As part of scientific conferences, researchers also present their current results in the form of posters , i.e. large graphic representations with descriptive text as well as images and diagrams. These posters are typically hung together in one or more areas at a conference.

Conferences offer to typically poster presentation events (Engl. Poster sessions ), ie periods during which the conference attendees to visit the poster area and can communicate with the present at the poster authors. A newer format is the poster slam , in which researchers have the opportunity to present their posters to a larger audience before the poster session.

photos

Early atomic models infographic

Image material can be static or moving and can be used in connection with a presentation or various types of text in printed form or online. In a photo exhibition with scientific content, the image material plays the main role, in other contexts it plays a supporting role. As a special event will be at a Science Photo Walk (. Eg blogger, Twitterer) photographers invited to an academic institution to take photographs, sometimes in conjunction with an exhibition or a competition.

In addition to photos and diagrams, infographics play a role in science communication, making complex scientific relationships understandable through visualizations and graphic processing.

A special case for scientific image material are animated GIF files that allow short-lived animations in a very compressed format and are often used as eye-catchers on social media, for example .

Image of the ESO Paranal observatory in Chile with telescopic domes suitable for full dome projection

Modern planetariums have the ability to project digital images into their (hemispherical) domes. Images and films for such a full dome projection must have a suitable distortion in order to be able to be processed by the common projection systems.

With the typical combination of image and text, science comics offer their own opportunity to reach a broad target group with scientific content in an informal way.

Audio, film and video

Independent audio formats are science broadcasts , science audio books and podcasts available online .

Film and video can also be used for science communication. Here, the sub- formats range from simple web videos to mass media formats such as science programs on television and science films . Depending on the communication goal , special formats such as 360-degree video are also used. There are both competitions for moving image formats in science communication, such as the Fast Forward Science competition for science web videos, as well as regular science film festivals .

Science communication 2.0

Science communication 2.0 includes both internal and external science communication. The communication of the scientific content will be shifted to the Internet and especially to Web 2.0 . Instead of resorting to the conventional communication channels of the mass media, scientific content can be digitally distributed on the Internet. The terms science communication 2.0 and digital science communication are largely used synonymously, although the literal sense of the word is that digital science communication is not limited to social media content on the Internet. However, science communication 2.0 differs from conventional science communication in that web communication media are generally used. The term "2.0" does not mean the exclusive restriction to Web 2.0 content.

Formats

In general, the online area and social media offer numerous opportunities for science communication, and in particular for direct communication between researchers and the public.

Like other communication actors, science communicators also use websites to publish text, images, films and interactive material. The bandwidth ranges from static pages (e.g. description of one's own research or institute-specific information) to pages generated by a database (e.g. employee list, event calendar). Even science journalism works today are often published online, either exclusively or parallel to a print publication or broadcast. In addition to the transmission of classic formats on online platforms, formats have also emerged that use options that are only available online. This includes scrollytelling (as an art term from storytelling , i.e. storytelling , and scrolling ), in which the user scrolls through an interactive story using the mouse or trackpad, using image, sound, video and text material as well as interactive elements received.

Homepage of the science blog portal "SciLogs" from Spektrum.de on October 10, 2018

A general online format is that of the science blog , as a platform on which individual authors or a group of authors regularly publish texts from the field of science. Typically these texts are more personal and informal than popular science articles. Readers usually have the option to comment directly under each blog post. Using the blogs, scientists can publish a kind of research diary in order to make the research area more popular and to gain new approaches for research through the discussion that is subsequently made possible. At the same time, the format is worthwhile for smaller, negative or interim results or for the advance presentation of longer examinations. Blogs can stand on their own or be part of a larger blog portal. In Germany there are the science blog portals "SciLogs" from the Spektrum der Wissenschaft Verlagsgesellschaft and " ScienceBlogs " from the Konradin media group and "Hypotheses". In some cases there are also hybrids with Web 2.0 elements and blog areas, e.g. B. by integrating science blogs on platforms (e.g. Thesius ).

Social networks make it possible to provide targeted information to interested users ("followers") and to interact with them and other users. A platform like Facebook enables both scientific institutions to present themselves with their own pages and to send information directly to their followers, as well as to enable individual scientists to communicate with one another and with scientific laypeople. The news service Snapchat and the short message service Twitter offer similar possibilities (with limited access time) . Automated forms of communication are also possible on Twitter, such as Twitterbots, some of which put scientific short messages online, some directly, some in interaction with users. In internal science communication, a Twitterbot can, for example, help to draw researchers' attention to newly published specialist articles. The Instagram portal in particular enables science communication via image material.

The actors in social media are either individual users or groups of users who operate a joint user account (e.g. as a communication point of a university or an institute). User accounts with changing authors ensure greater diversity, for example the @realsci_DE account on Twitter, on which different researchers, authors, communicators or artists write on scientific topics every week. Academic institutions also occasionally allow guests to use certain user accounts as part of their public relations work, for example as an "Instatakeover" on an Instagram user account at a university, or on the @ FacultyMaths Twitter account, where another member of the Mathematics Department at Cambridge University tweets each month .

Another way to generate targeted attention is to offer specific events or campaigns for people who are active on social media. In the field of blogs there are "Carnivals" in this context, during which different bloggers write and publish linked to each other on the same topic. Links and reinforcement effects result on Twitter when many tweets use the same hashtag . For events and campaigns, it is therefore advisable to communicate in good time the hashtag under which the project in question is ranked on Twitter. For Twitter there are also "tweetups" in which Twitterers are specifically invited to an event (special tour, public event) in order to report live on Twitter.

The social network model was also carried over to the scientific field. This enables scientific articles to be exchanged and discussed with other people. Using user profiles, contacts can be made with other experts. International examples of these platforms are Academia.edu ; Mendeley ; ResearchGate etc. In the German-speaking area, Thesius has been in existence since 2013, particularly for postgraduate academic research .

Participation in collaboration projects such as Wikipedia also offers science communicators an opportunity to make scientific content accessible to a broad target group in the form of the relevant entries. It should be noted, however, that those who contribute responsibly deal with any conflicts of interest , for example when reporting on their own institution. The Wikimedia Foundation encourages institutions to advertise a position for a Wikipedian in Residence , i.e. an experienced Wikipedia editor who works voluntarily or for a limited period of time at the relevant institution; Wikipedia articles thematically created by his connection with benefit of the institution concerned, and vice versa, teaches staff of the institution how to contribute meaningfully to Wikipedia or its sister projects.

A special, targeted variant of online communication are campaigns for scientific crowdfunding . Individual donations to finance a scientific research or communication project are sought, usually via specialized platforms, over a limited period of time and specifying a target amount.

In contrast to "Science Communication 1.0" with classic media, online formats - "Science Communication 2.0" - are ideal for interaction, as many publication systems allow users to leave their own contributions, for example in the form of comments. Online forums are focused on mutual communication , in which the users have written conversations with one another in a hierarchical order according to topic. Forums specializing in scientific topics, such as "astrotreff.de" for astronomy or "chemieonline" for chemistry, offer good opportunities for direct science communication.

With blogs, the comment function and the associated interaction options are typically an important part of the basic concept. A specific format for entering into a dialogue online is Ask me anything , in the original Ask me anything (AMA) . This format, in which one or more scientists answer all questions from interested online users at an announced time, was created on the reddit portal , but can also be implemented on its own portal.

Online formats make it much easier for scientists to actively participate in science communication as an author. Additional efforts are aimed at vertically expanding the entire scientific dialogue to include students.

In order to save costs in the complex development of learning content, it can be placed on several websites through content sharing . In the case of less well-indexed pages, this can also be disadvantageous if the search engine findability is negatively influenced by the content exchange.

Critical classification

With the development of Web 2.0, the boundaries between web developers and web users are blurring. With the help of Web 2.0 applications, every user is able to produce content (referred to in technical jargon as content) and transmit it to the general public. Science also benefits from the new forms of storage, publication and distribution of content in Web 2.0.

Due to the variety of channels, it is possible to adapt the communication to technical, personal, geographical and social conditions. The Web 2.0 applications represent a democracy of the agents / participants. Everyone has the option to participate in science and is on an equal footing with the other participants regardless of social status , such as B. the academic degree. This can remove the communication barriers between people of different social ranks. Another advantage of Science Communication 2.0 is the natural integration of external information sources and agents. Experts from non-scientific areas can use their knowledge to support research. In this context, crowdsourcing is also relevant. The knowledge transfer in Web 2.0 makes science more transparent and accessible. Therefore, there is hope of achieving greater efficiency and range of information distribution with increasing quality.

Some researchers who reject science communication 2.0 see communication in Web 2.0 as a distraction from their actual work. Since the communication barriers between the different social ranks are lifted by the applications, irrelevant opinions and suggestions can also flow into the discourse. Time can be lost when differentiating between usable and unusable contributions. It is therefore feared that the simplified communication and transparency could lead to inefficiency and loss of quality in research. The anonymization offered by the internet also means that the qualitative classification based on the author's authority is no longer applicable. The fact that the Internet is up-to-date can also make it easier to publish research results more quickly. When it comes to science communication in Web 2.0, there is often no defined peer review . The editorial review is also omitted for science blogs and content sharing, a defined and controlled quality assurance is rare. As a result, the Internet includes scientific papers of various quality levels that are mixed up. For these reasons, it can often be difficult to judge the seriousness of the sources and content.

Event formats

Lectures and presentations

Unidirectional knowledge transfer can take place through various types of lectures and presentations. Such events can take place live in front of an audience or can be received in the form of playing video or audio recordings.

In a classic lecture , the speaker, who is usually active in science, presents scientific content in words, supported by images (e.g. slides) or illustrative material. The classic lecture location is the lecture or meeting place. Lectures are often part of a series of lectures that offer lectures on a specific main topic on predetermined dates. A special case is the public lecture series at a university, in which speakers from different departments illuminate a topic in an interdisciplinary manner.

Lecture by Tobias Müller at a Pecha Kucha night in Erlangen about positive psychology .

In addition to the classic lecture, there are specialized formats such as Pecha Kucha with strict framework conditions for time frames and presentation (20 slides with one image each, automatically visible for 20 seconds each).

The TEDx events form a special series of lectures , in which local organizers organize lecture events in the design and with the basic sequence of the TED conferences . The format also means that videos of the lectures are then made available online.

Unusual venues are specifically used to reach people who can not inspire for classical lectures themselves, about the pub Science event in a bar or pub., The format of the Lunch Lecture with short lecture during the lunch break, just as knowledge Buffet with a combination of Meals and short lectures, or in a public space like Soapbox Science .

Science cabaret : The Science Busters Helmut Jungwirth, Martin Puntigam and Florian Freistetter during the book presentation Why do asteroids always land in craters? at the Frankfurt Book Fair 2017.

Science show: DLR space show on the mission of the German ESA astronaut Alexander Gerst in September 2018 in Künzelsau .

A popular informal format is the science slam , a format originally inspired by the poetry slam , of informal and entertaining short presentations by scientists, which are evaluated by the audience or a jury. An international competition format of this kind is the British FameLab .

Recordings of lectures on video make what has been said accessible even after the actual lecture date. Other types of lecture documentation are written elaboration and graphic recording , in which the lecture is clearly recorded in real time on a large paper wall.

A number of formats combine artistic and / or performance aspects and science. This includes the science song , in which scientific content is presented in the form of a song . On a broader scale, the communication can also as science theater or science performance with funds from the performing arts , as a science show with a mix of spectacle and drama experiments or as a science comedy or science cabaret done.

The format of the science puppet theater , a sub-form of the puppet theater , in which players with characters on a stage convey scientific content in front of the audience, is particularly suitable for a younger audience .

In internal science communication, conferences are an established format that has lectures, both in the plenary session of the conference and more specific lectures in participant subgroups, as an integral part.

Interactive events

Discussion formats enable direct exchange between scientific actors and the general public. Such formats are particularly important in the context of a science communication concept that not only communicates unidirectionally ("imparting knowledge"), but also wants to enter into a dialogue with the public.

Specific discussion formats are:

the World Cafe , the structure of which is based on writable tables set up for this purpose
a Science Cafe , which combines short lectures by invited experts in a café or another type of restaurant with a subsequent discussion in a larger group or at individual tables
the student parliament , which is modeled on the plenary debates of a parliament .
the House of Commons debate , which is based on the English House of Commons , and in which two expert contributions to a controversial question with two answers are followed by a discussion in the course of which those who think the same answer is correct sit on the same side of the seating arrangement
Science speed dating , in which several short conversations are initiated between the participants in quick succession,
the fishbowl discussion with 4 to 5 participants in a group of audience members
The citizens' conference as an open-ended procedure in which citizens form an opinion on (especially controversial) scientific topics and can contribute their position to the political debate

The screen saver of the new SETI @ home client with BOINC

Citizen science is a format in which citizens can contribute to research themselves, regardless of their level of academic education . It includes projects in which participants either collect and analyze data themselves or, as with SETI @ home , make the computing power of their home computers available for research projects. As an event type, Citizen Science can also be carried out as part of a Hack Day , i.e. as an event during which the participants, either only scientists from the relevant field or scientists and interested laypeople, work together to solve a previously determined problem.

In competitions, participants are encouraged to participate through the opportunity to solve interesting tasks and win prizes for them. In a photo competition, for example, it is science-related photos that are submitted and awarded, while in the ideas competition , the best possible ideas are sought for solving a specific problem. In the advent calendar / competition , a new science-related puzzle is asked every day from the beginning of December until Christmas .

A playful examination of science is made possible by corresponding board games or computer games with scientific content.

A special form of interaction takes place in the Live Escape Room : The general plot of this game is that the participants are locked in a room and have to solve a given series of science-related tasks that build on each other in order to regain their freedom. The Science Rally also works with tasks that build on one another, but in this case lead to a destination (and also include the exploration of another area) . To quizzes from the science field the other hand, the scientific Pubquiz (pub quiz), in a bar in a relaxed atmosphere different teams vying for the prices.

In both external and internal science communication, the classic conference format has been replaced by interactive formats such as Barcamp or Unconference , which replace the strictly organized sequence of classic conferences with a sequence in which the topics of the individual sub-events are only discussed on the day of the event be determined by the participants themselves. Such interactive formats can stand on their own or be part of larger conferences.

Event framework

Event of the TU Berlin as part of the Long Night of Science 2006

Science communication events can take place separately or as part of an overarching concept. An annual overarching topic in Germany is the Science Years , which are organized by the Federal Ministry of Science and Research and the Science in Dialogue Initiative . Another example of an annual frame was the 2009 International Year of Astronomy .

Locally or regionally, a science festival can provide a bracket for events over a limited period of time at one or more venues. One example are the highlights of the physics department of the Federal Ministry of Science and Research and the German Physical Society, which take place at a different location every year .

A special format is a Long Night of Science , during which local scientific institutions open their doors until late at night and offer visitors appropriate information or entertainment events.

The European Union regularly announces a European Researchers' Night , which science locations can apply to host.

Scientific institutions can of course also fit into other overarching event frameworks, such as the "Door Opener Day" of the television program Die Sendung mit der Maus , which takes place on October 3, or, in the case of historical institute buildings, the Open Monument Day .

places

The ESO Supernova of the European Southern Observatory (ESO) as an example for a visitor center of a scientific organization

Certain locations (buildings, institutions) play a role in science communication.

Research institutions

On the one hand, there are the places where science and research are carried out as such. During a guided tour of the institute , a scientific organization makes its premises (to a limited extent) accessible to outsiders and communicates content about its work at the original location. On a larger scale, institutions are made accessible at an open day , which makes otherwise inaccessible rooms accessible to the public, typically together with an accompanying program of lectures, demonstration experiments and similar activities.

A number of institutions have a visitor center as a permanent place for outsiders, mostly the general public. Mostly designed in the manner of a science center with interactive and classic exhibits, the visitor center offers a direct overview of the scientific activities of the institution.

As part of trade fairs and other events, an information stand can present scientific content or the work of a specific scientific organization.

Science centers, museums, planetariums

Spring-like jewelery courtyard of the Munich Botanical Garden

Carl Zeiss Planetarium Stuttgart

In addition to the places where research is carried out, there are places where science communication is a significant part of their purpose. These include science centers , which typically focus on interactive exhibits, museums with a general focus on exhibits, and the special form of open-air museums . In addition to real collections, digital museums are possible, which make views of exhibits with the associated information accessible online via the Internet.

Also Zoos and Botanical Gardens are places of scientific communication.

Planetariums with presentations in dome projection put a focus on astronomy . However, modern planetariums with digital projection systems are increasingly showing material from other areas of science. A special form of a transportable place of science is a mobile planetarium , which enables a dome projection with astronomical or other contents in an inflatable tent. Own astronomical observations, in the form of Star Tours , offer public observatories on, often by amateur astronomical societies are worn.

Museums and science centers allow guided tours to explore the collections more closely with the help of a knowledgeable guide. This also includes demonstrations in which, for example, certain exhibits are put into operation in technology museums or show experiments are presented. A special type of tour is the flashlight tour , during which a collection of flashlights brought along at night is explored. A sleepover , i.e. an overnight event in the museum, offers an opportunity to experience the collection again in a completely different way, and special opening times only for children or only for adults increase the variety of museum experiences.

Other places geared towards science communication are the House of Science or, on a smaller scale, the science shop as meeting, event and / or research facilities, which offer lectures and exhibitions on Citizen Science , workshops and discussion events.

Exhibition locations

MS Wissenschaft with the exhibition "Digital on the way" in 2014 (here in Bremen)

Exhibition spaces are temporarily turned into a place of science when exhibitions with scientific content can be seen in them. Exhibitions can include works of art or other science-related exhibits, but also interactive exhibits similar to those of a science center. A special form is the citizens' exhibition , which uses portraits, photos and interviews to make science-related interests, problems and conflicts of citizens visible, or science-inspired art exhibitions .

Exhibitions can take place once at a specific location or be shown as traveling exhibitions one after the other at different locations. The inland ship MS Wissenschaft with a floating exhibition on board is a special touring exhibition that is regularly on the move in Germany with the theme of the respective science year .

The Meet the Scientist format makes it possible for exhibitions that have been created in collaboration with scientists to meet the scientists concerned as part of an event directly at the exhibit.

Monuments, plaques, nature trails

Memorial plaque for Max Planck on the main building of the Humboldt University Berlin

Monuments, plaques or memorial plaques can communicate scientific references to the location - such as the places where important researchers worked.

Station "Neptune" of the Laupheim Planetary Path (Volkssternwarte Laupheim eV)

On-site science communication also includes educational trails , typically with stations that provide participants with information about the immediate environment they are in. The special form of the planetary path as a true-to-scale arrangement of the planets of the solar system allows us to experience relative distances in our cosmic environment in this form.

Virtual places

Virtual places of science, i.e. those that only exist in digital form, can be immersively explored through virtual reality . For example, with the help of 3D glasses or in a CAVE , participants can gain experience in electronically coded "science landscapes". The combination of places in the real world with virtual elements that often provide additional information, is characteristic of augmented reality ( augmented reality ).

Educational area

Children's University in Frankfurt am Main (2009).

Part of science communication concerns educational work, which often takes place in the context of or in collaboration with educational institutions such as universities or schools .

In addition to the internal scientific science communication of the regular teaching activities there are at universities events with a larger audience, as part of a general studies , proposals for an auditor or as a special form MOOCs , that online courses with broad potential number of participants, with and outside the conventional trial operation, a deeper engagement enable scientific content.

In school , science is primarily communicated as part of formal education by subject teachers in the context of regular school subjects .

Video conference with a school class in the laboratory as part of Ring-a-scientist

Schools also offer scientists direct opportunities for communication. A classic format is visiting school for a lecture and discussion with the students. Suitable platforms such as the Research Exchange portal can help where the placement does not come about through relatives or acquaintances (e.g. visiting a parent). or through a project like "Ring-a-scientist", which arranges video conferences between researchers and school classes. Project days or a "Junior Science Cafe", where schoolchildren organize a discussion on a scientific topic and invite suitable experts, also offer opportunities for exchange.

Jugend forscht - postage stamp from 1974

Bringing pupils into contact with universities is possible at an early stage with children's universities , i.e. with events specially tailored to younger children, such as lectures and workshops held in the university. Scientific institutions can also participate in nationwide campaigns such as Girls 'Day or Boys' Day to provide insights into their everyday working life. Older schoolchildren have the option of a trial course or trial course to gain an insight into the content of the course and everyday study life, as well as the possibility of a school-based or junior course . For logistical reasons (compatibility with school attendance), a junior course is often completed in the form of e-learning or blended learning .

Another type of contact is provided by school laboratories that are operated by universities, research institutions, science centers, museums, technology and start-up centers or companies and that, as extracurricular learning centers, offer schoolgirls the opportunity to conduct experiments in class that go beyond the possibilities of the school.

As a contribution to teacher training, and thus to imparting their subject, various professional associations, institutes and foundations offer teacher training courses or contribute to the training courses of the ministries of education .

Schoolchildren can also take part in school competitions such as Jugend forscht , in which the fulfillment of scientific-related tasks (such as their own research projects) is assessed. Larger school competitions can have several levels up to the federal level. The Science Olympiad , such as the International Physics Olympiad or the International Chemistry Olympiad, are international with a national preselection.

Historical development

Lithograph by Alexander Blaikley (1816–1903) showing Michael Faraday on December 27, 1855 at one of his Christmas lectures, which Prince Albert and Prince Alfred also attended.

Science communication developed parallel to the professionalization and public funding of science in the 19th century. Some of the first series of lectures have survived to the present day, such as the Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution in Great Britain. In Germany, too, public lectures - popular science in today's sense - were handed down as early as the 19th century, such as the series "About the Universe" by Alexander von Humboldt at the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin from the years 1827–1828.

Title page of the first English edition from 1861.

An early institution of scientific communication was the Humboldt Academy , founded by Max Hirsch in 1878 with the aim of “ giving those people who cannot attend or have already left the university the opportunity to pursue a harmonious academic further education through systematic lecture cycles and other suitable means and keep them in context with advances in developing science ”.

Historical exhibit of the Urania (exhibited today in the Science Center Spectrum )

A few years later, namely in 1888 , the Berlin Urania was founded as a new type of institution, which was to combine an observatory - the first public observatory in the world, a scientific and technical exhibition and a science theater.

A tradition of popular science publications developed parallel to the aforementioned events and institutions. Michael Faraday wrote his corresponding Christmas lecture in 1861 as the natural history of a candle . In his Kosmos - Draft of a Physical Description of the World , Humboldt set out to present an overview of the knowledge of the material world "that simultaneously stimulates and delights the mind in living language" for a general audience.

The journal Scientific American was founded by Rufus Porter in mid-1845 and initially dealt primarily with new US patents , but soon expanded its coverage to include edited topics. The German version of the journal, Spektrum der Wissenschaft , first appeared in 1978.

The magazine Popular Science Monthly , today Popular Science , in mid 1872 founded by Edward L. Youmans to scientific knowledge to impart to lay persons. After initially reprinting articles from English magazines, the magazine soon won eminent scholars of their time as authors, such as Charles Darwin , Thomas Henry Huxley , Louis Pasteur , Henry Ward Beecher , Charles Sanders Peirce , William James , Thomas Edison , John Dewey and James McKeen Cattell .

Museum of Natural History in Invalidenstrasse 43 in Berlin-Mitte

The first natural history and scientific museums developed from the courtly and other collections. For example, when today's Humboldt University, founded in 1810 as Friedrich Wilhelms University, was established in Berlin, it was equipped with a corresponding natural-historical collection that was accessible to the public. The Museum of Natural History emerged from this .

The modern form of the Science Center came about on the initiative of the physicist and physics didacticist Frank Oppenheimer when the Exploratorium was founded in San Francisco in 1969 . The “ Field of Experience for Developing the Senses ” presented by Hugo Kükelhaus at the EXPO in Montreal in 1967 can be seen as a forerunner . The Spectrum in Berlin , part of the German Museum of Technology , was founded in 1983 as the first German science center .

In May 1999, representatives of the major German science organizations as well as the Science Council and the Stifterverband für die Deutschen Wissenschaft signed the so-called PUSH memorandum ( Public Understanding of Science and Humanities ), in which they committed themselves to promoting the dialogue between science and society, scientists encouraged communication with the public and stated that they would like to coordinate their respective activities with those of others. In this context, they explicitly contrasted the activities of scientific institutions to develop their own profile with the more general "joint efforts to gain more recognition for science in society". In the same year, the PUSH initiative led to the foundation of the non-profit GmbH Wissenschaft im Dialog , which organizes dialogue events, exhibitions and competitions and also develops new formats for science communication. The projects of the company include the exhibition ship MS Wissenschaft , the student competition "Youth presents" , the web video competition Fast Forward Science, the specialist conference Forum Science Communication, the European student parliaments, the citizen science platform "Citizens create knowledge", the crowdfunding platform Science starter or the school projects Junior Science Café and Make your School.

The intensification of science communication is problematic in several respects, however, since modern societies are characterized by a system of interrelationships between science, the public and the media: science is about "processes and methods of acquiring knowledge", the media about its "enlightenment - and control function ”and in an enlightened democracy - with the necessary quality of political decisions - it is about the“ quality of public deliberation ”, ie it is about the balance of power between the interest groups in science, media, politics and the public.

Research and Teaching

In recent years it has been emphasized several times that science communication should not be limited to a series of practical activities (including the "Science of Science Communication" initiative in the USA and the manifesto for "evidence-based science communication"), but that it has been for decades there is a research field of science communication that only has a limited influence on science communication practice and vice versa. The first detailed empirical analysis of the international research field was carried out on behalf of the Federal Ministry of Education and Research . A number of other books published in German-speaking countries also discuss the importance of research in university / science communication (see, among others, Bonfadelli et al. (2016); Hagen & Lüthje (2018); Fähnrich et al. (2018); Leßmöllmann et al. (2020)). Journals with a focus on the research field of science communication include: a. Public Understanding of Science; Science Communication; Journal of Science Communication; Frontiers in Science and Environmental Communication; Science Technology and Human Values; International Journal of Science Education: Communication and Public Engagement; Research for All.

In Germany there are some degree programs and further training opportunities in the field of science communication. For the entire breadth of the subject area, there are three offers in particular:

Since the winter semester 2012/13, the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology has offered the bachelor's degree "Science - Media - Communication", and since the winter semester 2015/16 a master's degree of the same name.

From the 2014/15 winter semester, the Rhein-Waal University of Applied Sciences in North Rhine- Westphalia offered an English-language course in Science Communication & Bionics . The course has meanwhile been discontinued. The last enrollment of students took place in the winter semester 2019/20.

The National Institute for Science Communication has been offering advanced training seminars in science communication for students and researchers since 2012.

A number of other institutes in German-speaking countries are dedicated to science communication and related fields and offer corresponding courses of study, with a specific focus:

Science journalism at the Technical University of Dortmund
The major in “Science and Data” in the online journalism course at Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences
History of science at the Technical University of Munich
Science marketing at the Technical University of Berlin
Related areas: Technical communication at RWTH Aachen University and technical journalism, for example at the Technical University of Nuremberg Georg Simon Ohm and at the University of Bonn-Rhein-Sieg

Internationally, especially in Great Britain and the United States of America, there are a large number of courses in science communication, but most European countries also have corresponding offers such as the TU Delft , the University of Leiden or the Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati in Trieste .

literature

Barbara Bachtler, Heinz-Jörg Haury, Franz Ossing, Thomas Robertson (eds.): Helmholtz Workshop / Forum: “New Paths in Science Communication”, Bonn 2000, PDF
Martin Bauer, Massimiano Bucchi (Ed.): Journalism, Science and Society. Science Communication between News and Public Relations (= Routledge Studies in Science, Technology, and Society. Vol. 7). Routledge, New York NY et al. a. 2006, ISBN 0-415-37528-2 .
Beatrice Dernbach, Christian Kleinert, Herbert Münder (Hrsg.): Handbuch Wissenschaftskommunikation . Wiesbaden 2012. ISBN 978-3-531-17632-1
Alexander Gerber : Curtain up for phase 5. Opportunities, risks and demands for the next stage of development in science communication (= Edition Innovare. Vol. 1). innokomm Research Center, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-9814811-0-5 (E-Book: ISBN 978-3-9814811-1-2 ).
Anita Hermannstädter, Michael Sonnabend, Cornelia Weber (eds.): Science communicate. The role of the universities. Edition Stifterverband, Essen 2008, ISBN 978-3-922275-22-0 .
Richard Holliman, Elizabeth Whitelegg, Eileen Scanlon (Eds.): Investigating Science Communication in the Information. Implications for Public Engagement and Popular Media Age. Oxford University Press, Oxford u. a. 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-955266-5 .
Carsten Könneker : Communicating science. A manual with many practical examples. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim 2012, ISBN 978-3-527-32895-6 .
Franz Ossing / Reinhard F. Hüttl: “ Science communication, science PR and knowledge transfer. About vague use of terms in the social use of scientific knowledge ”, in: Research. Policy-Strategy-Management, No. 3 + 4/2016, Webler University Press, Bielefeld 2016, ISSN 1868-1654; Pp. 76-81 PDF
Schäfer, MS, S. Kristiansen and H. Bonfadelli (eds.): Science communication in change. Cologne: Herbert von Halem 2015.
Peter Weingart , Patricia Schulz (Ed.): Knowledge - Message - Sensation. For communication between science, the public and the media . Weilerswist 2014. ISBN 978-3-942393-80-5
Marc-Denis Weitze, Wolfgang M. Heckl : Science communication - key ideas, actors, case studies . Springer Spectrum, Berlin Heidelberg 2016. ISBN 978-3-662-47842-4
Wissenschaft im Dialog (Ed.) " Guidelines for good science PR ", guidelines and checklist, Berlin 2016; PDF
Indre Zetzsche, Peter Weingart (Ed.): Science communication: Forays through a "new" field . Lemmens, Bonn 2004. ISBN 978-3-932306-56-3
Johannes Schnurr, Alexander Mäder (Hrsg.): Science and society: A trustful dialogue - positions and perspectives of science communication today. Springer, Berlin / Heidelberg 2019, ISBN 978-3-662-59466-7 .

Web links

Individual evidence

^ Schäfer, MS, S. Kristiansen and H. Bonfadelli (eds.): Wissenschaftskommunikation im Wandel. Cologne: Herbert von Halem 2015, p. 13.

^ Katja Scheidt, Christine Thieleke: Public Relations in the Third Millennium. In: Klaus Merten (Ed.): Construction of communication in the media society. Festschrift for Joachim Westerbarkey. Wiesbaden 2009, p. 137.

↑ Hagenhoff, Svenja; Silk thread, Lutz; Ortelbach, Björn; Schumann, Matthias: New Forms of Science Communication. A case study study . Göttingen 2007, p. 5f. URL: https://d-nb.info/991336852/34

^ J. Eric Davies and Helen Greenwood, "Scholarly Communication Trends - Voices from the Vortex: A Summary of Specialist Opinion" in Learned Publishing 17 (2004), pp. 157-167. URL: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1087/095315104322958544

↑ Alexandra Sowka: Science communication between social research and practice. An action theory study using the example of right-wing extremism . Wiesbaden 2015, p. 47.

↑ Beatrice Dernbach, Christian Kleinert, Herbert Münder (eds.): Handbuch Wissenschaftskommunikation . Wiesbaden 2012.

↑ For a breakdown of science communication into these sub-areas, see Lüthje, Corinna, Silje Kristiansen, Mathis Danelzik, Birte Fähnrich, Jutta Milde, Markus Rhomberg, Mike S. Schäfer & Jens Wolling (2012): Self-understanding paper of the ad hoc group Science Communication in the German Society for Journalism and Communication Studies - DGPuK . Online: https://www.uzh.ch/cmsssl/ikmz/dam/jcr:9c535982-822f-4a84-bf99-fcb9c2902f8f/4_4.pdf

↑ Beatrice Dernbach, Christian Kleinert, Herbert Münder: Introduction: The three levels of science communication. In: Beatrice Dernbach, Christian Kleinert, Herbert Münder (eds.): Handbuch Wissenschaftskommunikation. Wiesbaden 2012, pp. 1–17.

↑ Carsten Könneker: Science communication in networked publics In: Bonfadelli, H., Fähnrich, B., Lühtje, C., Milde, J., Schäfer, M., Rhomberg, M. (Ed.): Research field science communication. Wiesbaden 2016, pp. 453–476.

↑ Martin Schneider: Science journalists have to find a new role. In: Science Press Conference websites . January 18, 2013, accessed October 7, 2018 .
^ ^A ^b Klaus Meier: Media and other fields of work . In: Winfried Göpfert (Ed.): Science journalism. A manual for training and practice . Springer, Wiesbaden 2019, ISBN 978-3-658-17883-3 , pp. 29-44 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-658-17884-0 .
↑ Beatrice Dernbach, Christian Kleinert, Herbert Münder: Introduction: The three levels of science communication. In: Beatrice Dernbach, Christian Kleinert, Herbert Münder (eds.): Handbuch Wissenschaftskommunikation. Wiesbaden 2012, p. 2.
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↑ Alexander von Humboldt : About the Universe in the Gutenberg-DE Project ( archive version ) (16 lectures that Alexander von Humboldt held from December 6, 1827 to March 27, 1828 in the hall of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin )

^ Meyers Konversations-Lexikon 1888, Volume 8, Page 8790

^ Memorandum for the 25th anniversary of the Urania Society (1888–1913) , 1913

^ Humboldt to Karl August Varnhagen von Ense , Berlin, October 24, 1834 . In: Ludmilla Assing (ed.): Letters from Alexander von Humboldt to Varnhagen von Ense from the years 1827 to 1858 . FA Brockhaus, Leipzig 1860.

↑ https://www.museumsportal-berlin.de/de/museen/science-center-spectrum/

↑ https://www.hrk.de/positionen/beschluss/detail/memorandum-dialog-wissenschaft-und-gesellschaft/

↑ https://www.wissenschaft-im-dialog.de/ueber-uns/geschichte/

^ Peter Weingart, Patricia Schulz: Introduction. In: Peter Weingart, Patricia Schulz (Ed.): Knowledge - Message - Sensation. For communication between science, the public and the media. Weilerswist 2014, p. 10.

^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine: Communicating Science Effectively - A Research Agenda. Results report "Communicating Science Effectively" (2017)

^ Frontiers in Science and Environmental Communication: Evidence-Based Science Communication. 4:78. Manifesto for Evidence-Based Science Communication (2020)

^ A. Gerber et al .: Science Communication Research: an Empirical Field Analysis . edition innovare, 2020, ISBN 978-3-947540-02-0 (English, direct download [PDF; 1,2 MB ; accessed on August 15, 2020] Research Field Analysis Science Communication). Available at The Research Field. In: ScienceComm.Science. (English).