Jewish history in Cologne

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The Jewish history in Cologne concerns the life of the Jews in Cologne , dates back to the year 321 and is almost as old as the history of the city of Cologne . Today's synagogue community in Cologne describes itself as the “oldest Jewish community north of the Alps” because of this historical continuity .

Antiquity

Emperor Constantine connected Cologne and Deutz with a first permanent bridge (drawing around 1608).

For appointment to a municipal office, property and a certain reputation of the person were required. However, Jews were denied access to public office. Although their religion was recognized as religio licita (permitted religion), at the same time they were freed from the imperial sacrifice and the sacrifices to the Roman state gods . However, these were also a basic requirement for holding a public office. In late antiquity , the Roman upper class increasingly refused to take part in these costly offices. The Roman administration got into a crisis and the imperial family had to look for alternatives. The decree of Emperor Constantine issued to the Cologne city ​​council on December 11, 321 , which also allowed Jews to be appointed to the " curia " or, if necessary, made them obligated against their will, is the earliest evidence of the existence of a Jewish one Parish in the city of Cologne. The imperial decree is handed down in the Codex Theodosianus and has the following wording in the translation:

“We permit all councilors by general law to appoint Jews to the curia. So that they have a certain amount of compensation for the earlier regulation, We allow that two or three should always enjoy the privilege of not being used by any appeal (to offices). "

The copy of the decree from the Vatican , dated to the 6th century , will be shown in a special exhibition at the Kolumba Museum in Cologne from September 2021 .

middle age

Plan of the Jewish quarter on Rathausplatz

A Jewish ritual bath, a so-called mikvah , in the north of Cologne's old town dates from the 8th century in its first construction phase . As a result, the building was renewed and renovated several times. After 1096 the mikveh was rebuilt at the beginning of the 12th century.

Since the 11th century at the latest, the Jewish community had been settled in a district near today's town hall . The name "Judengasse" still bears witness to this today. In the 12th and 13th centuries the anti-Jewish attitude of the city dwellers intensified. You were accused of being responsible for the plague . A pogrom occurred on Bartholomew's Night in 1349, which went down in town history as the “Battle of the Jews”. That night an angry mob broke into the Jewish quarter and murdered most of the residents. In 1424 the Jews were banished from the city "for ever and ever". This settlement ban was only lifted at the end of the 18th century. A new Jewish community came into being under French administration. In the early modern period, the area of ​​the Jewish quarter was built over, its former residents fell into oblivion. Only after the destruction of the Second World War did the reconstruction work reveal the medieval foundations, including a synagogue and the monumental Cologne mikveh . The first archaeological investigations were carried out by Otto Doppelfeld between 1953 and 1956 after the war . For reasons of historical awareness, the area was not built over in the post-war period and has been preserved to this day as a square in front of the historic town hall. The Jewish quarter is part of the " Archaeological Zone Cologne ".

Medieval pogroms in Cologne

Burning of the Jews in the Holy Roman Empire (medieval manuscript, today in the Central and University Library of Lucerne )

Centuries before the great pogrom of August 1349, the climate in the Cologne area was by no means friendly towards the Jewish population. In 1096 there were several pogroms during the First Crusade . Although the crusade of France went out, it came first in the Holy Roman Empire to occupied attacks . On May 27, 1096, hundreds of Jews fell victim to excesses of violence in Mainz . The Palatinate of the local Archbishop Ruthard , where he had sent the Jews to protect them, was stormed by the Crusaders after a short resistance. Something similar happened in Cologne in July of the same year. Jews were forcibly baptized. The permission of Emperor Henry IV , according to which Jews forcibly baptized could return to their faith, was not confirmed by Pope Wibert of Ravenna . Since then, there have been repeated attacks, both large and small, and not only in the Rhineland.

In 1146 several Jews were killed by an angry Christian mob near Königswinter , shortly before the start of the Second Crusade . Jews were also killed in Andernach , Altenahr , Bonn and Lechenich and some of their houses were looted. These events are thought to be associated with a wave of persecution from 1287/88. No physical assaults on Jews from Cologne have been documented for this period, although existing discrimination must be assumed.

After the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, all Jews were required to clearly identify themselves as non-Christians by their clothing. In addition, it was possible that the owner of the Judenregal issued so-called death letters, so decided to cancel certain debtors - for example in the event of bad harvests - the debts of Jewish moneylenders or to lower the interest rates. Furthermore, one can assume for the 1320s that some Cologne residents tried to evade payment obligations to Jewish creditors by invoking church legislation. Pope John XXII. had started a rigorous "anti-Jewish usury campaign" in 1317 and publicly declared that usury interest did not have to be paid to Jews. The Cologne city council felt compelled to take action against this church-sanctioned refusal to repay and made 1321 lawsuits against Jewish interest claims a punishable offense. In 1327 the council repeated this provision and thus clearly opposed a papal rescript which was specifically directed against a Salman from Basel . The same city council itself referred to the aforementioned papal letter in 1334 and called Archbishop Walram von Jülich for support when a Jewish financier named Meyer demanded outstanding debts from him. The trial ended with the surrender of all city mortgage notes and Meyer's sentencing to death. The city fathers were released from their debts to Meyer and Walram received the confiscated property of the convict. In addition, the archbishop had also owed Meyer and was able to repay them at the same time. Overall, the Jews in Cologne seem to have been relatively safe in life and limb between 1096 and 1349 as “fellow citizens”. However, there are enough indications that they have been offended. For example, the so-called Judensau on one of the cheeks of the Cologne Cathedral Choir is known, which probably dates from the 20s of the 14th century.

In the decades before the pogrom in Cologne, relations with the Jews living there seem to have deteriorated. So around 1300 the construction of a part of the wall around the Jewish quarter began. Presumably, this construction work was carried out at the instigation of the Jewish community itself. Council resolutions document the deterioration in the inner-city climate between Christians and Jews. Resolutions from 1252 to 1320 deal with questions about the legal status, protection and taxation of Cologne's Jews. The wave of pogroms also affected other cities in the empire. A letter from the Cologne city council to the city council of Strasbourg has come down to us. On January 12, 1349, the Cologne council expressed their concern about the events in Strasbourg and warned urgently against an escalation. The Jews and their belongings are protected by letters of protection or consolation, which must be adhered to. In addition, the accusation that the Jews poisoned the wells and thus caused the plague has not been proven in any single case. In the same letter, the Cologne councilors make it clear that they would decisively protect Cologne's Jews. For the years after 1320, however, numerous religiously motivated hostilities against Jews by the Cologne clergy are known, which were particularly excited about the privileges of Cologne's Jews. The reason for this can be seen in the change in the Jewish shelf . The Cologne clergy no longer benefited solely from the Jews' money-lending business. Increasingly, the city council also earned, which led to additional tensions between the archbishop and the council.

In 1266 Archbishop Engelbert II had the " Jewish privilege " carved in stone.

The sources indicate that the latter played an important role in the persecution of the Jews in Cologne in 1349. Since 1266, only Jews in Cologne had the privilege of lending money. Archbishop Engelbert II had this so-called Cologne Jewish privilege carved in stone on the outside of the cathedral treasury. In the struggle for power, the Jews in Cologne could thus, to a certain extent, be used as “leverage”. The patrons of Cologne's Jews, the archbishop and the king, were able to resell their Jewish shelves. If there were quarrels between the curia, the king and the Cologne city council, the city council could take a profitable source of income for both of them if it eliminated the Jews. At the same time, it was possible to pay off your own outstanding debts. In addition, in the 1440s a wave of plagues of unprecedented severity broke across Europe. The “ Black Death ” probably did not reach Cologne and the surrounding area before December 1349, that is, months after the severe pogrom of August. However, news from the south about its devastating effects on the Rhine will have arrived much earlier. Possibly they were still embellished in the population and led to eschatological unrest. The devastating pogrom of 23/24 December falls into this overall situation. August 1349 in Cologne.

Preparation of the pogrom

The persecutions in 1349 were among the most violent in the entire Middle Ages and probably had their origin in south-western Europe. However, they found the greatest echo in the German Reich. The wave of pogroms hit many cities before the plague reached them, for example the pogroms in Strasbourg and Basel . Charges of alleged well poisoning were particularly frequent. The pogroms seem to have spread like a pyramid scheme. It is unlikely that they were spontaneous and that they came from the lower folk. It is much more likely that later recordings reveal a certain planning, which in its character rather reveal the involvement of the leading, or at least parts of the leading strata. For example, the already mentioned events in Strasbourg , which the Cologne Council closely followed, point to clear planning. An alliance was concluded in advance with everyone who was interested in the murder or expulsion of the Jews in order to be able to assert oneself against their patrons. King Charles IV in particular and the Habsburg bailiffs had settled Jews in their territories. The Strasbourg council appealed to the peace in the country and called on all Graubünden citizens to kill the Jews in their areas. This pogrom was ultimately directed against the Habsburgs and only exploited popular hysteria to achieve its own political goals.

The Archbishop of Cologne, Walram , who had left the city towards the end of June 1349 to go to France, died shortly afterwards in Paris. King Charles IV stayed in Cologne until July 19 and then left with his entourage. He had succeeded in getting Cologne on his side through privileges in the controversy for the throne. However, the negotiations may not have been successful for all interest groups. The annihilation of the Jewish community may have been aimed at weakening Charles IV and the curia. Even earlier, the archbishop's vacancy had led to persecution. For example after the Battle of Worringen on June 8, 1288, when the defeated Archbishop of Cologne was captured. Four days later there were persecution of Jews in the vicinity of Cologne. In August 1349 not only was the seat of the Archbishop of Cologne unoccupied, but Charles IV was also not in the area to be able to intervene. This led to riots that culminated on August 24th in what would later become known as the “Cologne Bartholomew Night”.

On 23/24 On August 1st, Cologne, which had been relatively safe for Jews up to that point, also became a death trap. After violent attacks in the vicinity of the cathedral city, Jews were also murdered in Cologne itself.

The Bartholomew Night and its consequences

Little is known about the actual course of the pogrom. During Bartholomew's Night in 1349, the Jewish quarter near the town hall was stormed, resulting in murders, looting of Jewish property and arson. Refugees were persecuted and killed. The council did not intervene. Several sources report on the fires that devastated the Jewish quarter, although some of them are contradictory. Some report that the Jews burned themselves to death in their homes to avoid falling into the hands of the looters. According to another version, the Jews burned themselves to death in their synagogue, but this is unlikely. Archaeological excavations in the area of ​​the medieval Jewish quarter indicate that the synagogue itself survived Bartholomew's Night unscathed, but was later deliberately looted. While fleeing, a family buried their belongings here. The coin treasure was discovered during excavations in 1953 and is exhibited in the city museum. The report of the chronicler Gilles Li Muisis , in which he reports of a real battle against more than 25,000 Jews and ascribes the Cologne victory to a ruse by the butchers, is considered untrustworthy. Gilles Li Muisi's report coined the term "Battle of the Jews" for the events of that night. The involvement of flagellants , who, according to the sources, should have been in Cologne in 1349, is also opaque .

The City Council of Cologne and the new Archbishop Wilhelm von Gennep condemned the pogrom with all severity. The names of the real masterminds and violent intruders into the Jewish quarter remained unknown. It can only be stated that attempts were made at the time to keep the culprits unnamed. In a letter from the Cologne city council it is said that it was a foreign mob, followed by a few have-nots from Cologne.

Gravestone of Rabbi Mar Jacob at the Vorburgtor of Lechenich Castle

Some displaced survivors from the city sought refuge on the other side of the Rhine. About ten years after the wave of pogroms in 1349, Jewish settlements are documented in Andernach and Siegburg. The Judenbüchel Jewish cemetery in Cologne was also devastated. Gravestones were reused as building material at the town hall and department store in Cologne, but Archbishop Wilhelm von Gennep, as patron of the Jewish community, also claimed the material and had stones with Hebrew inscriptions worked on and walled up in the years that followed when the state castles of Hülchrath and Lechenich were expanded .

There is evidence that Jews did not return to Cologne until 1369, although Archbishop Boemund II of Saarbrücken tried to force the influx of Jews during his aegis from 1354 to 1361. But only under Engelbert III. von der Mark and especially under his coadjutor Kuno von Falkenstein , the tense relationship between the archbishop and the township was supposed to improve to such an extent that the protection of the Jews seemed halfway secure again. In 1372 there was again evidence of a smaller Jewish community in Cologne. At the request of Archbishop Friedrich , they were accepted into the city and received a first limited protection privilege for a period of 10 years. However, the Council attached conditions to this. An admission fee of between 50 and 500 guilders as well as an annual amount to be determined as a general fee had to be paid for immigration . After further extensions of the right to stay, the council proclaimed a stricter Jewish regime in 1404 . It was imposed on the Jews to identify themselves, for example, with the pointed Jewish hat , and they were also forbidden from any kind of luxury. In 1423 the Cologne council decided not to extend a right of residence for the Jews until October 1424. It is noteworthy, however, that a whole congregation could apparently be set up again immediately and not only a few Jews, as has been passed down from many other cities, including large cities.

emigration

As a result of the medieval pogroms and the final expulsion in 1424, many of Cologne's Jews probably also decided to emigrate to Eastern European countries such as Poland-Lithuania , where Yiddish subsequently developed as a colloquial language from Middle High German, Hebrew and Slavic. The descendants of these emigrants returned at the beginning of the 19th century and then lived mainly in the area of ​​Thieboldsgasse southeast of Neumarkt .

Only a few of the Jews stayed near Cologne and settled mainly on the right bank of the Rhine (Deutz, Mülheim, Zündorf). Later on, new small churches emerged that grew over the years. The first community in Deutz came into being in the area of ​​today's "Mindener Straße". Jews felt safe there under the protection of Archbishop Dietrich von Moers (1414–1463).

Cultural life in the Middle Ages

One of the most extensive Jewish libraries of the Middle Ages exists in Cologne. In the Middle Ages there were the following Jewish communities, synagogues, mikvahs , schools, hospices and burial places in Cologne :

Judenbüchel

Detail from an engraving by Friedrich W. Delkeskamp (1794–1872)

For the year 1212, a document from Saint Engelbert , provost of the St. Severin Monastery at the time, mentions “that 38 years ago knight Ortliv five yokes land in the Jewish cemetery , which he carried as a fief from the St. Severin Monastery , resigned (transferred back ) have; that they would then be left to the Jews for an annual interest of four denarii and Ortliv could now make no claims on them. ”In 1266, Archbishop Engelbert II guaranteed the Jews fair treatment and the undisturbed use of their cemetery on Bonner Strasse in Cologne's Jewish privilege . It was about the Severinstorburg , which is located in front of the walls of Cologne to the south , known as the Judenbüchel or Dead Jews . This name remained on the site even after the cemetery was closed until the wholesale market was built.

Gravestones from 1323

Rachel's tombstone, 1323

During excavations in Cologne's town hall district in 1953, two completely preserved tombstones were found on the northwest corner of the town hall in a large bomb crater. They probably come from this Jewish cemetery in front of Severinstor, which had been misused as building material.

Even in the years after their expulsion from Cologne, deceased parishioners of the Deutz parish were laboriously brought to the cemetery on the left bank of the Rhine.

Modern times

Events, parishes, synagogues, prayer houses, mikvahs, schools, hospices and burial places in today's urban area.

After the expulsion

Joseph Clemens von Bayern grants the Jews privileges.

The few remaining Jews formed the beginning of a community in Deutz on the right bank of the Rhine , whose rabbis later referred to themselves as "Land Rabbis of Cologne". The beginnings of the Deutz community were quite modest. For example, “Rabbi Vives” is mentioned from the middle of the 15th century, who, among others, also looked after the Deutz community. Around 1634 there were 17 Jews, in 1659 24 houses were inhabited by Jews, and in 1764 the community consisted of 19 people. Towards the end of the 18th century the community had 163 members.

The community became a small Jewish "quarter" in the Mindener and Hallenstrasse area. There was also the first synagogue , mentioned in 1426 , which was destroyed by the immense ice drift of the Rhine in 1784. The mikveh belonging to this place of worship, the ritual bath deeply laid down like a well, may still be present today under the embankment of the bridge ramp (Deutz bridge). The community replaced this first Jewish place of worship in the Cologne area on the right bank of the Rhine with a small new building at the western end of the "Freiheit", today's street "Deutzer Freiheit" (1786–1914). At that time, the Jews of the Deutz community, like all the others in the Electorate of Cologne, lived under the legal and social conditions that had been prescribed by the state since the end of the 16th century through a so-called "Jewish order". The last enactment of these Jewish laws was the order proclaimed by Elector Joseph Clemens in 1700. It lasted until the new legislation, when French civil law was also introduced in Deutz on the right bank of the Rhine . Due to the construction of the suspension bridge in 1913/14, which was named after the Reich President Hindenburg , the house of prayer had to be abandoned and it was closed. In December 1913, while work was being carried out to remove the “Schiffsbrückenstraßenbahnlinie” in Deutz on the “Freiheitsstrasse”, a mikveh was uncovered under the old synagogue of the Jewish community. The bath had a connection to the Rhine waters. To replace the abandoned synagogue, a new building was erected on Reichplatz, which was badly damaged in the November pogrom in 1938 and in the war that followed. The last rabbi, Julius Simons, was deported to the concentration camp in 1938, but was able to leave for Amsterdam. From there he was deported to Auschwitz during the occupation in 1943, where he and his family were killed in 1944. A street between Deutz and Poll is named after him. Only one son, Ernst Simons , survived the Holocaust .

Deutz cemetery

Steles and grave sites facing northeast

In contrast to the building records in the city center, the history of the Jewish communities outside the city center can be traced primarily through the remaining Jewish cemeteries. In Cologne on the right bank of the Rhine, there are the Israelite cemeteries in Mülheim, “Am Springborn”, in Zündorf between “Hasenkaul” and “Gartenweg” and in Deutz the cemetery at “Judenkirchhofsweg”. The Deutz Jews were given this property by the archbishop in 1695 as land for lease. The first burials took place here from 1698. Some Jewish Cologne residents, whose names are still common today, found their final resting place here on the burial site on Judenkirchhofsweg in Deutz (Cologne), which is still preserved today . In 1918 the cemetery was closed but remained in the possession of the community.

New beginning

First page of the first edition of the Civil Code from 1804

Until the occupation by the French revolutionary army in 1794, Jews were no longer allowed to settle in Cologne. The civil code introduced by the French included equality before the law, individual rights of freedom and the separation of church and state . In 1798 it was “Josef Isaak” from Mülheim who was the first Jew to be allowed to settle in Cologne again. Also in 1798, the only 17-year-old Salomon Oppenheim junior moved his business location from Bonn to Cologne. He was one of the families that formed the first modern Cologne community in 1799. Oppenheim also traded in cotton, linen, oil, wine and tobacco. However, his main business was credit. As early as 1810 he ran the second largest bank in Cologne after "Abraham Schaffhausen". Within the new Cologne Jewish community, Oppenheim held a prominent position in both social and political life. He was under the supervision of the community schools, but he also acted as a delegate of his Cologne community, which sent him to a congress of Jewish notables in Paris .

A Poor Clare Monastery, which was closed by the French occupiers, was soon set up as a house of prayer in Glockengasse . Even if a number of Jewish businessmen were already experiencing economic and social advancement at that time - Oppenheim jr. was unanimously elected member of the Chamber of Commerce and was the first Jew to hold a public office again - her legal status was still uncertain. The Prussian "edict" that was issued did not apply everywhere. It was to last until the Prussian Jewish Law of 1847 and ultimately until 1848, when the special status of the Jews was finally abolished with the adoption of the constitutional charter for the Prussian state and complete equality with all other citizens was achieved.

In the course of the March Revolution of 1848/49, there were severe anti-Jewish excesses in Cologne as well as in southern and eastern German regions and in cities such as Berlin , Prague and Vienna .

After the growth of the community and the deterioration of the former Poor Clare building, which was initially used as a prayer house, the Oppenheim family donated the construction of a new synagogue in Glockengasse 7. The number of community members had now grown to around 1000 people. While in medieval times it was the “quarters” that were formed according to the affiliations of the population in the narrow city, the spatial distribution of the Jewish population also changed towards the end of the 19th century. Instead of creating a neighborhood that grew around the synagogue, as in Cologne's “Judengasse”, Jews now lived decentrally among the rest of the population. After the city ​​expansion, many moved to the emerging new suburbs.

The new building in Glockengasse was followed by another building due to the growing Jewish population. It was the Orthodox synagogue on St. Apern-Straße, it was inaugurated on January 16, 1884. The liberal synagogue on Roonstrasse was inaugurated on March 22, 1899.

Against the background of historical experiences in Europe, however, Jews also founded initiatives to build their own state, which in Germany mainly originated in Cologne: At the end of the 19th century, the seat of the Zionist Association for Germany was in Richmodstrasse on Neumarkt , led by the lawyer Max Bodenheimer founded together with the businessman David Wolffsohn . Bodenheimer was its president until 1910 and campaigned for Zionism in collaboration with Theodor Herzl . The “Cologne Theses” on Zionism developed under Bodenheimer were, with small adjustments, adopted as the “Basel Program” at the first Zionist Congress . The aim of the association was to establish a separate state of Israel in Palestine for all Jews in the world.

Glockengasse synagogue

Glockengasse in the 19th century
Interior view in the 19th century

After the congregation grew steadily, the existing prayer house in Glockengasse was overloaded. A donation of 600,000 thalers from the Cologne banker Abraham Oppenheim enabled the community to build a new church. The architect and cathedral master builder Ernst Friedrich Zwirner , who was won over for the planning, designed a building in the Moorish style , which was inaugurated in August 1861 after four years of construction. The new synagogue had a dome covered with shiny copper plates and a light sandstone facade with red horizontal stripes. The ornamentation of the interior was modeled on the Alhambra of Granada . The new house, which was also rated positively by Cologne residents, offered seats for 226 men and 140 women in the prayer room.

The Torah scroll was saved from the burning Glockengasse synagogue in 1938 by the Cologne clergyman Gustav Meinertz . In the synagogue on Roonstrasse she found a place of honor in a showcase .

Synagogue St. Apern-Strasse

Adass-Jeschurun ​​synagogue
Memorial plaque on Helenen- and St.-Apern-Straße

As early as the middle of the 19th century, St.- Apern- Strasse was a “dignified” residential and business district valued by wealthy citizens. Exquisite antique shops dominated here , in which mostly Jewish owners offered exquisite jewelry or valuable furniture. These residents built a house of worship in 1884 - the synagogue of the Orthodox community "Adass Jeschurun" was built . The last incumbent rabbi was Isidor Caro , who died in the Theresienstadt concentration camp .

In the Jawne school attached to the synagogue, classes were held from 1919 to 1941. It was the first and only Jewish grammar school in the Rhineland.

Roonstrasse synagogue

View of the Torah shrine , the Ner Tamid and the Bima (Torah lectern)

Since the synagogue in Glockengasse was built, the Jewish community had grown to 9,745 members at the end of 1899. As early as 1893, the community had acquired a piece of land on Roonstrasse opposite what was then Königsplatz . In 1894, the city council approved a building cost subsidy of 40,000 marks so that the new building project could be tackled. After its completion in 1899, the Roonstrasse synagogue offered space for around 800 men and a gallery for 600 women. A historical photo was found to be worth including in the photo archive of the Israeli Holocaust Memorial Yad Vashem. The building was badly damaged during the last war, but was the only one of the Jewish places of worship to have the necessary remaining substance for reconstruction. The restored synagogue was consecrated on September 20, 1959.

Reischplatz Synagogue Deutz

The Torah (probably 18th century) of the Deutz synagogue, 1926 purchase of the city (armory)

The third and last place of worship in the community was a prayer house built by the city as a replacement at Reischplatz 6. The building, inaugurated in 1915, was rebuilt in a modified form after suffering war damage and then served other purposes since the Jewish community in Deutz no longer existed. A plaque commemorates the Deutz parish with its last place of worship today.

Mülheimer Freiheit synagogue

A first church in the Mülheim community was destroyed in the ice drift in 1784, as was the one in Deutz. A new synagogue was inaugurated in the same place a few years later. The church, built around 1788/1789 at about the same time as the Deutz synagogue on the Mülheimer Freiheit, was designed by the Mülheim master builder Wilhelm Hellwig. The arrangement of the facility began on the street front with a school building, which was followed by the synagogue building with a four-sided hipped roof. The building survived the November pogroms of 1938, but was destroyed by the effects of the war and demolished in 1956.

Zündorf Jewish community

Presumably there were already Jews living in Zündorf before 1700. As early as 1713, a prayer hall initially served as a synagogue in the Niederündorf district . When this no longer offered enough space for the strong growth of the community in the middle of the 19th century, a new synagogue was planned. For the year 1882 there is the following entry for a new building in the "Zündorfer parish chronicle":

“The Jewish synagogue is finished after a lot of effort, the celebration went according to the program with the participation of many foreign Jews. The Jews build a synagogue, i. H. a room, a room, which is to serve as a synagogue. The house collection from the Israelites of the Rhine Province, approved in favor of the same, allegedly showed a meager amount ”.

The local Jewish traders Lazarus Meyer and Simon Salomon had partly sold the property to the community, but also donated it to the community.

The synagogue was sold by the synagogue community in 1938 and converted into a residential building that still stands today. Between 1938 and 1942, the Zündorf community dissolved as a result of relocation and deportations.

In 1923 a Jewish cemetery was laid out in the northeastern part of the Niederündorf district, between Gartenweg and Hasenkaul. Today it still has eight graves with six gravestones.

Other institutions and prayer houses

  • Israelite asylum for the sick and the elderly on Silvanstrasse (Severinsviertel), later on Ottostrasse, Ehrenfeld.
  • There were parish houses and prayer houses mainly in the city center, south of Neumarkt in Bayardsgasse, in Thieboldsgasse and Agrippastraße up to Quirinstraße behind St. Pantaleon . These prayer houses were also meeting places for the Jews who lived there from Eastern European countries.

Jewish cemetery on Melaten

Jewish cemetery on the Melatengürtel (next to forensic medicine)

It is unclear in which year the construction of a Jewish cemetery took place as part of the Melaten cemetery , which has existed since 1810 . Until 1829, however, only Catholics were allowed to be buried here, while Protestants were buried in the old Geusen cemetery in Weyertal. The Jewish community buried its deceased in Deutz until 1918 and then in Bocklemünd. However, in 1899 a section of the Melaten cemetery was opened to Jews. The first burial took place there around 1899. The property, which is immediately adjacent to the Melatenfriedhof and surrounded by a high wall, cannot be seen from either the Melatener side or the Melatengürtel road. The cemetery was desecrated for the first time in 1928, and the mourning hall belonging to it was destroyed in 1938.

Cemetery capstone

In Cologne-Lindenthal , behind the area of ​​the old municipal Decksteiner cemetery, is the cemetery, which was laid out around 1910 by the “Adass Jeschurun” community. The Adass Jeschurun ​​resolutely rejects any adaptation to Christian customs or rituals of the cult of the dead. There are no coffin or urn burials. Flower arrangements or wreaths with commemorative bows are also not used at funerals. The gravestones in the cemetery are very simple and predominantly with Hebrew characters. However, access is not public. (Permission from the Cologne synagogue community)

Business world

The Jewish business world was optimistic about the future. In 1891 the merchant Leonhard Tietz opened a department store in Cologne. The oldest Cologne bankers were Jews, whose monopoly-like position was documented around 1266 and who dominated Cologne's banking system . Because in the year 1266 Archbishop Engelbert II. Von Falkenburg enforced that "Kawertschen" and other Christians , who lent interest-bearing loans and thus annoyed the Jews, were not allowed to stay in the city. Up until the founding period, there were a large number of Jewish-run banks in Cologne's banking system, such as the Oppenheim dynasty (since 1798) and the Seligmann bank (since 1844). The department store of the textile wholesale company “Gebrüder Bing and Sons” opened a department store on Neumarkt . Exquisite shops for Jewish merchants were located in the cathedral location on Hohe Strasse and Schildergasse .

integration

Moses Hess, Cologne Armory

Cologne developed into a scientific, economic and cultural center by the middle of the 19th century, and the Jewish population also played a major role in this development. After Jewish fellow citizens had gained a foothold in the financial and business worlds and were generally respected and recognized, they also tried to participate in the formation of political opinion. Examples of this are Moses Hess and Karl Marx , who wrote in the Kölner Rheinische Zeitung , which was newly founded in 1842 . In this newspaper "for politics, trade and industry" they were among the most important employees. In 1862, Hess tried in his book “Rome and Jerusalem” to point out possibilities for a resettlement of the Jews in Palestine. However, his work was not well received; the Jews in Germany , especially in large cities like Cologne, viewed Germany as their homeland and their fatherland .

First World War and Weimar Period

Right at the beginning of the First World War , Jewish associations in Cologne also called on their members to do all they can for their fatherland. Nonetheless, the resentments against Jewish war participants , which were increasingly found in the officer corps, were so great that the War Ministry had a so-called Jewish census carried out to appease them. At the end of the war in 1918, Adolf Kober took over the post of rabbi in Cologne, one of the largest Jewish communities in Germany at the time. Kober was one of the initiators of the presentation of Jewish history within the "Millennium Exhibition of the Rhineland", which took place in 1925 at the Cologne exhibition center. The Jewish cemetery in Bocklemünd was also opened in 1918 .

Cologne Jews at the time of National Socialism

With the takeover of political power by the National Socialists , repression against the Jewish citizens of Cologne began again . In the spring of 1933, Cologne had 15,000 inhabitants, according to a census, who professed their belief in Judaism. Until then there were 6 synagogues as well as other parish and prayer houses in Cologne. They were all desecrated on November 9, 1938, during the pogrom night, and after the war, except for the rebuildable church on Roonstrasse, were completely destroyed.

Anti-Semitism in Cologne

In Cologne, too, there were National Socialist and anti-Semitic attitudes among the population and society. After the end of the war, politicians like Konrad Adenauer and authors like Heinrich Böll attested the Cologne residents a spirit of resistance and a sovereignty “that no tyrant, no dictator can feel comfortable in Cologne”. Ultimately, only a few people from Cologne offered open resistance against the Nazi regime or hidden Jews (a well-known example of this is the Ehrenfeld group ). The agitation against Judaism and against Jewish people from Cologne, on the other hand, took place on a broad scale, for example in anti-Semitic plays in the Hänneschen Theater or in the Cologne Carnival , in which only individual carnivalists showed a clear profile against National Socialism. Floats in the Rose Monday showed anti-Semitic motives and a carnival song mocked "Metz dä Jüdde it wander jetz conclusion Se slowly uence. (...) For Freud, I still laugh at us half-capped. The Itzig and the Sahra trecke fott " .

"Aryanization"

Boycott of Jewish shops on April 1, 1933
Boycott reports in the newspaper in 1933

The so-called " Aryanization " took place in two phases. In the first from January 1933 to November 1938 it was the "voluntary Aryanizations". According to the official interpretation, they represented a voluntary change of ownership between a Jewish and a non-Jewish contractual partner. This willingness to sell a shop, practice, bar, pharmacy or company "voluntarily" was achieved through the processes described below. Business people increasingly provided their shops or their advertisements with appropriate slogans. One saw handwritten or printed matter with a wide variety of slogans, for example: “German business”, “German products” or “Christian business”. This was followed by painted stars of David or slogans on the walls of houses and shop windows of the Jews. Publications by the local NSDAP, in which companies listed were also given the name of the Jewish owner, were also added.

On April 1, 1933, the day of the “ Jewish boycott ”, uniformed members of Nazi organs posted themselves in front of Jewish shops in Cologne and prevented customers from entering. The Jewish merchant Richard Stern achieved some prominence : the former combatant from the First World War distributed a leaflet against the boycott and demonstratively stood with his Iron Cross next to the SA post in front of his shop.

The repression against Jewish entrepreneurs had an effect insofar as the population avoided these shops when shopping and their owners lost their livelihoods. The longer Jewish businessmen withstood the pressure exerted, the less compensation they had to be offered for their property. As a result, there were frequent reports in the press about bankruptcies and takeovers of Jewish companies. The second phase of "Aryanization" began after November 1938, and now the party acted more openly. Jewish ownership of companies or real estate has now been “forced” due to government regulations. They were forced to sell their property well below value. For example, the company "Deka-Schuh, Leopold Dreyfuß" in Ehrenfeld, the tie wholesaler "Herbert Fröhlich" in Streitzeuggasse, the butcher and snack chain "Katz-Rosenthal", the fashion house "Michel" (later Jacobi) and the clothing store " Bamberger ”(later Hansen). The numerous Jewish stores on Hohe Strasse and Schildergasse were particularly hard hit, with almost every third store being "Aryanized" . With the shops and their familiar names to the people of Cologne, the people belonging to them disappeared. At the end of these measures, the persecution and deportation of Cologne Jews began.

The boycott was also directed against lawyers and doctors. It began in Cologne on March 31 with physical attacks by the SA and SS on Jewish lawyers in the justice building on Reichensperger Platz. Judges and lawyers were arrested, sometimes ill-treated, then loaded onto garbage trucks and driven through town.

Ehrenfeld

Memorial plaque - Koernerstrasse Synagogue

Although Cologne had been the “capital” of the NSDAP district Cologne-Aachen since 1925 , many did not expect the radicalism of this party to begin. In 1927, for example, the Körnerstrasse synagogue was the last building to be built by Cologne's Jewish communities, based on a design by the architect Robert Stern. It was consecrated "to the glory of God, the truth of faith and the peace of mankind".

The church on Körnerstrasse had a small forecourt surrounded by arcaded buildings. The prayer room offered 200 seats for the men and around 100 for the women, taking into account the spatial separation according to gender. As is customary in many places, the latter were in a women's gallery. The Jewish portion of the population in Ehrenfeld comprised around 2000 people. The synagogue also had a mikveh, which was discovered during excavation work on Körnerstrasse. The plaque installed today in Körnerstraße reminds of the destroyed synagogue with the religious school attached to it :

"At this point stood the Ehrenfeld Synagogue, connected to a religious school for girls and boys, built in 1927 according to the design of the architect Robert Stern, destroyed on the day after the Reichspogromnacht on November 9, 1938"

To the right of the former synagogue site is an air raid shelter built in 1942 , which has been a listed building since 1995.

Müngersdorf collection camp

Zwischenwerk V a, a memorial stone on the nearby sports field commemorates the Nazi victims.

After the organized and controlled destruction of life, property and facilities all over the country, anti-Semitic politics intensified even further in Cologne. Jewish children were no longer allowed to attend German schools. By January 1, 1939, all Jews were excluded from economic life and forced into forced labor. They were expropriated and tenants' protection was withdrawn in 1939. In May 1941, the Cologne Gestapo ordered the Jews of Cologne to be amalgamated in so-called Jewish houses. As a result, many of them were sent to the barracks camp at Fort V in Müngersdorf . The ghettoization took place in preparation for deportation to the extermination camps . In September 1941, the police ordinance on the identification of Jews required all Jewish persons in the German Reich from the age of six to wear a yellow Star of David visibly sewn onto the left breast of the garment.

Deportations from Deutz

Memorial plaque to the Deutz subcamp

The first transport left Cologne in October 1941, the last known was sent to Theresienstadt on October 1, 1944. Immediately before the transports, the exhibition halls in Cologne-Deutz served as a collection warehouse. The transports departed from the lowlands of the Deutz train station . For most of the deportees, Lodz, Theresienstadt and other ghettos and camps in the east were only a transit station: From here they were deported to the extermination camps, to almost certain death.

In addition to Müngersdorf and Deutz, there were also prisoner and concentration camps on a factory site in Porz Hochkreuz and in the nearby town of Brauweiler .

When the American troops occupied Cologne on March 6, 1945, they were only able to free 30 to 40 Jewish people in Cologne.

Post-war situation

Of the former 19,500 Jewish citizens of Cologne, around 11,000 were victims of the Nazi era, they were murdered. Survivors of the Cologne community found themselves together for a new beginning in the ruins of the Ehrenfeld Asylum, the main building of which had largely been preserved.

The synagogue was then temporarily located in Ottostraße from 1949 until the congregation was able to move into the renovated neo-Romanesque church on Roonstraße in 1959.

On the night of Christmas Day 1959, the synagogue and the Cologne memorial for the victims of the Nazi regime were desecrated by two later arrested members of the right-wing extremist German Reich Party . The synagogue was smeared with black, white and red paint, with swastikas and the slogan “Jews out” being affixed.

Bocklemünd Jewish cemetery

2017-10-03-Jüdischer Friedhof Bocklemünd-4543.jpg Memorial of the Reich Association of Jewish Front Soldiers

The Jewish cemetery in Cologne's Bocklemünd district has been a burial site since 1918 and is still used as a cemetery today.

The lapidarium of the cemetery houses 58 fragment stones from the 12th to 15th centuries, which come from the Jewish cemetery Judenbüchel in the district of Cologne-Raderberg, which was closed in 1695 after the opening of a new cemetery in Deutz and abandoned in 1936. Those buried there were reburied in Bocklemünd.

Jewish Center Nussbaumerstrasse

Parish Ehrenfeld prayer house
Municipality-Ehrenfeld old complex

Today's Jewish Center in Ehrenfeld on Nussbaumerstraße / Ottostraße is the successor to the “Jewish Hospital Ehrenfeld”. The hospital survived the Nazi era and avoided being destroyed by the bombing raids. The remaining community of Cologne Jews gathered in it. The facilities that were built on the same site and now operate under the name of the "Jewish Welfare Center" have their origins, such as the partially preserved building of the old hospital (1908), in a charitable Jewish facility on "Silvanstrasse" created in the 19th century.

Liberal Jewish Community

The Jewish Liberal Congregation Cologne - Gescher LaMassoret eV in Cologne-Riehl was founded in 1996 and is a member of the Union of Progressive Jews in Germany . It has around 100 members and, in addition to regular church services, offers lessons for small children, young people and adults. The community is looked after by the Ukrainian Rabbi Natalia Verzhbovska, who is a member of the General Rabbinical Conference of Germany (ARK).

Memorials

  • Lion fountain on Klibanskiplatz

  • Memorial plaque for the Glockengasse synagogue

  • Schildergasse police building, headquarters of the Gestapo 1933/35

  • Memorial plaque at Reischplatz 6

  • Stumbling blocks in front of Blumenthalstrasse 23 in memory of Siegmund, Helene and Walter Klein

  • Two memorials commemorate the Jewish victims in the Jewish cemetery in Cologne-Bocklemünd. A memorial honors the members of the Cologne synagogue community who died with Isidor Caro , who was in office until 1942, in Theresienstadt. A street in Cologne-Stammheim was named after Rabbi Caro . A second plaque attached to this memorial honors the memory of all victims from the Cologne synagogue community
  • The memorial “The Prisoners”, created in 1943 by Ossip Zadkine , stands on the honorary graves of the Westfriedhof, Cologne-Bocklemünd
  • Memorial plaques in Ehrenfeld, Körnerstraße
  • A bronze plaque attached to the opera house reminds of the synagogue in Glockengasse
  • A memorial plaque in St. Apern-Strasse and the corner of Helenenstrasse (hotel side) is dedicated to the St. Apern-Strasse synagogue. In front of the hotel building on the small " Erich Klibansky - Platz" is the lion fountain (1997)
  • Memorial plaque for the victims of the Gestapo in Krebsgasse
  • Memorial plaque at Reischplatz 6 in Deutz for the last of the three Deutz synagogues (house of the police station)
  • Memorial plaque on the Messeturm, Kennedy-Ufer
  • Memorial plaque in the city park, Walter-Binder-Weg
  • Stumbling blocks by the artist Gunter Demnig in front of houses in which Nazi victims lived still remind us of these Jews today

Today's Judengasse near the town hall is reminiscent of the former Jewish quarter. It had the French name "Rue des Juifs" for a short time in 1813, but was later given back its old name. Today it is an uninhabited street with no residential buildings.

Jewish Museum Cologne

As part of the Regionale 2010, the city ​​of Cologne created an “ Archaeological Zone ” which is to be expanded into an archaeological-historical museum complex. A section that is already accessible consists of the remains of the Jewish quarter and the Cologne mikveh (Jewish cult bath) under today's Cologne City Hall Square. The mikveh was discovered during excavations in the early 1950s, but was not excavated any further until the present archaeological zone was prepared. Above the foundations of the first synagogues and the mikveh, the above-ground construction of the Jewish Museum is to be built between the historic town hall and the Wallraf-Richartz Museum . It was decided by the city council, but is controversial in politics and the population with the argument that it would lose free space in front of the historic town hall. The Jewish Museum was supposed to open in 2010. In spring 2013, two initiatives collected signatures, one against the construction project and the other in favor. Since October 2013, a citizens 'initiative of the Free Voters Cologne has been running a citizens' initiative for a scaled-down version of the architect Peter Busmann .

See also

literature

  • Hans-Dieter Arntz : Religious Life of Cologne Jews in the Riga Ghetto , in: Yearbook of the Cologne History Association , No. 53, 1982
  • Zvi Asaria : The Jews in Cologne. From the oldest times to the present. JP Bachem Publishing House, Cologne 1959.
  • Zvi Avneri: Germania Judaica . Vol. 2: From 1238 to the middle of the 14th century , Tübingen 1968.
  • Barbara Becker-Jákli : The Jewish Hospital in Cologne; the history of the Israelite asylum for the sick and the elderly 1869–1945 , 2004. ISBN 3-89705-350-0 .
  • Barbara Becker-Jákli: The Jewish Cologne. History and present. A city guide , Emons Verlag Cologne, Cologne 2012, ISBN 978-3-89705-873-6 .
  • Johannes Ralf Beines: The old synagogue in Deutz , in: Rechtsrheinisches Köln, yearbook for history and regional studies . History and local history association Rechtsrheinisches Köln e. V. Volume 14. ISSN  0179-2938 .
  • Michael Berger : Iron Cross and Star of David. The history of Jewish soldiers in German armies , trafo Verlag, 2006. ISBN 3-89626-476-1 .
  • Anna-Dorothee von den Brincken: Charles IV's privileges for the city of Cologne . In: Blätter für deutsche Landesgeschichte 114, 1978, pp. 243–264.
  • Michael Brocke / Christiane Müller: House of Life. Jewish cemeteries in Germany. Verlag Reclam, Leipzig 2001. ISBN 978-3-379-00777-1 .
  • Carl Dietmar: The Chronicle of Cologne. Chronik Verlag, Dortmund 1991. ISBN 3-611-00193-7 .
  • Werner Eck : Cologne in Roman times. History of a city under the Roman Empire . (= History of the City of Cologne in 13 volumes , Vol. 1) Cologne 2004, pp. 325 ff. ISBN 3-7743-0357-6 .
  • Liesel Franzheim: Jews in Cologne from Roman times to the 20th century . Cologne 1984.
  • Marianne Gechter, Sven Schütte: Origin and requirements of the medieval town hall and its surroundings. In: Walter Geis and Ulrich Krings (eds.): Cologne: The Gothic town hall and its historical surroundings . Cologne 2000 (Stadtspuren - Monuments in Cologne; 26), pp. 69–196.
  • František Graus : Plague - Geissler - Murder of Jews. The 14th century as a time of crisis . Goettingen 1988.
  • Monika Grübel, Peter Honnen (Ed.): Yiddish in the Rhineland. In the footsteps of the languages ​​of the Jews , publication by the Rhineland Regional Association (LVR) in Klartextverlag, Essen 2014, ISBN 978-3-8375-0886-4 .
  • Monika Grübel and Georg Mölich: Jewish life in the Rhineland. From the Middle Ages to the present. ISBN 3-412-11205-4 .
  • Alfred Haverkamp : On the history of the Jews in Germany in the late Middle Ages and early modern times. Stuttgart 1981.
  • Alfred Haverkamp: The persecution of the Jews at the time of the Black Death in the social fabric of German cities . in: Monographs on the history of the Middle Ages 24 . 1981, pp. 27-93.
  • Wilhelm Janssen: The regests of the archbishops of Cologne in the Middle Ages. Bonn / Cologne 1973.
  • Adolf Kober, Cologne , The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia 1940
  • Kirsten Serup-Bilfeldt: Between the Cathedral and the Star of David . Jewish life in Cologne. Publishing house Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Cologne. ISBN 3-462-03508-8 .
  • Gerd Mentgen: The ritual murder affair around the "Good Werner" von Oberwesel and its consequences, in: Yearbook for West German State History 21 . 1995, pp. 159-198.
  • Klaus Militzer: Causes and consequences of the inner-city disputes in Cologne in the second half of the 14th century . Cologne 1980 (publications by the Cologne History Association, 36).
  • Alexander Patschovsky: Enemy Images of the Church: Jews and Heretics in Comparison (11th – 13th Century) . in: Alfred Haverkamp (ed.): Jews and Christians at the time of the crusades . Sigmaringen 1999, pp. 327-357.
  • Elfi Pracht-Jörns : Jewish cultural heritage in North Rhine-Westphalia, part 1: Cologne district. Cologne 1997
  • Robert Wilhelm Rosellen: History of the parishes of the deanery Brühl. JP Bachem, Cologne 1887
  • Matthias Schmandt: Judei, cives et incole: Studies on the Jewish history of Cologne in the Middle Ages. Research on the history of the Jews Vol. 11. Hanover 2002. ISBN 3-7752-5620-2 .
  • Kurt Schubert: Jewish history . Munich 2007.
  • Sven Schütte: The Almemor of the Cologne synagogue around 1270/80 - Gothic small architecture from the Cologne cathedral building. Findings reconstruction and environment . in: Colonia Romanica. Yearbook of the Friends of the Romanesque Churches in Cologne XIII . 1998, pp. 188-215.
  • Arnold Stelzmann: Illustrated history of the city of Cologne. Verlag Bachem, Cologne 1958. Publisher number 234758
  • M. Toch: Settlement Structure of the Jews of Central Europe in the Change from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age . in: A. Haverkamp and Ziwes, (Ed.): Jews in the Christian environment during the late Middle Ages . Berlin 1992, pp. 29-39.
  • Markus J. Wenniger: On the relationship between Cologne's Jews and their environment in the Middle Ages . In: Jutta Bohnke-Kollwitz, Willehad Paul Eckert, among others. (Ed.): Cologne and Rhenish Judaism . Festschrift Germania Judaica 1959–1984, Cologne 1984 pp. 17–34.
  • Ernst Weyden : History of the Jews in Cologne on the Rhine from Roman times to the present . M. DuMont Schauberg , Cologne 1867 digitized Robarts Library , University of Toronto
  • Jürgen Wilhelm (Ed.): 2000 years of Jewish art and culture in Cologne. Greven-Verlag, 2007, ISBN 978-3-7743-0397-3 .
  • Adam Wrede : New Cologne vocabulary. 3 volumes A - Z, Greven Verlag, Cologne, 9th edition 1984. ISBN 3-7743-0155-7 .
  • Franz-Josef Ziwes: Studies on the history of the Jews in the central Rhine area during the high and late Middle Ages . Hanover 1995. ISBN 3-7752-5610-5 .

Web links

Commons : Jewish history in Cologne  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ On the website of the Synagogue Community in Cologne, archived copy ( memento of the original from October 15, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ; Retrieved December 16, 2007 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sgk.de
  2. ↑ Tacitus , Historiae 5,5,4 .
  3. ↑ Landschaftsverband Rheinland (LVR) , The Decree of 321: Cologne, the Emperor and the Jewish History [1] .
  4. ↑ Eck 2004, p. 325
  5. ↑ report of the WDR [2]
  6. ↑ Schubert 2007. p. 45; Wenniger 1984 p. 17.
  7. ↑ Patschovsky 1999. P. 330.
  8. ↑ a b Schmandt 2002. p. 85.
  9. ↑ Germania Judaica 11.1 p. 15
  10. ↑ GJ II, 1 p. 10.
  11. ↑ GJ II, 1 p. 94.
  12. ↑ GJ II, 1 p. 475.
  13. ↑ Only a few years later, in 1298, a wave of persecution took place, especially in Franconia, which is said to go back to the so-called King Rintfleisch. See Lotter, F .: The persecution of Jews by " King Rintfleisch " in Franconia around 1298. The final turning point in Christian - Jewish relations in the German Empire in the Middle Ages, in: Zeitschrift für Historischeforschung 4 (1988) pp. 385-422.
  14. ↑ Schubert 2007. p. 48.
  15. ↑ Ziwes 1995. p. 251; Schubert 2007. p. 50.
  16. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 78f.
  17. ↑ Ennen, L. and Eckertz, G .: Sources for the history of the city of Cologne, Vol. IV, Cologne 1872, No. 201, p. 220.
  18. ↑ Janssen, W .: The Regests of the Archbishops of Cologne in the Middle Ages, Bonn / Cologne 1973 V, No. 226, p. 61: “… item hoc anno judeus quidam ditus Meyer, id ets villicius, in Bunna pecuniis maximis Walramus per officiatos archiepiscopi Coloniensis nequiter comburitur et occiditur. Cum enim in archiepiscopus sibi obligaretur, fingunt eum falsarium et comburunt ... "
  19. ↑ This does not mean the legal status, but the resident in general.
  20. ↑ a b Schmandt 2002. p. 86.
  21. ^ Franzheim 1984. p. 82.
  22. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 26f.
  23. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 36.
  24. ↑ Graus 1988. p. 179.
  25. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 93.
  26. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 86; For example the so-called Judensau on one of the cheeks of the Cologne Cathedral Choir, which is dated to the 20s of the 14th century. Franzheim, L .: Jews in Cologne (note 23) p. 82f.
  27. ↑ Richard Kipping: The Regests of the Archbishops of Cologne in the Middle Ages, Vol. 3, No. 1233, p. 280.
  28. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 89.
  29. ↑ Graus 1987. p. 156; For example, there are 1010 Jewish communities in the German Reich before this pogrom. Many cease to exist after 1349. Toch 1992 p. 30ff.
  30. ↑ Graus 1988. p. 167.
  31. ↑ Graus 1988. p. 185.
  32. ↑ von den Brincken 1978. p. 243ff .; Schmandt 2002. p. 89.
  33. ↑ Mentgen 1995. p. 178.
  34. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 90.
  35. ↑ Schütte 1998. p. 206.
  36. ↑ Published by Hendrik Mäkeler: The treasure of Joel ben Uri Halewi. The Cologne “Rathausfund” from 1953 as evidence of the pogroms against the Jews in 1349, in: Werner Schäfke and Marcus Trier with the collaboration of Bettina Mosler (ed.): Middle Ages in Cologne. A selection from the holdings of the Cologne City Museum, Cologne 2010, pp. 111–117 and 356-407.
  37. ↑ Graus 1988. p. 206.
  38. ↑ MGH SS XVI, p. 738… anno 1349 fuerunt frates cum flagellis mirabili modo. Et eodem anno obiit domnus Walramus episcopus Coloniensis in vigilia assumpcionis beate Marie, et statim post hoc in nocte Bartholomei iudei combusti per ignem in colonia ...
  39. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 92.
  40. ↑ At least 79 visible tombstone fragments are walled up on the arched frieze of the battlement floor of the gate tower of Hülchrath Castle and possibly another 50 without visibility, all from the decades before the pogrom. Only two stones are visible at Lechenich Castle. See Stefan Leenen: Jewish tombstones as building material in the castles Hülchrath and Lechenich after the plague in 1349/1350 , in: Burgen und Schlösser 4/2020, pp. 194–213
  41. ↑ Heinig, P.-J .: Regesta Imperii VIII, Cologne-Vienna 1991, No. 2541 - They even got the express permission of Emperor Charles IV for the resettlement of Jews in Cologne.
  42. ↑ From this year comes a municipal letter of protection, which guarantees the immigrated Jews freedom from all legal claims in the pogrom of killed Jews. Schmandt 2002. p. 169.
  43. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 96.
  44. ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, pp. 114, 121, 128
  45. ↑ Schmandt 2002. p. 99.
  46. ^ Wilhelm Rosellen, p. 518 (Der Judenbüchel), reference to Ficken: Engelbert der Heilige p. 281
  47. ↑ Johannes Ralf Beines, page 53
  48. ^ Paul Clemen , 1934, page 245
  49. ↑ Barbara Becker-Jäkli, page 35
  50. ^ Arnold Stelzmann, Illustrated History of the City of Cologne, p. 135 f
  51. ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, page 321
  52. ↑ Deutz at Jewish communities
  53. ^ Stumbling blocks in Cologne
  54. ↑ Dr.-Simons-Strasse
  55. ↑ Johannes Ralf Beins, page 55
  56. ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, page 255
  57. ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, pp. 217, 222
  58. ↑ Werner Jung: The modern Cologne: 1794-1914; from the French period to the First World War . Bachem, Cologne 2004, ISBN 3-7616-1590-6 , pp. 245–246
  59. ↑ Königsplatz with the new synagogue ( Memento of the original from August 13, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed January 17, 2012 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / collections.yadvashem.org
  60. ^ Carl Dietmar, Die Chronik Kölns, page 292
  61. ↑ Johannes Ralf Beins, page 62
  62. ↑ Reinhard Rieger: The Zündorfer Judengemeinde. (Our Porz. Contributions to the history of the office and city of Porz. Issue 12) Edited by Heimatverein Porz eV, Porz 1970, p. 10
  63. ^ The Zündorf Jewish Community , accessed on January 17, 2012.
  64. ↑ Reinhard Rieger: The Zündorfer Judengemeinde. (Our Porz. Contributions to the history of the office and city of Porz. Issue 12) Edited by Heimatverein Porz eV, Porz 1970, p. 34
  65. ↑ Reinhard Rieger: The Zündorfer Judengemeinde. (Our Porz. Contributions to the history of the office and city of Porz. Issue 12) Edited by the Heimatverein Porz eV, Porz 1970, plate 8
  66. ↑ Archive link ( Memento of the original dated August 29, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. last accessed on December 19, 2007 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.koelnguide.net
  67. ↑ Kirsten Serup-Bilfeldt, page 106
  68. ↑ Supplemented from: Kirsten Serup-Bilfeldt, page 105
  69. ↑ derogatory term for medieval moneylenders and moneychangers, originally in the Provençal town of Cahors lived
  70. ↑ Alfred Heit, On the history of the Jews in Germany in the late Middle Ages and early modern times , 1981, p. 132
  71. ↑ Supplemented from: Kirsten Serup-Bilfeldt, page 92 ff
  72. ↑ Michael Berger, Iron Cross and Star of David
  73. ↑ “No big city has been hit as hard by the war as Cologne. And of all the major German cities it deserved it the least; for nowhere was National Socialism so open until 1933 and so much intellectual resistance since 1933. "; Konrad Adenauer, March 1946, quoted from Werner Jung: The modern Cologne . Bachem, Cologne; 6th edition 2005, ISBN 3-7616-1861-1 , p. 180
  74. ↑ “(...) and it is certainly no coincidence that Hitler did not feel so uncomfortable in any city as in Cologne; the sovereignty of the population is so much in the air that no tyrant, no dictator can feel comfortable in Cologne ”; Heinrich Böll, works; Edited by Bernd Balzer; Kiepenheuer and Witsch, Cologne; 2. Essayist Writings and Speeches 1: 1952–1963, ISBN 3-462-01259-2 ; Pp. 105-106
  75. ^ Herbert Hoven: "Also Tünnes was a Nazi" in: DIE ZEIT, 09/1995
  76. ↑ Jürgen Meyer: De Nazis nit op d'r Schlipsertrodde in: TAZ of February 7, 2005
  77. ↑ Translation: “The Jews are over now, they are slowly emigrating. (...) We laugh half broken for joy. The Itzig and the Sahra move away ” , carnival hit“ Hurra, die Jüdde trecke fott ”by Jean Müller, quoted from Werner Jung: Das Moderne Köln , p. 133
  78. ↑ Michael Vieten: Katz-Rosenthal, Ehrenstrasse 86, Cologne “I hold you tight and you won't let go of me!” Hentrich & Hentrich, Berlin 2017, ISBN 978-3-95565-146-6 .
  79. ↑ Kirsten Serup-Bilfeldt, p. 138 ff.
  80. ↑ Giorgio Sacerdoti: If we don't meet again ... , Prospero Verlag, Münster 2010, ISBN 978-3-941688-00-1 , p. 56 online
  81. ↑ Quoted from Johannes Maubach: Quer durch Ehrenfeld; Ehrenfelder Geschichtspfad part 1. Flock-Druck, Cologne 2001, page 96
  82. ↑ Maubach, p. 96
  83. ↑ Kirsten Serup-Bilfeld, Between the Cathedral and the Star of David. Jewish life in Cologne from the beginning until today. Cologne 2001, page 193
  84. ↑ Federal Archives, Image 183-69809-0002
  85. ↑ Barbara Becker-Jákli: The Jewish Hospital in Cologne , p. 152
  86. ^ Jewish Liberal Congregation Cologne Gescher LaMassoret eV
  87. ^ The rabbis of the ARK. In: ark.de. Retrieved July 22, 2018 .
  88. ↑ See, for example, the stumbling blocks in front of Blumenthalstrasse 23 in memory of Siegmund, Helene and Walter Klein
  89. ^ Adam Wrede, Volume I, page 393
  90. ^ Archaeological Zone: Jewish Museum. In: museenkoeln.de. Retrieved December 10, 2011 .
  91. ↑ David Ohrdorf: Cologne Synagogue is excavated. ( Memento of October 4, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Website of Westdeutscher Rundfunk , accessed on September 14, 2008
  92. ↑ Archaeological Zone and Jewish Museum ( Memento of the original from July 19, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , accessed September 14, 2008 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.koelnarchitektur.de
  93. ↑ Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger from March 1, 2007
  94. ^ Protest against the Jewish Museum . In: Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger . 2013. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
  95. ↑ Daniel Deininger: Initiative: “House of Cologne History” to bring the planned Jewish Museum and City Museum together in one place. In: report-k.de , April 25, 2013, accessed on February 17, 2017.
  96. ↑ Kölner Stadt-Anzeiger: Archaeological Zone. Citizens' petition started on October 23, 2013, accessed on January 13, 2014