Common Army

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Former barracks of the kuk Uhlan Regiment No. 3 in Bielitz, still used by the Polish Armed Forces . The 18th Bielski Batalion Powietrznodesantowy (18th Airborne Battalion) is currently stationed there
Adjustment regulation from 1867 (edition from 1911/12).

The common army was the largest part of the army of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy and consisted of the regular units of the Austrian ( cisleithan ) part of the empire and the troops of the countries of the Hungarian crown . The Common Army formed the land forces of Austria-Hungary together with the kk Landwehr and the ku Honvéd (Hungarian Landwehr) . With the Austro-Hungarian Navy , they formed the armed forces of Austria-Hungary (officially known as the Armed Force or Wehrmacht ).

The armed forces officially called the Common Army by the Austro-Hungarian military administration were simply referred to by the Kaiser and in peacetime laws as an Army and, after 1918, usually called the Austro-Hungarian Army . The Joint Army was established on March 15, 1867, after the Austro-Hungarian Compromise , and was disbanded on October 31, 1918, when the Hungarian troops left. During the First World War, all land and naval forces of the monarchy were subordinate to the Army High Command established in 1914 .

history

Naming

Up until 1889, the armed forces carried the rating kk ( imperial-royal , since 1867 actually misleading for a common institution of both halves of the empire). Only at the express request of Hungary was the law of April 11, 1889 introduced the designation kuk also for the army in order to make the difference between the kk Landwehr and the ku Honvéd (the Hungarian Landwehr) clearer. In the navy, kuk was used less often, since there was only this one formation of naval forces.

Common institution

After the Austro-Hungarian compromise of March 15, 1867, the army and navy were no longer institutions of a unitary state, but of the new dual monarchy, which consisted of two equal parts: the Austrian Empire ( Cisleithanien ) and the Austrian Empire, which was no longer subordinate to it, but linked in real union Kingdom of Hungary ( Transleithanien ).

Emperor Franz Joseph I - until then Emperor of Austria , King of Hungary , Bohemia, Croatia, Dalmatia and Galicia etc. - from then on used the designation Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary . The supreme command remained with the monarch, who communicated with the army through the newly established military chancellery of His Majesty the Emperor and King . The Austro-Hungarian War Ministry , known as the Reich Ministry of War until 1911, was responsible for the administration and maintenance of the system of the army (and the navy), and the general staff belonging to it was responsible for the strategy. The chief of staff had the right to speak directly to the monarch.

Main body of armed force

The Austrian law of April 11, 1889, with which the Defense Act of 1868, amended in 1882, was renewed (a law with the same content was passed in Hungary), stipulated in § 2:

The armed power is divided into the army, the navy, the Landwehr and the Landsturm.

In § 14 the annual contingent of recruits for the army and navy was set at 103,000 men; 60,389 of these came from the kingdoms and countries represented in the Imperial Council . The contingent of recruits for the Austrian Landwehr appointed to defend the territory was 10,000 men. The quotas had to be adjusted to requirements every ten years through political agreements between Austria and Hungary and through corresponding laws. The Austrian Landwehr and the Hungarian Honvéd were not subordinate to the Minister of War, but to the Imperial and Royal Minister for National Defense (Landwehr Minister ) or his royal Hungarian counterpart , unofficially called Honvédminister.

financing

In all common affairs, including the common army, there was a fixed cost allocation between the two parts of the empire. From 1867 onwards that was 30% of the total costs for Hungary. This quota was increased to 31.4% in the compensation negotiations in 1888 and to 36.4% in 1907. The total expenditure for the army, land forces and navy in 1912 was around 670 million crowns. That was less than 3.5% of the total national income, in 1906 it was only 2.5%. In Russia , Italy and Germany , spending in 1912 was about 5% of net national product. Austria-Hungary remained the great power with the relatively lowest expenditure on its armed forces.

Neglect and wishes for division

During the long period of peace in the last decades of the 19th century, the army and navy were increasingly neglected. Military spending was not very popular in the Austrian Reichsrat or in the Hungarian Reichstag , at least for the joint armed forces. The urgently needed modernization of the army was delayed again and again. This was to have a negative impact on the mobilization in 1914. (The mountain troops of the Imperial and Royal Landwehr, on the other hand, were exceptional and very well equipped.)

The Hungarian politicians repeatedly called for a separate Hungarian army. In the compromise of 1867, the monarch agreed to a compromise: the two halves of the empire should be allowed to set up their own territorial forces in addition to the common army. Hungary then immediately began to set up the Royal Hungarian Landwehr, mostly referred to in German by their Magyar name Honvéd .

Emperor and King Franz Joseph I, however, stayed mainly with the uniformity of the army and the navy, which was fixed in the settlement and confirmed this after new advances by the Hungarians in 1903 in the army order from Chlopy (a maneuvering place in Galicia ):

True to their oath, my entire armed forces will advance on the path of serious fulfillment of duty, permeated by that spirit of unity and harmony, which respects every national peculiarity and resolves all contradictions by utilizing the special advantages of each ethnic group for the good of the whole. [...] My army shall remain together and unified as it is.

Franz Ferdinand's reforms

When Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne , was entrusted by the Emperor with an analysis of the armed power of the monarchy in 1898, he quickly realized that there was a need to catch up, as well as the need to rejuvenate the outdated general staff. In 1906, the 76-year-old Kaiser agreed to Franz Ferdinand's proposal to replace the 76-year-old Chief of Staff Friedrich von Beck-Rzikowsky with the 54-year-old Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf , and the heir to the throne immediately set about modernizing structures and processes with Conrad .

The 65-year-old Minister of War Heinrich von Pitreich was also replaced in 1906 at the request of the heir to the throne. In 1913 the emperor appointed the heir to the throne as inspector general of all armed forces .

The investment proposals of the heir to the throne were only partially implemented for political reasons; During the First World War, the Austro-Hungarian army was far worse equipped than the armed forces of the allied German Reich .

The lack of funding for the armed forces led to a shortage of officers at the beginning of the 20th century. Even if they represented a highly respected social class in the Danube Monarchy, the meager pay, which only improved from high ranks, made the officer profession less attractive. The majority of the lower-ranking officers remained unmarried for financial reasons. The number of cadets fell from around 3,300 in 1897 to around 1,900 in 1913. This ultimately led to a reduction in the level of requirements and performance.

The case of war

The land forces had only experienced one emergency from 1867 to 1914: the occupation campaign in Bosnia , after this occupation had been approved by the Berlin Congress in 1878. The mission came about because armed resistance had to be overcome. In 1908 parts of the Joint Army were mobilized to suppress the uprising in Bosnia-Herzegovina .

After the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the 84-year-old Kaiser appointed Archduke Friedrich as army commander in the summer of 1914 , as he himself had not claimed the supreme command in the war since 1859. As agreed, Friedrich left all operational decisions to his chief of staff, Conrad. After his accession to the throne in November 1916, Charles I took over the supreme command again on December 2, 1916.

On the role of the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I see:

organization

kuk cavalry around 1900

The common army was one of the prerogatives of the emperor and king, who held the supreme command . The monarch appointed and removed the Minister of War and all officers. Only he was constitutionally authorized to declare war.

In addition to the Joint Army, there were:

The Common Army and the Navy were administered by the Reich Minister of War (from September 20, 1911 Austro-Hungarian War Minister ) in Vienna, who was directly subordinate to the Emperor and King. The two land forces were administered by the national defense minister of the kk government in Vienna and his counterpart in the ku government in Budapest . In 1915, all additional designations and honorary names of the regiments, which from then on should only be referred to with their number, but this could not be enforced in practice, on the one hand, because nobody cared about it and on the other hand, because the very economical kuk military administration had ordered that all existing stamps and letterhead had to be used up first.

Recruitment and Garrison

In contrast to the Imperial and Royal Landwehr and the Imperial and Royal Landwehr, the Joint Army and the Kriegsmarine recruited their soldiers from all over the Dual Monarchy (however, the majority of the soldiers in the Kriegsmarine came from the area around Trieste and the rest of the coast - in the navy mostly Italian was spoken), thus from the cisleithan as well as from the transleithan half of the empire . All troops that did not come from the Kingdom of Hungary (including Upper Hungary , Transylvania and Banat ) or from the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia , which belonged to the countries of the Hungarian Crown , were referred to as "German regiments", regardless of whether they were Poles or Croats or Italian-speaking Tyroleans acted, all others were referred to as "Hungarian regiments". The “German regiments” and the “Hungarian regiments” differed in their uniforms ; however, the designation did not say anything about the languages ​​used in the regiments (see section Languages).

  • 57 infantry regiments were called " German regiments"
  • 45 infantry regiments were called " Hungarian regiments".
  • 4 infantry regiments ( Bosnian-Herzegovinian infantry ) had a special position in terms of both uniform and language.
  • The infantry rifle battalions were organized according to the same system
  • Artillery, pioneers, train and cavalry were also mostly grouped according to the country team's focus, but the designative additions to the unit name were missing.
  • In the cavalry, all hussars came from the countries of the Hungarian crown (with Hungarian, Slovak, Romanian, Croatian and German mother tongue), the Uhlans from Galicia (with Polish and Ukrainian mother tongue), the dragoons all from the German-Austrian crown lands and from Bohemia and Moravia (with Czech and German mother tongue).

The "armed power" (army, navy, landwehr, Honvéd) was under the supreme command of the emperor and king in his function as "supreme warlord". After the hapless command of the troops by Emperor Franz Joseph I in Italy in 1859, this designation had a formal meaning, since the monarch then withdrew from active command of the troops and from then on the actual command of the army in times of peace at the Ministry of War in Vienna and in World War I. Army Commander-in-Chief Archduke Friedrich and his Chief of Staff Conrad were appointed for the war . On December 2, 1916, Emperor Karl I personally took over the supreme command again. Franz Joseph I did not visit the troops, but during his travels in the monarchy he made contact with the regiments there and took part in the annual imperial maneuvers until old age ; in addition, he showed himself only in field marshal's uniform at home to show his solidarity with his soldiers. The 30-year-old Emperor Karl I took the term commander-in-chief very seriously after he came to the throne in the middle of the war and tirelessly visited the front and troops.

A special feature of the common army was the frequent change of troop locations in the first decades . The battalions of the individual regiments were relocated to other locations at very short intervals. (In 1910 only three infantry regiments of the Common Army were completely stationed in one garrison : Infantry Regiment No. 14 in Linz , Infantry Regiment No. 30 in Lemberg, and Infantry Regiment No. 41 in Czernowitz .) So no traditional relationship between the regiments could be determined Places and their populations form (as it was, for example, promoted in the individual armies of the German Reich). The relocated soldiers often served at the other end of the empire, with the aim of ensuring that there would be no fraternization with the population in the event of internal unrest .

The diversified deployment was also the result of a lack of barracks . This went so far that even individual companies had to be separated from their battalions and housed separately. After major efforts had been made in the years before the First World War to build new barracks and to renovate existing ones, this practice could be severely restricted.

Steyr M1912
M1895 / 30
Schwarzlose MG M.07 / 12

Armament

After the defeat at Königgrätz , the emperor and army command endeavored to draw the consequences of the defeat in the field of armament, equipment and uniforms, as well as with regard to the organization of the army and raising the army. The introduction of breech-loading rifles , which had been delayed for a long time, happened very quickly , as their use on the Prussian side was ascribed a decisive factor in the war. The previous Lorenz muzzle-loading system was redesigned into breech- loaders based on a proposal by the Viennese gunsmith Karl Wänzel . The infantry rifles, extra corps rifles and Jägerstutzen converted to single-shot breeches were standardized under the designation "Muster 1854/67" and "Muster 1862/67" and issued to the respective branches of arms. However, the Wänzel system should not go beyond the state of a temporary emergency solution. As a result, the tabernacle closure developed by Josef Werndl represented a completely new solution; it was a downright pioneering closure system . This corrugated block closure with a loading recess for breech-loading rifles subsequently made the Österreichische Waffenfabriksgesellschaft in Steyr the largest arms manufacturer in Europe at the time . The handguns of the Werndl system standardized on the basis of this were introduced with the designation M1867, M1873, M1867 / 77 and "M1873 / 77" and formed the standard armament of the Austro-Hungarian infantry and cavalry for more than twenty years.

The next big leap in the development of the handgun was the transition from the single-shot breech loader to the repeating rifle . The system developed by Ferdinand Mannlicher had a straight-pull piston lock and a box magazine for five cartridges in the center shaft . This weapon system, standardized in the Austro-Hungarian Army for the first time in 1886, was one of the most modern weapons in the world at that time and, as an improved version M1895 , formed the orderly rifle of the Austro-Hungarian soldier until the end of the First World War . The rifle was manufactured by the Steyr Mannlicher company in Austria and around three million times in Hungary.

In addition to firearms, a number of edged weapons were standardized between 1861 and the end of the Habsburg Monarchy . These were the cavalry officer and team sabers M1861, M1869 and M1904, the light cavalry saber M1877, the infantry officer and team sabers M1862 and the sabers for officers and men of the Imperial and Royal Landwehr mountain troops, although these sabers were also used between the World Wars used by the Viennese police . Furthermore, the pioneer saber M1853 was standardized, but with its wide, heavy blade it had more of the function of a cutting tool than that of a weapon. All of the above-mentioned edged weapons are exhibited in the Vienna Army History Museum .

There are two stages in the development of handguns . Instead of the previous einschüssigen muzzle-loading pistol which was in 1870 Revolver introduced. These were the two large-caliber M1870 army revolvers developed by Leopold Gasser and the M1870 / 74 model, which was improved four years later. The 9 mm infantry officer's revolver System Gasser / Kopratschek (1872) and the 8 mm Rast & Gasser M1898 revolver were also added. Subsequently, the multi-shot repeating pistol was switched to, namely the 9 mm self-loading pistol Roth-Steyr M1907 and the Steyr M1912 . Both pistols are rigidly locked recoil loaders for strip loading with a magazine for ten or eight cartridges in the handle.

From the end of the 19th century, several countries were working on the development of the machine gun . In Austria-Hungary around 1890 Archduke Karl Salvator developed so-called mitrailleuses together with Major Georg Ritter von Dormus . These first models are exhibited in the Army History Museum in Vienna. However, the technically highly ambitious developments turned out to be unsuitable for the field, so finally in 1907 the machine gun developed by Andreas Schwarzlose was introduced under the model designation M1907 and M1907 / 12. Both the repeating pistols described above and the Schwarzlose machine gun were used by the Austrian Armed Forces until 1938 after the Austro-Hungarian Army was dissolved in 1918 .

Troop flags

Only two types of troop flags were used in the Austro-Hungarian Land Forces of the Joint Army.

  • The regiments and battalions carried a white, rectangular flag leaf on the front of which was the imperial eagle with the coats of arms of all kingdoms and countries and on the back a depiction of the Immaculate Mother of God in a halo with twelve golden stars around her head.
  • The infantry regiments No. 2, 4, 39, 41 and 57 carried a rectangular double-sided imperial yellow flag with the imperial coat of arms on both the front and the back.

Both types of flags were adorned on three sides by a four-inch wide woven border of red, silver, black, and gold flames in an even sequence. A tuft of oak leaves was attached to the top of the flag for the parade. This should have a height of approx. 13 cm. The flag leaves were made of silk and had the dimensions of 132 × 176 cm.

They were put together from two parts, i. H. the back of the yellow flags was not mirrored.

  • Troop flag of the "Common Army" in white (front)

  • Troop flag of the "Common Army" in white (back)

  • Troop flag of the "Common Army" in yellow (both sides the same)

Conscription

Since 1866 the general conscription existed . From 1868 it was defined by agreed, identical laws of the Austrian and Hungarian halves of the empire. It included service in the army, the navy, the Landwehr and the Landsturm.

The duration of service in the standing army was 12 years:

3 years in the line (active)
7 years in reserve
2 years in the non-active Landwehr
kuk infantry around 1900

Annual voluntary service was permitted both in the army (or in the navy) and in the Landwehr. The one-year-old volunteer received no wages and had to procure the equipment (including horse, if applicable) himself. General compulsory service began at the age of 21. All persons between the ages of 19 and 42 were required to take part in a land storm unless they belonged to the army, the Landwehr and the reserve reserve.

oath

According to the service regulations for the Imperial and Royal Army (Part I, Service Book A-10, a) from 1873, all soldiers in the Austro-Hungarian Army had to take the following oath:

“We swear to Almighty God a solemn oath to be faithful and obedient to His Apostolic Majesty, our Most Serene Prince and Lord, Franz Joseph the First, by God's grace Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia etc. and Apostolic King of Hungary, also Most High To obey their generals, in general to all our superiors and superiors, to honor and protect them, to obey their commands and orders in all services, against every enemy, whoever it may be, and wherever His Imperial and Royal Majesty's will require it like to fight bravely and manly, on water and on land, day and night, in battles, storms, skirmishes and ventures of all kinds, in a word, in every place, at every time and in all occasions, our troops, our flags Never to abandon standards and artillery, never to enter into the least agreement with the enemy, always like war is in accordance with the law, and good warriors are entitled to behave, and thus to live and die with honor. So help us God. Amen!"

The oath for the members of the armed forces was completely the same with one exception: after “Apostolic King of Hungary” was inserted “and the sanctioned laws of our fatherland” , which, in contrast to the army, the armed forces not only on the monarch, but also on the state constitutions were committed.

This oath was spoken to the respective recruits in eleven languages ​​if required.

Military chaplaincy

Since the army was supposed to be a pillar of the dual monarchy, national and religious peculiarities were not taken into account when the draft was called up. On the other hand, the religious regulations of the various denominations were meticulously observed during the service. Religious disputes between z. B. Serbian (Orthodox) and Bosnian-Herzegovinian (Muslim) soldiers unlike today unknown. For the soldiers of Jewish faith had its own field rabbi , for the Islamic faith field imams . There was also military chaplaincy for soldiers of the Greek Orthodox faith.

Peace Presence in July 1914

Corps areas and supplementary districts of Austria-Hungary

Infantry:

  • 102 infantry regiments of four battalions each
  • 4 Bosnian-Herzegovinian infantry regiments of three battalions each
  • 4 Tyrolean hunter regiments ( Kaiserjäger ) of four battalions each
  • 32 military police battalions and 1 Bosnian-Herzegovinian military police battalion

Cavalry:

The only difference between heavy (lancers) and light (hussars, dragoons) cavalry was the uniforms and the naming based on purely traditional reasons.

Artillery :

Train troop:

Technical force:

Increased personnel in the event of mobilization and losses during acts of war were replaced by the marching battalions . The system of reserve regiments as in the German army did not exist.

languages

In the multi-ethnic state of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, German was established as the common command language. Every soldier had to master the roughly 100 relevant commands in German, which were necessary to keep the service going . Only a small part of the army units spoke exclusively German; in the Navy, most of the crews spoke Italian.

The official language was used for communication between the military services. She was German in the Common Army and in the Imperial and Royal Landwehr, and Hungarian in the Honvéd.

The regimental language was used for communication within a regiment. It was the language that was spoken by the majority of the team. If, as with the 100th Infantry Regiment in Cracow, the crew was composed of 27% Germans, 33% Czechs and 37% Poles, then there were three regimental languages. Every officer had to learn the regimental language (s) in three years. A total of eleven languages ​​were officially recognized in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.

kuk field artillery around 1900
Uniforms of the Austro-Hungarian Army in the Army History Museum in Vienna

Purely German-speaking infantry regiments were only:

Nationalities: 97% German - 3% other
(Staff / I. / III. / IV. Battalion: Graz; II.Baon .: Klagenfurt )
Nationalities: 95% German - 5% other
(Staff / II. / III. Battalion in Vienna ; I. Baon .: Wöllersdorf ; IV. Baon .: Konjic )
Nationalities: 98% German - 2% other
  • Imperial and Royal Infantry Regiment "Albert I, King of the Belgians" No. 27
Nationalities: 94% German - 6% other
(Staff / I. / II. / IV. Battalion: Laibach ; III. Baon .: Graz )
  • Imperial and Royal Infantry Regiment "Freiherr von Hess" No. 49
Nationalities: 98% German - 2% other
(Staff / I. / II. Battalion: Brno ; III. Baon .: Sarajevo ; IV. Baon .: St. Pölten )
Nationalities: 97% German - 3% other
(Staff / I. Battalion: Bregenz ; II. Baon .: Innsbruck ; III. Baon .: Schwaz ; IV. Baon .: Salzburg )
Nationalities: 97% German - 3% other
(Staff / I. / II. / III. Battalion: Prague ; IV. Baon .: Eger in Bohemia )

Badge of rank

Orders and awards (examples)

The medal of a platoon leader of the 2nd regiment of the Tyrolean Kaiserjäger

The medals and awards listed here are:

  • the large silver medal for bravery ( Karl I./IV. , awarded after January 1917)
  • the small silver medal for bravery (Charles I, awarded after January 1917)
  • the bronze medal for bravery (Franz Joseph. I., awarded before January 1917)
  • the Karl-Troop Cross ; Prerequisites for the award were at least 12 weeks at the front and participation in at least one battle.
  • the wounded medal (wounded medal); the medal was awarded after the first wound suffered (after January 1917)
  • the commemorative medal of the state of Tyrol for its defenders

particularities

Presentation posture
March past

The armed forces of Austria-Hungary differed fundamentally from those of most other countries in one aspect: the rifle was always carried on the strap over the right shoulder and never on the shoulder itself. When marching past, the entire fist grasped the rifle sling at the height of the belt. The rifle was also not presented in front of it, instead it hung on the strap over the right shoulder, the right hand grasped the buttock neck and pushed the rifle slightly backwards.

Museum reception

The history of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces is documented in detail in the Army History Museum in Vienna, founded by Emperor Franz Joseph I as the “ Imperial and Royal Court Weapons Museum” . Particularly noteworthy are the 34 uniform depictions of the Austro-Hungarian Army painted by Oskar Brüch , which were made for the Budapest Millennium Exhibition in 1896 . In the hall V ( "Franz-Joseph-Hall") further is the museum a complete compilation of the introduced during the period 1867-1914 in the common army what has been edged weapons , hand-held and hand guns and machine guns , of which the majority of the Austrian also to equip -Hungarian troops counted during World War I, exhibited. The extensive collection of uniforms in the exhibition, where almost all arms of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces are represented, illustrates the colorful image of these troops in the second half of the 19th century.

Commemoration

The Deutschmeister monument was erected in Vienna in 1896 . The soldiers who fell in the army are commemorated with the “Heldentor” in Vienna and war memorials throughout the country. The graves of those who died are tended to this day in the Isonzo Valley in Slovenia as well as in South Tyrol , Ukraine and Galicia .

In these schematics , which were published between 1877 and 1914 , the structure, units and command positions of the armed forces of Austria-Hungary were compiled up to date.

The army in literature

The outstanding role played by the military in Austria-Hungary was discussed by authors. Arthur Schnitzler's novella Leutnant Gustl , in which the officers' exaggerated presentations of honor and the duel were criticized, cost the author his rank as senior physician in the reserve in 1901. Karl Kraus castigated 1915–1922 in his monumental drama The Last Days of Mankind the lust for war of many in old Austria and used numerous original quotations from the war. Radetzkymarsch by Joseph Roth , published in 1932, describes the life and fate of a young officer whose grandfather once saved the emperor's life in a battle in Italy. Franz Theodor Csokor published the drama November 3, 1918 in 1936 , which exemplifies the disintegration of the multinational army. The Czech author Jaroslav Hašek wrote his very successful novel The Brave Soldat Schwejk from 1921–1923 , which showed how a member of the lower class made military service as pleasant as possible with naivety and peasant cunning.

See also

literature

  • Peter Melichar , Alexander Mejstrik: The armed power. In: Helmut Rumpler , Peter Urbanitsch (eds.): The Habsburg Monarchy 1948–1918. Volume IX: Social Structures. Part 1, Volume 2, Verlag der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna 2010, pp. 1263–1326.
  • Christa Hämmerle: The k. (u.) k. Army as a 'school of the people'? On the history of general conscription in the multinational Habsburg monarchy (1866–1914/18). In: Christian Jansen (Ed.): The citizen as a soldier. The Militarization of European Societies in the Long 19th Century: An International Comparison. Essen 2004, pp. 175-213.
  • Laurence Cole, Christa Hämmerle, Martin Scheutz (eds.): Shine - violence - obedience. Military and Society in the Habsburg Monarchy (1800 to 1918). Klartext, Essen 2011, ISBN 978-3-8375-0409-5 .
  • Manfried Rauchsteiner : The death of the double-headed eagle: Austria-Hungary and the First World War. 2nd Edition. Verlag Styria, Graz 1994, ISBN 3-222-12116-8 .
  • Manfried Rauchsteiner: Austria-Hungary and the First World War: illustrated book. Steirische Verlagsgesellschaft, Graz 1998.
  • Heinz von Lichem: The Tyrolean High Mountain War 1915–1918 . Steiger Verlag, Berwang (Tyrol) 1985, ISBN 3-85423-052-4 .
  • Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck : The armed power in the state and society. In: Adam Wandruszka, Peter Urbanitsch (Ed.): The armed power. (= The Habsburg Monarchy (1848–1918). 5). Vienna 1987, ISBN 3-7001-1122-3 , pp. 1–141.
  • Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck, Erich Lessing: The Kuk Army. 1848-1914 . Bertelsmann publishing house, Munich 1974, ISBN 3-570-07287-8 .
  • Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck: The Army History Museum Vienna. Hall VI - The k. (U.) K. Army from 1867-1914. Vienna 1989.
  • Austro-Hungarian War Ministry: Dislocation and division of the Austro-Hungarian Army, the Austro-Hungarian Navy, the Imperial and Royal Landwehr and the Imperial and Royal Landwehr. In: Seidel's small army scheme. Seidel & Sohn, Vienna 1914.
  • Austro-Hungarian War Ministry: Adjustment regulation for the Austro-Hungarian Army, the Imperial and Royal Landwehr, the Imperial and Royal Landwehr, the affiliated institutions and the corps of military officials. Vienna 1911/1912.
  • Glenn Jewison, Jörg C. Steiner: The Austro-Hungarian Land Forces 1848-1918.
  • Heinz von Lichem: Spielhahnstoss and Edelweiss - the peace and war history of the Tyrolean high mountain troop "The Kaiserschützen" from their beginnings to 1918. Stocker Verlag, Graz 1977, ISBN 3-7020-0260-X .
  • Anton Bossi Fedrigotti : Kaiserjäger. Stocker Verlag, Graz 1977.
  • Julius Lohmeyer: The military picture book - The armies of Europe. Carl Flemming Verlag, Glogau o. J.
  • Hubert Frankhauser, Wilfried Gallin: Undefeated and yet defeated. The mountain war on the Carinthian border 1915–1917. Verlagbuchhandlung Stöhr, Vienna 2005, ISBN 3-901208-48-8 .
  • Peter Fichtenbauer , Christian Ortner : The history of the Austrian army from Maria Theresa to the present in essays and pictorial representations , Verlag Militaria, Vienna 2015, ISBN 978-3-902526-71-7
  • Christian Ortner , Hermann Hinterstoisser: The Austro-Hungarian Army in the First World War. Uniforms and equipment , Verlag Militaria, Vienna 2013, 2 volumes, ISBN 978-3-902526-63-2 .
  • Stefan Rest, M. Christian Ortner , Thomas Ilming: The emperor's rock in the First World War - uniforms and equipment of the Austro-Hungarian army from 1914 to 1918. Verlag Militaria, Vienna 2002, ISBN 3-9501642-0-0 .
  • Oskar Brüch , Günter Dirrheimer: Writings of the Army History Museum in Vienna. Volume 10: The kuk Heer 1895. Military Science Institute, Stocker Verlag, Graz 1997, ISBN 3-7020-0783-0 .
  • Adam Wandruszka (Ed.): The Habsburg Monarchy 1848–1918 / The armed power. Volume V, Publishing House of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 1987, ISBN 3-7001-1122-3 .
  • Peter Urbanitsch , Helmut Rumpler (ed.): The Habsburg Monarchy 1848–1918 / Constitution and Parliamentarism: Constitutional law, constitutional reality, central representative bodies. Volume VII, Publishing House of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna 2000, ISBN 3-7001-2869-X .
  • Alphons Frhr. v. Wrede: History of the KuK Wehrmacht from 1618 to the end of the XIX century Vienna, 1898–1905.

Web links

Commons : Military Uniforms in Austria-Hungary  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ so in the highest army order , Chlopy, September 16, 1903, printed in the daily newspaper: Wiener Zeitung , No. 213, September 18, 1903, p. 1.
  2. ↑ Here the “and” was inserted to emphasize the two states
  3. ↑ RGBl. No. 41/1889 (= p. 93 f.)
  4. ↑ Günther Kronenbitter: "War in Peace". The leadership of the Austro-Hungarian army and the great power politics of Austria-Hungary 1906–1914 . Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-486-56700-4 , p. 150.
  5. ↑ Günther Kronenbitter: "War in Peace". The leadership of the Austro-Hungarian army and the great power politics of Austria-Hungary 1906–1914 . Verlag Oldenbourg, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-486-56700-4 , p. 148.
  6. ↑ see note 1
  7. ↑ Peter Urbanitsch, Helmut Rumpler (ed.): The Habsburg Monarchy 1848–1918 / Constitution and Parliamentarism: Constitutional Law, Constitutional Reality, Central Representative Bodies. Volume VII, Part 1, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna 2000, p. 527.
  8. ↑ Heinrich Freiherr von Pitreich: My relations with the army demands of Hungary joined dermaliger with the consideration of international situation. Vienna 1911, p. 11. In: Gunther Erich Rothenberg: The Army of Francis Joseph. Purdue University Press, 1998, ISBN 1-55753-145-5 .
  9. ↑ Manfried Rauchsteiner: The First World War and the End of the Habsburg Monarchy , Vienna, 2013, pp. 58–60
  10. ↑ according to “Announcement of the Quartermaster's Department” of Army Group Command FM. Archduke Eugen / Q.Op. No. 665/15. Issued by the field post office 512
  11. ↑ Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck : The Army History Museum Vienna. Hall VI - The k. (U.) K. Army from 1867-1914. Vienna 1989, pp. 33-35.
  12. ↑ kuk adjustment regulation part I, 2nd section p. 23 "flags and standards"
  13. ↑ Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck: The Army History Museum Vienna. Hall VI - The k. (U.) K. Army from 1867-1914. Vienna 1989, p. 51 f.
  14. ↑ A division was understood here to mean an association of battalion strength. As such, divisions were called “troop divisions”
  15. ↑ mlorenz.at
  16. ^ Manfried Rauchsteiner , Manfred Litscher (Ed.): The Army History Museum in Vienna. Graz / Vienna 2000, pp. 56-71.
  17. ↑ Johann Christoph Allmayer-Beck: The Army History Museum Vienna. Hall VI - The k. (U.) K. Army from 1867-1914. Vienna 1989, p. 33.