Pannonia (province)

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Roman Pannonia

Pannonia ( Latin Pannonia ) was a province of the Roman Empire from 9 to 433 AD and was called Illyricum inferius until the middle of the 1st century . The province covered the western half of present-day Hungary , the Burgenland , parts of Eastern Styria , the Vienna Basin , the region Srem in Serbia as well as between Drava (Dravus) and Save (Savus) Located territory of present-day Slovenia and Croatia. In 103 the province was divided into two parts, by 300 it was divided into four and in 433 it was finally ceded to the Huns under Attila .

The name Pannonia

The Roman senator, consul and historian Cassius Dio was governor of the province of Pannonia superior in the years 226–228 AD. He derived the name Pannonia from the poor clothes of the locals, who were characterized and mocked with it, and wrote: “The name is derived from the fact that their sleeves tunics are made from pieces of old clothing that they cut into strips and sew together and Panni (Latin for rags, cloth). ”The Hungarian classical scholar Karl Kerényi (1897–1973) traced the name back to Pan , the god of fertility .

The Austrian regional archaeologist Karl Kaus (1940-2015), however, derived Pannonia from "* pen" - "moist". According to this, Pannonia would mean “damp, swampy land” . It should be noted, however, that the name "Pannonia" or the location to be understood by it has changed again and again over the years. Therefore, the term is not used uniformly in the various disciplines of science (for example, history, geology, climatology, botany, etc.).

The population before the arrival of the Romans

Pannonia shortly before / after the arrival of the Romans. The map does not reflect the latest research in detail.

In the last centuries BC, the area was the settlement area of ​​the Illyrians , who were called Pannonians by the Romans and gave their name to the province. According to contemporary writings, the Illyrians were not held in high esteem by the Romans, they were described as robbers and thieves. At the turn of the ages the Illyrians almost invariably and homogeneously settled the south of Pannonia. Only the Azali tribe had evidently emigrated to the north and had taken over the area between the Raab (Arrabo) and the western foothills of the Pilis Mountains south of the Danube bank . Otherwise, almost without exception, Celtic peoples were at home in the northern part of the province at this time. The largest ethnic group in the north-west of the country was the Boier around Lake Neusiedl , followed by the residences of the Arabiates , localized in 1969 by the archaeologist András Mócsy (1929–1987) , to the south, followed by the Tauriski , whose southern border with the Serretes territory and thus connected to that of the Illyrian tribes. To the south of Lake Balaton , part of the Celtic Cotini were at home, while along the Pannonian eastern border - from north to south down the Danube - to the west of the Csepel Island lay the late Celtic Eraviski and a little further south the areas of the Hercumiates . Here, as well as in the area of ​​the Arabiates, there were still sprinkles of the Illyrics. Of these, in addition to the Serretes, the following tribes were native to the north and south of the Drava from west to east: Serapilli , Iasi and Andizetes . The Cornacates adjoining this tribe have been identified by science as a pseudo-ethnic group, which was named after the Roman fort Cornacum . The Cornacates were not organized until the Roman invasion. Their territory, a civitas peregrina , can be determined by an inscription discovered near Sirmium and by the place name Cornacum . The Illyrian Amantini had their home to the south-east of Cornacum on the south bank of the Danube, which flows there from west to east . From the east the Dacians settled the Pannonian Plain as far as the Danube. To a lesser extent, some Dacians also moved further north-west.

Roman province

Conquest and construction

From the support of Mark Antony by the Dacians in the dispute with Augustus until 29 BC. BC wars devastated large parts of Illyria . The Roman legions conquered in the course of the fighting until the Dalmatian coast and later, the Illyrian hinterland to the Drava . Subsequently, the land became from 12 to 9 BC. Conquered in three campaigns by Tiberius , stepson of Augustus, in the First Pannonian War . In addition to the expansion policy, which was still in the foreground at the time, economic considerations were also the reason. In the region there was a well-known iron production from lawn iron stone and good agricultural yield. After the Pannonian uprising 6 to 9 AD was suppressed by Tiberius, the Illyricum Inferius came under military administration. This was based in Carnuntum ( Petronell ). Probably already during the reign of Tiberius (14–37), who was appointed emperor, the expansion of the then economically important Amber Road began . After its completion, it led via Carnuntum , Scarabantia ( Sopron / Ödenburg), Savaria ( Szombathely / Steinamanger) and Poetovio ( Ptuj / Pettau) to Italy. Possibly during the reign of Emperor Claudius (41-54), Illyria was converted into the province of Pannonia and a civil administration was introduced.

In addition to the resettlement of parts of the late Celtic Eravisker from the Aquincum ( Budapest ) area after the Pannonian uprising, the Roman policy towards the Sarmatian cavalry warriors of the Jazygens who immigrated in the beginning of the 1st century AD was of great importance for the political and military situation of the generations to come. Around 20 AD, Rome encouraged the settlement of the Jazygens in the Great Hungarian Plain east of the Danube . Those in charge hoped to win an ally with the Jazygen who would fend off future Dacian attacks from the eastern flank of Pannonia in advance. However, this hope was not fulfilled. The Jazygens quickly developed very good relations with the Germanic Quads who settled in front of the northern Danube front and which lasted for centuries. Both nations have invaded several times over the next two centuries Pannonia and burned, so the 92nd when she n. Chr together with the Germanic Marcomanni in the military camp Brigetio stationed Legio XXI Rapax completely aufrieben. The then reigning Flavian Emperor Domitian (81–96) succeeded in throwing his opponents back behind the Danube, but he could not weaken them militarily. To secure the balance of power, the Flavians (69–96) made the Pannonian Danube Limes ( Limes Pannonicus ) continuously controllable for the first time with the construction of a large number of wood-earth camps .

In order to ensure the supply of the cities and garrisons, the land was reclaimed with the help of Villae rusticae . These farms of varying sizes were often run by veterans.

Wars and prosperity

The border shifts of Pannonia with the legionary camps, deduction colonies and the Amber Road between the 1st and 4th centuries

The Danube limit Pannonia the Limes Pannonicus , was from the first up to the advanced third century n. Chr. By regular auxiliaries (Auxilia) in cohort starch and one each legion in Vindobona ( Wien ), Carnuntum , Brigetio ( KOMÁROM -Szőny) and Aquincum ( Budapest ) defended.

During the reign of Emperor Trajan (98-117), the province of Pannonia was divided into two parts:

  • Pannonia superior (Upper Pannonia) in the west, capital Savaria
  • Pannonia inferior (Lower Pannonia) in the east, capital Aquincum

The ancient historian Rudolf Haensch stated in 1997 that the possible official seats of the province of Upper Pannonia, in addition to Savaria, were Carnuntum or Poetovio. In Savaria, archaeological evidence was found for the temples and buildings of the imperial cult typical of provincial capitals and documents of its priesthood.

According to Claudius Ptolemy, the border was drawn between Brigetio and the Crumerum fort ( Nyergesújfalu ) and went south through the country. At some point during the first half of the 2nd century there was another change in the boundary. The provincial border has now been moved to the east between the forts Cirpi and Ulcisia Castra south of the Danube Bend . This brought among other things the settlement area of ​​the native Azali around the Fort Solva ( Esztergom / Gran) to Upper Pannonia. Then the border remained unchanged until another shift during the reign of Emperor Caracalla (211-217).

Important cities in Upper Pannonia were, in addition to Savaria, the deduction colonies Carnuntum, Brigetio and Siscia ( Sisak ) and Poetovio in the hinterland. In Lower Pannonia, apart from Aquincum, Mursa ( Osijek / Esseg) and Sirmium ( Sremska Mitrovica / Mitrowitz) are colonia . There were also some urban municipalities that made significant contributions to the settlement of the provinces and grew into regional trading centers.

After the provincial division, the first Lower Pannonian governor and later Emperor Hadrian (117-138) had to wage another war against the cataphracts and archers of the Jazygen in AD 107 .

During the Marcomann Wars (166-180) under Emperor Marcus Aurelius (161-180), the Jazyges were the main Roman opponents alongside the Germanic Marcomanns , Quads and Vandals . In the year 171 marcomanni, quaden and jazygen crossed the Danube and devastated the Pannonian border regions and marched on Italy. The Quads not only supported the Marcomanni, but also provided military aid to the Jazygen. They used the simultaneous unrest among the Germanic peoples to repeatedly lead raids across the river border. In the course of their pillage in the Pannonian area, many people were also abducted. Between 171 and 175, Marcus Aurelius made a counter-attack. In the face of massive, well-organized resistance, enemy settlements were destroyed, the population enslaved and killed, and their property removed. Hard peace treaties were supposed to curb the enemy. But the three opponents believed to have been defeated did not keep to contracts. Obviously, Marcomanni, Quadi and Jazygen raided numerous Pannonian fort sites again only a few years later. In 179 the Iža-Leányvár bridgehead fort , which was set up during the First Marcomann War and located opposite the Brigetio legionary camp, was overrun and burned down. As a result, the Roman army marched again with 20,000 men in the areas of the Teutons and Sarmatians, this time with the aim of depriving the enemy of any livelihood. Therefore, the Romans settled in the occupied territories and, among other things, closed their borders to the outside in order to prevent all escape opportunities and help from outside. With the death of the emperor in 180 and the appointment of his son Commodus as his successor, the policy towards the vanquished seems to have changed rapidly. Obviously, a peace agreement was reached, the opponents were able to recover.

On April 9, 193, Septimius Severus (193-211), the governor of Upper Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions in Carnuntum . At this time, according to Maximos von Tire , the Pannonians worship the sun god Helios - Sol , symbolized by a round disc on a wooden pole . In addition to the worship of the Roman gods and the imperial family, many finds confirm Mithraism , the Isis cult, which owned a large sanctuary in the provincial capital Savaria. Sanctuaries of Iupiter Dolichenus could also be found in many places . Pre-Roman cults were also cultivated in a modified form at this time. The late Celtic people of the Eravisker worshiped the Romanized Jupiter-Teutanus on the Gellértberg near Aquincum together with the city officials. From the 3rd century on, traces of Christian and Jewish communities became increasingly evident. From the reign of Emperor Severus Alexander (222–235) an inscription from the camp village ( vicus ) of the Fort Intercisa has been preserved, which confirms a synagogue built there .

The province experienced a renewed heyday in the 1st half of the 3rd century, the cities were expanded and public buildings were renovated. Some major construction work under Septimius Severus in Savaria can be proven. Carnuntum had about 40,000 inhabitants at that time. As traders and entrepreneurs, after the Marcomann Wars, Orientals increasingly came to the two pannonia. Pannonians and Celts were already Romanized at this time . Cassius Dio describes the Pannonians around 205 as brave, somewhat irascible people. He felt sorry for the people who knew neither oil nor wine. The early Roman times of Pannonia winegrowing becomes tangible for the first time in the 4th century at the Aureus Mons (Goldener Berg) northwest of the southern Pannonian fort Teutoburgium .

In 213 the provincial boundaries were corrected again under Caracalla. The ruler apparently wanted to withdraw the Brigetio legionary camp from the province of Upper Pannonia and strike Lower Pannonia. Hence from now on the border ran west of the garrison.

First Christian martyrs are attested around 250 in the south of the province. The imperial crisis of the 3rd century , epidemics and wars put an end to the development of the province. The population decreases drastically between 250 and 300.

Warlike times

the two pannoniae on sesterce of the emperor Traianus Decius
Portrait page of the Sesterce of Traianus Decius

The Gotensturm overran the legions of Emperor Decius in 251. It was not until the Battle of Naissus 269 ​​and 270 that the Goths were able to stay behind the Danube for about 100 years during the reigns of Emperors Claudius Gothicus (268–270) and Aurelian (270–275) be pushed. But the Germanic tribes of the Juthungen , Marcomanni and Vandals tried constantly to cross the Danube, which in some cases succeeded. With some of the invaders came - for the first time in centuries - warlike devastation and death as far as Italy. But the attackers could be intercepted and smashed by Aurelian.

During the advanced 3rd century, after the collapse of the Upper German-Raetian Limes and massive incursions of Germanic tribes, the army was reformed. Newly composed auxiliary troop units emerged with new names and partly changed tasks. In the late antique Castra ad Herculem on the Danube Bend, for example, there was an Auxilia Herculensia with Equites Dalmatae (Herculin auxiliary troops with Dalmatian riders). Fast equites associations were typical units in the late ancient Danube Limes.

In 308 an imperial conference took place in Carnuntum under the chairmanship of the abdicated emperor Diocletian to settle disputes of his successors. At the end of the conference, he divided Pannonia into four parts and transferred areas of today's Slovenia to the province of Noricum :

  • Pannonia prima in the northwest, capital Savaria / Sabaria,
  • Pannonia Valeria in the center, capital Sopianae ( Pécs ),
  • Pannonia Savia in the southwest, capital Siscia,
  • Pannonia secunda in the southeast, capital Sirmium ( Sremska Mitrovica )

Between stabilization and growing restlessness

The northern Limes Pannonicus on the Pilis Mountains in Valentine times

In 310 and 323 the Marcomanni invaded the province, around 330 the Vandals . Emperor Constantine I settled some of them on Roman territory. Around 350 an earthquake destroyed the settlements in the north-west of the province. In 357 and 374 there were again raids.

Several auxiliary troops on the Danube Limes were housed in reduction forts during the advancing 4th century. These small forts stood on the area of ​​the much larger predecessor facilities, while the population from the mostly unfortified camp villages found shelter behind the enclosing walls of the garrisons from the Middle Imperial period. In the course of the 4th century so-called Foederati , mostly Germanic mercenaries, took over the service of the auxiliary troops.

After a breach of law and territorial dispute provoked by the Romans, which Emperor Valentinian I (364-375) had provoked by the massive expansion of the Pannonian Danube Limes with a dense chain of Burgi and Ländeburgi, it arose in the course of the establishment of the Limes Sarmatiae and the the land of the previously expelled Germanic Quads planned for a new war in Göd-Bócsaújtelep . The Quadi and their allies, the Jazygen , who were always loyal in the fight against Rome, invaded the province of Valeria again from 374 to 375. Despite Valentinian's victory, the constant wars had a devastating effect on the Pannonian border provinces. This war had devastated Valeria for good. The ongoing devastation and uncertainty caused catastrophic conditions in the other Pannonian provinces as well. Trade collapsed, the country was depopulated, and the cities fell into disrepair. The late antique historian Ammianus Marcellinus described Carnuntum in 375 as a "dilapidated, dirty nest". After 376, Alan , Germanic and Hunnic allies were settled in Pannonia as increasingly Romanized Foederati . Some of their traces can be found in the Valentine Burgi, which dominated the later Danube Limes period .

During the reign of Emperor Theodosius I (379–395), a large association of Visigoth warriors were established in 382 to secure the border in the Pannonian region. Alaric , 394 in command of this Foederati , dared to revolt against his employers with the death of the emperor. To this end, his warriors proclaimed him king. Obviously, the Teutons who were obliged to Rome also used this situation on the Pannonian Danube border to rebel on their part. The quads and marcomanni joined these riots and crossed the Danube. Pannonia was again ravaged by destruction and pillage.

As early as 397, however, Rome was able to thread a treaty of alliance with a numerically significant Marcomanni association who wanted to settle in the Pannonia area. As with similar contracts, the church was also involved in the negotiations in order to underline the pacification and integration of the Teutons. In this case, Ambrosius , bishop of the imperial capital Milan , was personally involved. Impressed by Christianity, the princess of this marcomanni group, Fritigil , had a correspondence with Ambrosius. Ambrosius was able to persuade Fritigil to subordinate themselves and their association to the Roman state. The Marcomann warriors who entered the Roman service at that time, around 3,000 men, were divided into three elite units of the guard named after them and possibly used to reinforce the province of Pannonia prima under a tribunus gentis Marcomannorum . After moving to Roman territory, the term marcomanni disappears from literature. It is replaced by the name Suebi - the tribal group to which the Marcomanni historically belonged, as the Roman historian Tacitus had already testified.

Stilicho saves the province

But neither the Marcomanni in the Pannonia prima nor the border fortifications in the province of Valeria, which were again occupied by unreliable Foederati , were able to stop the Asdingian vandals in 401 , who probably moved along the Danube to Raetia . The Sarmatian Alans posted to secure Valeria may have joined this train when they also forcibly made their way west. The Roman army master Flavius Stilicho , who at the same time had to deal with Alaric, who had invaded Italy, succeeded at short notice in repelling vandals and Alans in Raetia. In 402 Stilicho succeeded in defeating Alaric in the Battle of Pollentia and then in the Battle of Verona , who then temporarily returned to Pannonia.

Around 406 a mighty invasion of different peoples broke out over Pannonia, which had started with the Goths under their general Radagaisus . They had given way to the pressure of the Huns invading Europe from the east . While the Goths carried out their campaign of destruction as far as Florence, the Quads broke again across the Danube into Roman territory and joined the Vandals and Alans on their march to the west in the area around the lower Main . The still loyal Roman Foederati could not do much to counter the often violent pressure of the Migration Period . If there was no pay or supplies, they too left their positions. Together with the Vandals, the Quads moved to Spain and were assigned a settlement area by Emperor Flavius ​​Honorius (395-423) there around 411 . With this - after the extinction of the Jazygian culture towards the end of the 4th century, another old main opponent of Rome had disappeared from the borders of Pannonia. Radagaisus and his army were defeated in 406 in the battle of the Battle of Faesulae by Stilicho and his allied Hunnic horsemen and Goths, who had separated from Alaric. With the assassination of Stilichos - himself a brutal power politician - Westrom lost the most capable army master of his time.

Doom and partial restoration

During the first half of the 5th century, the Huns invaded Pannonia and occupied the country. Both the Marcomanni of Pannonia prima and the remnants of the Quads came under their suzerainty. The Roman administration collapsed. In 427, Pannonia was once again freed from the Huns by Western Roman troops under their army master Flavius ​​Felix . During the internal Roman power struggles, the relieved Roman army master Flavius ​​Aëtius had to flee from Italy to his old Hunnic friends in 432. With their help he regained office and dignity in 433. Most likely in the same year, Aëtius apparently fulfilled the Hunnic conditions for the joint military campaign and renounced Pannonia. It is also questionable whether the whole country was ceded to the Huns at that time or only parts. The fact is that Sirmium, the capital of the province of Pannonia secunda, only had to be forcibly conquered by the new rulers in 441/442. After the end of the Hun Empire initiated by the East Germanic Gepids in the course of the Battle of the Nedao , the Western Roman Emperor Avitus (455–456) tried to win back Pannonia in autumn 455, which had long since become a bone of contention between the imperial capitals Ravenna and Constantinople . But the influence of Western Rome on the country seems to have become less at that time, because it was the Eastern Roman Emperor Markian (450–457) who allowed the Ostrogoths to take possession of all the land between Sirmium and Vindobona.

The ruler Theodoric, who was born in Pannonia, came from this people . He and large parts of his people had been sent to Italy by the Eastern Roman Emperor Zenon to wrestle Odoacer , who had come to power . In 476 he deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus . After the victory, Theodoric, who was raised to the rank of king, was formally subject to the Eastern Roman Empire. Under him, the southern Pannonian provinces of Savia and parts of the Secunda were restored in a new form. Savia was connected to the province of Dalmatia before 504 , the former Secunda, taken from the Gepids in 504/505, became the province of Pannonia Sirmiensis. With Theodoric's death in 526 this order fell apart again.

During the reign of Theodoric, the Longobard king Wacho invaded the northwestern Pannonian region and subjugated the Suebi who settled there - probably descendants of the Marcomanni who were once settled here by Rome. Apparently, however, Wacho stayed away from the borders of the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia Sirmiensis during his conquest.

Post-Roman development

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Subsequently, Pannonia was largely Lombard until 568 , while Sirmium was the capital of the Gepid Empire until 567 . After the destruction of the Gepid Empire and the capture of Sirmium by the Romans, the Lombards and parts of the remaining Roman population withdrew to Italy. The Avars took over the area and conquered Sirmium in 582. In 616 they resettled parts of the Roman provincial population of the Balkans to Pannonia (Sermesianoi) , where they remained under the rule of the Bulgarian Khan Kuver until their revolt in 679 .

See also

  • Pannonia - historical development of the post-Roman landscape

literature

  • András Mócsy : Pannonia. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Supplementary Volume IX, Stuttgart 1962, Sp. 516-776.
  • András Mócsy: Pannonia and Upper Moesia. A history of the middle Danube provinces of the Roman Empire. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London a. Boston 1974, ISBN 0-710-07714-9 .
  • Alfonz Lengyel, GTB Radan (Ed.): The archeology of Roman Pannonia. Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest / University Press of Kentucky, Lexington (Kentucky) 1980, ISBN 0-8131-1370-9 .
  • András Mócsy: Pannonia and the Roman Army. Selected essays . Steiner, Stuttgart 1992, ISBN 3-515-06103-7 .
  • From Augustus to Attila. Life on the Hungarian Danube Limes (= writings of the Limes Museum Aalen. Volume 53). Konrad Theiss, Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-8062-1541-3 .
  • Dorottya Gáspár: Christianity in Roman Pannonia. An evaluation of early Christian finds and sites from Hungary (= BAR International Series. Volume 1010). Archaeopress, Oxford 2002, ISBN 1-84171-288-4 .
  • Zsolt Visy (ed.): The Roman army in Pannonia. An archaeological guide of the Ripa Pannonica. Teleki László Foundation, Budapest 2003, ISBN 963-86388-2-6 .
  • Branka Migotti (Ed.): The archeology of Roman Southern Pannonia. The state of research and selected problems in the Croatian part of the Roman province of Pannonia. Archaeopress, Oxford 2012, ISBN 978-1-407-30985-9 .
  • Péter Kovács : A History of Pannonia during the Principate (= Antiquitas . Series 1: Treatises on ancient history. Volume 65). Habelt, Bonn 2014, ISBN 978-3-7749-3918-9 .

Remarks

  1. ↑ Benedikt Simons: Studies on the image of the Roman community in books 3–35 of 'Ρωμαϊκά (= contributions to antiquity 273), de Gruyter, Berlin 2009, ISBN 978-3-11-022587-7 , p. 174.
  2. ^ Cassius Dio, Roman History 49:36.
  3. ^ Karl Kerényi: Pannonia. In: Glotta . Volume 22, 1933, pp. 31-42.
  4. ^ Karl Kaus : Pannonia, Scarbantia and the Amber Road. In: Burgenland. Archeology and regional studies. Scientific work from Burgenland . Ed .: Office of the Burgenland Provincial Government, Department 7 - State Museum, Eisenstadt 2006, ISBN 3-85405-153-0 , p. 127 ff.
  5. ^ András Mócsy : Arabiates. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Supplementary volume XI, Stuttgart 1968, Sp. 131 .; Rudolf Noll: Gold and silver treasures from the migration period from the Danube region in the Viennese collection of antiquities. In: Prehistory - Roman Age - Middle Ages. Materials on the archeology and regional studies of Burgenland I. Eisenstadt 1984. ISBN 3854050917 . Pp. 102-103; here p. 103.
  6. ↑ CIL 16, 2 .
  7. ↑ András Mócsy: Cornacates. In: Paulys Realencyclopadie der classischen Antiquity Science (RE). Supplementary volume XI, Stuttgart 1968, Col. 373.
  8. ↑ Péter Kiss, Réka Mladoniczki, Jörg Scheuerbrandt , Eszter Harsányi: The Colonia Claudia Savaria from the middle of the 1st to the 3rd century AD Colonia Claudia Savaria a Kr. U. 1. sz. közepe és a 3rd sz. között. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition. Römermuseum, Osterburken 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , p. 40.
  9. ↑ Karl Christ : History of the Roman Empire. CH Beck Verlag, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-406-36316-4 , p. 271.
  10. ↑ Karl Christ: History of the Roman Empire. CH Beck Verlag, Munich 1995, ISBN 3-406-36316-4 , p. 274.
  11. ↑ Péter Kiss, Réka Mladoniczki, Jörg Scheuerbrandt, Eszter Harsányi: The Colonia Claudia Savaria from the middle of the 1st to the 3rd century AD Colonia Claudia Savaria a Kr. U. 1. sz. közepe és a 3rd sz. között. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition. Römermuseum, Osterburken 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , p. 41.
  12. ^ Rudolf Haensch: Capita Provinciarum - governor's seats and provincial administration in the Roman Empire (= Cologne research. Volume 7). Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 1997, ISBN 978-3-8053-1803-7 , p. 349, note 155.
  13. ↑ Péter Kiss, Réka Mladoniczki, Jörg Scheuerbrandt, Eszter Harsányi: The Colonia Claudia Savaria from the middle of the 1st to the 3rd century AD Colonia Claudia Savaria a Kr. U. 1. sz. közepe és a 3rd sz. között. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition. Römermuseum, Osterburken 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , p. 46.
  14. ↑ CIL 3, 4170 .
  15. ↑ CIL 3, 4183 .
  16. ^ Zsolt Mráv : Imperial building activity at the time of Hadrian in the cities of Pannonia. In: Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 43, 2003, pp. 125-137; here pp. 136-137.
  17. ↑ Only previously known mention as Colonia : CIL 3, 4335 .
  18. ^ Paul Lambrechts et al. a. (Ed.): Outline of the history of ancient marginal cultures. Oldenbourg-Verlag, Munich 1961.
  19. ↑ Jörg Scheuerbrandt: On life and death. The war against the Teutons. Harc életre-halálra. Háború a germánok ellen. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , pp. 57–75; here: pp. 66–68.
  20. ↑ Jörg Scheuerbrandt: On life and death. The war against the Teutons. Harc életre-halálra. Háború a germánok ellen. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , pp. 57–75; here: p. 69.
  21. ↑ Jörg Scheuerbrandt: On life and death. The war against the Teutons. Harc életre-halálra. Háború a germánok ellen. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , pp. 57–75; here: p. 74.
  22. ↑ Jörg Scheuerbrandt: On life and death. The war against the Teutons. Harc életre-halálra. Háború a germánok ellen. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , pp. 57–75; here: p. 75.
  23. ↑ Péter Kiss, Réka Mladoniczki, Jörg Scheuerbrandt, Eszter Harsányi: The Colonia Claudia Savaria from the middle of the 1st to the 3rd century AD Colonia Claudia Savaria a Kr. U. 1. sz. közepe és a 3rd sz. között. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition. Römermuseum, Osterburken 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , p. 52.
  24. ^ Attila Gaál : Bölcske fortlet. In: Zsolt Visy (ed.): The Roman army in Pannonia. Teleki Lázló Foundation 2003, ISBN 963-86388-2-6 , p. 176.
  25. ↑ Klára Póczy : Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Teutanus Aquincumban In: Attila Gaál: Pannoniai kutatások. A Soproni Sándor emlékkonferencia elöadásai 1998. October 7th Szekszárd 1998, pp. 201–223.
  26. ↑ CIL 3, 3327 .
  27. ↑ Péter Kiss, Réka Mladoniczki, Jörg Scheuerbrandt, Eszter Harsányi: The Colonia Claudia Savaria from the middle of the 1st to the 3rd century AD Colonia Claudia Savaria a Kr. U. 1. sz. közepe és a 3rd sz. között. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition. Römermuseum, Osterburken 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , p. 53.
  28. ↑ Péter Kiss, Réka Mladoniczki, Jörg Scheuerbrandt, Eszter Harsányi: The Colonia Claudia Savaria from the middle of the 1st to the 3rd century AD Colonia Claudia Savaria a Kr. U. 1. sz. közepe és a 3rd sz. között. In: On behalf of the eagle. A római sas szolgálatában. Publius Ferrasius Avitus. Book accompanying the German-Hungarian special exhibition. Römermuseum, Osterburken 2012, ISBN 978-3-00-037759-4 , p. 54.
  29. ↑ CIL 3, 10275 .
  30. ^ András Mócsy: Pannonia and the soldier emperors. In: Hildegard Temporini (ed.): The rise and fall of the Roman world . Volume II, 6. de Gruyter, Berlin, New York 1977, ISBN 3-11-006735-8 , pp. 557-582; here p. 578.
  31. ^ Anthony R. Birley : Caracalla. In: Manfred Clauss (Ed.): The Roman Emperors. CH Beck Verlag, Munich 2005, ISBN 978-3-406-60911-4 , pp. 185-191; here p. 189.
  32. ↑ Endre Tóth : The late Roman military architecture in Transdanubia . In Archaeologiai Értesitő. 134, Budapest 2009. p. 42 (footnote).
  33. ^ Herwig Wolfram : Salzburg - Bavaria - Austria. The Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum and the sources of their time. Oldenbourg Verlag, Vienna 1995, ISBN 3-7029-0404-2 , p. 120.
  34. ↑ Notitia dignitatum, occ. XI, 23-25.
  35. ↑ Zsolt Mráv: Archaeological research 2000–2001 in the area of ​​the late Roman fortress of Göd-Bócsaújtelep (preliminary report) 2002. In: Communicationes archeologicae Hungariae Budapest 2003. pp. 99–101.
  36. ↑ a b c Friedrich Lotter: Displacements of peoples in the Eastern Alps-Central Danube region between antiquity and the Middle Ages (375-600) (= supplementary volumes to the Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde . Volume 39). de Gruyter, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-11-017855-9 , p. 100.
  37. ↑ Ammianus Marcellinus 30, 5, 1-2.
  38. ↑ Knut Schäferdiek: threshold time. Contributions to the history of Christianity in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages. de Gruyter, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-11-014968-0 , p. 234.
  39. ↑ a b c Friedrich Lotter: Displacements of peoples in the Eastern Alps-Central Danube region between antiquity and the Middle Ages (375-600) (= supplementary volumes to the Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Volume 39). de Gruyter, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-11-017855-9 , p. 101.
  40. ↑ Notitia Dignitatum Occ. V, 49-50, 198-199.
  41. ^ Sándor Soproni : The last decades of the Pannonian Limes . CH Beck, Munich 1985, ISBN 3-406-30453-2 , pp. 46-47 and 102.
  42. ↑ Tacitus, Germania 38-45.
  43. ↑ Sarmatians. In: Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde (RGA). 2nd Edition. Volume 26, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2004, ISBN 3-11-017734 X , p. 511.
  44. ^ Franz Altheim : Attila and the Huns. Verlag für Kunst und Wissenschaft, Baden-Baden 1951, p. 187.
  45. ↑ Jochen Martin : Late antiquity and migration of the peoples. 4th edition. Oldenbourg science publisher. Munich 2001, ISBN 3-486-49684-0 , p. 38.
  46. ↑ Friedrich Lotter: Displacements of the people in the Eastern Alps-Central Danube region between antiquity and the Middle Ages (375-600) (= supplementary volumes to the Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde. Vol. 39). de Gruyter, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-11-017855-9 , p. 102.
  47. ↑ Edgar Pack: Valentinian III. In: Manfred Clauss (Ed.): The Roman Emperors. CH Beck Verlag, Munich 2005, ISBN 978-3-406-60911-4 , pp. 185-191; here p. 397.
  48. ↑ Timo Stickler : Aëtius. Scope of design for an army master in the late Western Roman Empire. (= Vestigia. Volume 54). CH Beck Verlag, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-406-48853-6 , p. 56.
  49. ^ Herwig Wolfram: Salzburg - Bavaria - Austria. The Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum and the sources of their time. Oldenbourg Verlag, Vienna 1995, ISBN 3-7029-0404-2 , p. 104.
  50. ^ Herwig Wolfram: Salzburg - Bavaria - Austria. The Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum and the sources of their time. Oldenbourg Verlag, Vienna 1995, ISBN 3-7029-0404-2 , p. 105.
  51. ^ Herwig Wolfram: Salzburg - Bavaria - Austria. The Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum and the sources of their time. Oldenbourg Verlag, Vienna 1995, ISBN 3-7029-0404-2 , p. 21.

Coordinates: 45 °  N , 19 °  E