Passiflora incarnata
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Passiflora incarnata is a species of plant nativeto the southeastern United States that belongs tothe passion flower family, whichincludesover 500 species. At the same time it represents the type species of the genus Passiflora , which forms the most extensive genus of the family with more than 400 species. Theflower characteristics, interpretedby Christian missionaries as insignia of the Passion , are reflected not only in the scientific genus name (“Passiflora” = “Passion Flower”), but also in the species name (“incarnata” = “incarnate”).
In the USA, the edible fruit-bearing species is also known as "Maypop"; in German it is sometimes referred to as the hardy passion flower or flesh- colored passion flower . Passiflora incarnata is one of the hardest of all passion flowers and supplies the passion flower herb ( Passiflorae herba ) , which is used pharmaceutically in teas or dragees, for example . The evidence for a medical effect in humans from clinical studies is so far limited, but long-term clinical experience is available. A direct effect on the GABA receptor , which plays a major role in controlling anxiety and stress reactions, has been demonstrated in animal experiments . Substances responsible for pharmacological effects have not yet been clearly identified, but are suspected to belong to the group of flavonoids contained in the herbaceous plant components .
The “History of the Development of Medicinal Plants Study Group” at the University of Würzburg chose Passiflora incarnata as the medicinal plant of the year 2011 because of its effectiveness profile and long history of use .
description
Vegetative characteristics
Passiflora incarnata is an evergreen, perennial climbing shrub . The woody stalk is green on younger parts and slightly angular in cross-section, on older parts of the plant it is rather gray and round. The species develops shoots 2 to 6 meters (rarely 10 meters) long. Round, smooth, unbranched and corkscrew-like twisted shoot tendrils that arise from the leaf axils serve as anchoring . The reticulate leaves are arranged alternately, deeply lobed in three parts and slightly serrated. Their length and width are about 6 to 15 centimeters. They are hairless or finely hairy, then most clearly on the leaf veins and the petiole. The petioles reach up to 8 centimeters in length, are furrowed, often twisted and have two conspicuous, hump-shaped nectaries in the upper area . The leaf blade also carries nectaries. The two 2 to 8 millimeters long stipules are setiform and fall early on.
blossoms
The radial symmetry and five-fold flowers reach a diameter of 6 to 8 centimeters. They stand individually on stems up to 10 centimeters long and are surrounded by three pointed bracts , on which there are nectaries. The five sepals are greenish on the outside, whitish on the inside, up to 3 centimeters long and have a short awn . The five petals are less coarse and slightly shorter than the sepals. Usually the petals are pale pink. Their color, however, is variable: there are also reddish-purple tints, in the forma alba they are white. Sepals and petals together form a ten-petalled circle. The corona within the corona, which is typical of passion flowers, forms a secondary coronet and, in Passiflora incarnata, consists of around 100 fringe-like, wavy appendages; these are whitish on the inside, pink to light purple on the outside with darker bands.
The five stamens carry yellow anthers (anthers). Stamens and the stylus , which is divided into three stigma , sit on an elongated columnar section (typical for passion flowers), which is referred to as the central column or androgynophore . The ovary is on top, the three carpels are fused together (synkarp).
The flowering period usually extends from June to September. Each flower is only open for about a day, while the three bracts are much more durable. The flowers of Passiflora incarnata are usually hermaphroditic , but the plants also develop male flowers, especially if they are poorly nourished. In this case, both sexes are present, but only the male is functional (so-called andromonöcia ).
Fruits and seeds
The oval, yellowish fruits are berries that are roughly the same shape as hen's eggs. Their length differs between 4 and 10 centimeters. It takes about two to three months to mature. The numerous seeds it contains are ripe, dark brown, dotted with pits, oval-flattened, 5 to 8 millimeters long and 2 to 3 millimeters wide. The edible, juicy-sweet pulp is formed by slimy arilli in which the individual seeds are embedded.
Chromosome number
The number of chromosomes is 2n = 18.
ecology
Distribution and location
Passiflora incarnata is one of two North American passion flower species; next to her there is only the yellow passion flower ( Passiflora lutea ). The home of Passiflora incarnata is in the southeastern USA, where the plant or even its fruit is called "Maypop". Other English names there are "Purple passionflower" or "Passion vine". The northern limit of distribution runs through the US states of Missouri , Illinois , Indiana , Ohio and Pennsylvania . In the west it reaches Texas , Kansas and Oklahoma , in the south Florida . If it is abducted by humans, it can prove to be an invasive species in a suitable environment : it has meanwhile grown wild in Bermuda . The species can now also be found in the Bahamas , the Antilles , Mexico , Central America , Brazil and Argentina .
There are growing areas for pharmaceutical use in Florida and India , and to a lesser extent in Italy and Spain .
Passiflora incarnata prefers sandy to stony, rather dry locations and is found in the distribution areas especially on hedges, road embankments, the edges of fields and clearings. She needs direct tanning for at least half of the day. Adult specimens can survive frosts down to around −15 ° C (although the above-ground parts of the plant die off), making them the most frost-hardiest species of the family, alongside the blue passion flower ( Passiflora caerulea ) and the yellow passion flower ( Passiflora lutea ) . Passiflora incarnata is not endangered in its natural habitat.
The species is able to reproduce vegetatively through underground root runners . In the settlement of disturbed locations (e.g. freshly cleared areas or earthfills), however, sexual reproduction outweighs vegetative reproduction.
Flower ecology
Passiflora incarnata is self-incompatible , meaning that the flowers of a plant cannot fertilize themselves. Since the nectaries of the flowers of almost all members of the Passiflora genus are located in a recess in the flower base that is closed with teeth and that surrounds the androgynophore , they are only accessible to strong insects . Wood bees of the genus Xylocopa often act as pollinators of the flowers . In order to fully exploit the nectar, these must describe a circle around the androgynophore. Passion flowers and with them Passiflora incarnata therefore belong to the type of so-called "circulating flowers" from a flowering point of view. Moreover, they are proterandrous (vormännlich), which means that the pollen before maturation of the stamp is released. In the case of blossoms in an early blooming state, the back of the pollinator is powdered with pollen , which can then be given off to the now lowered three scar heads in the case of blossoms in the advanced stage of blooming.
The flowers of Passiflora incarnata are also popular with butterflies, which also use the nectar of the extra-floral nectaries in the leaf area; this also applies to night butterflies (for example the moth species Herpetogramma phaeropteralis ). The extra-floral nectaries also attract ants, which by their presence reduce the infestation of the plant by predators (especially caterpillars of various butterfly species).
ingredients
Characteristic ingredients of the herbaceous plant matter of Passiflora incarnata come from the group of flavonoids . It is mainly about C-glycosides derived from apigenin and luteolin , such as isovitexin, isoorientin and other related substances. Information on the total flavonoid content fluctuates - also depending on the analytical method - between 0.47% and 3.91% in the dried drug . Coumarin derivatives, essential fatty acids and essential oils are found in traces. In contrast to earlier statements, potentially toxic Harman alkaloids are not present or only in negligibly small traces. The same applies to maltol , which according to older studies is said to be contained in small amounts, which, according to more recent studies, is probably an artifact . The cyanogenic glycoside gynocardin found in Passiflora incarnata has not yet been found in any other passion flower species, but it is contained in a harmlessly small amount. Hydrocyanic acid released from this could not be detected.
Coumarins (scopolentin and umbelliferone ) have been detected in the root, which has so far hardly been investigated for ingredients, although it represents the part of the plant used medicinally by Native Americans (see below) . The fruits contain various sugars and organic acids; Flavone glycosides were found in traces in fruits and seeds.
use
Ornamental plant
The Passiflora incarnata , which is frost-hardy to −15 ° C , is sometimes used as an ornamental plant in climatically suitable areas. Most European clones are characterized by virus attack, which manifests itself in white spots on the leaves and occasional deformation of the leaf margins. Some hybrids (see below) are also planted for ornamental purposes.
food
Native Americans used Passiflora incarnata as food and to prepare drinks. The seeds were found in Algonquian archaeological sites in Virginia , several thousand years old . The explorers William Strachey and John Smith also reported from Virginia in 1612 that local Indian tribes planted the plants under the name Maracock (apparently linguistically related to passion fruit ) because of their fruits. These were either eaten raw or made into syrup. Their juice was also squeezed and enjoyed, sometimes stretched with flour. Young shoots and leaves, mixed with other vegetables, were also used for nutrition.
As a food, the species has no significant economic importance today, unlike, for example, Passiflora edulis .
Folk medicine and pharmaceutical use
In contrast to today, the Indians of North America did not use Passiflora incarnata medicinally as an herb, but in the form of root preparations. The Houma used bits of root in drinking water as a blood tonic . The Cherokee -administered small children for easier weaning root tea, in adults was it used for liver complaints. Poultices made from ground roots were used for cuts, boiled root broth was used for inflammation and warm infusions were dripped into the ears for earache.
In the folk medicine of the immigrant European settlers in the southern Appalachian region , infusions made from dried leaves were used as a sedative for nervousness , hysteria and insomnia (whether this practice was adopted by the Indians is not known). The earliest description of American medicinal plants, the Materia Medica Americana by the German natural scientist Schoepf , published in Latin in 1787 , mentions the use of Passiflorae species in Carolina as a remedy for epilepsy in old age. An American General overviews from 1896 describes a broad spectrum of Passiflora incarnata that the use as a nerve sedative and -Tonikum on sleeping pills, anticonvulsant and diarrheal agents, to the use as an antiepileptic threatening or preventing miscarriages enough.
In the USA, also available in various over-the-counter preparations in the 20th century, Passiflora incarnata was withdrawn from approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1978 , which was due to the fact that from that point on the manufacturers had to provide data on safety and effectiveness. In the absence of such evidence, the medicinal use of Passiflora incarnata fell sharply in the USA, unlike in Germany, France and other European countries. As a result, most of the leaves harvested now end up in Europe.
A medical use of Passiflora incarnata in Europe is documented in well-known medical manuals in the 20th century, especially for mild symptoms of nervous restlessness, as a sleep aid or as an anti-anxiety and anticonvulsant (e.g. in the textbook on biological remedies by Gerhard Madaus published in 1938 ). Either the dried leaves (which can also contain parts of flowers and fruits) or ethanolic or methanolic extracts with a minimum content of 2.0% flavonoids are used. In the European Pharmacopoeia , the drug obtained from P. incarnata is referred to as "Passiflorae herba" ("passion flower herb") (synonym: "Herba Passiflorae"). Passionflower is found in over-the-counter pharmaceutical preparations, either finely cut in tea preparations or as an extract in dragees or drops, mostly in combination with other plants, especially valerian , hawthorn , hop cones or lemon balm leaves . Combination preparations of St. John's wort, passion flower and valerian are also offered. The "passion flower herb" contained must always come from Passiflora incarnata (even if the packaging often incorrectly shows other species such as the blue passion flower ).
The fresh above-ground parts of Passiflora incarnata are also used in homeopathy against insomnia, convulsive disorders and restlessness. In addition to the mother tincture and liquid dilutions, it is also used to make granules , tablets and ointments.
Toxicological properties
Previous studies classified the entire plant as toxic with the exception of the fruits. This was based on the assumption of a toxicologically relevant content of Harman alkaloids , which however turned out to be unsustainable. Some types of passionflower have high levels of cyanogenic glycosides as toxic ingredients ; in Passiflora incarnata , however, only gynocardi in a harmlessly low concentration could be detected from this group of substances. There are no known reports of poisoning in humans from components of the plant.
In animal experiments (in mice and rats) the mean lethal dose (LD 50 ), i.e. the one at which half of the animals die, is very high after oral administration of over 15 g / kg (for comparison vitamin C : 11.9 g / kg in rats). Long-term administration of high doses also had no effect on weight, temperature and coordination in animal experiments. A genotoxicity has not been established. No studies are available on possible carcinogenicity and reproductive or developmental toxicity . A possible mutagenicity has not been investigated either (the Ames test would be a standard procedure here). No data is available on possible side effects or combined effects with other drugs.
Effectiveness studies
The passionflower herb is traditionally said to have positive effects, especially in nervous conditions and mild sleep disorders, as well as antispasmodic and anxiolytic (anxiety-relieving) properties. A report ( monograph ) published in 2008 by the Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) confirmed only four clinical studies in humans with corresponding questions up to this point . If these report any effectiveness at all, they show deficits in terms of content or statistical methodology, so that they cannot adequately prove clinical effectiveness. A Cochrane Review in the same year came to a comparable result.
Most of the passion flower preparations currently approved in Germany provide for the treatment of nervous restlessness . The approval was granted on the basis of a monograph by Commission E of the EMA, which was replaced in 2008 by the HMPC report. This only attributes the so-called traditional use to the passion flower herb to relieve mild stress symptoms and as a sleep aid.
Animal studies in rats and mice with extracts from Passiflora incarnata gave indications of sedative and anxiolytic effects. In-vitro studies have now confirmed the effectiveness of passion flower extract on the GABA receptor . It was found that the dry passion flower extract inhibits the reuptake of the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-amino-butyric acid) in the synaptosomes. However, the extract has no effect on GABA release and GABA transaminase activity. With the help of binding studies, the influence of passion flower on the GABA-B receptor was established. The passion flower works as an antagonist . GABA-B modulators have been described as anxiolytics . They also help to get rid of addiction. Passionflower also had an influence on the GABA-A receptors in the binding studies, but not on their ethanol or benzodiazepine binding sites. It is very likely that the binding of the passion flower extract to the GABA binding site of the GABA-A receptor is relevant for its clinical effectiveness.
A substance that is clearly responsible for the pharmacological effectiveness has not yet been identified; it may also be a substance mixture. An Indian group of authors attributes the effects to an unspecified trisubstituted benzoflavone derivative , the effectiveness of which is said to be based on an interaction with an enzyme of the cytochrome P450 family. An antispasmodic effect of plant extracts could also be shown in mice, which is evidently mediated in particular via GABA or benzodiazepine receptors. As is for anxiolytic effect in rats substance responsible flavonoid - aglycone Chrysin (5,7-Dihydroflavon) considered. A positive effect with regard to the prevention of arteriosclerosis and cardioprotective (heart-protecting) effects is also described and justified with the anti-radical properties of the flavonoids contained.
All in all, the use of “Passiflorae herba” is based (since well-documented, controlled clinical studies are still pending) on the long-established folk medical tradition and results of animal experiments. Pharmacologically active substances are suspected to belong to the group of flavonoids .
A randomized, double-blind phase III study with only 36 test subjects and without placebo control came to the conclusion that passion flower extract in patients with generalized anxiety disorder gave a result similar to the daily administration of 30 mg oxazepam over a period of four weeks . Two clinical studies with only 60 participants each showed that the preparation can alleviate fear of an operation. The combined intake together with clonidine in withdrawal therapy for the treatment of opiate addiction increased the effect of clonidine in another study with 65 test persons.
A study on the effect of the combined intake with extract of St. John's wort came to the result that the effectiveness of the reuptake inhibition for serotonin was increased. If the inhibition with Genuine St. John's Wort alone is 60%, the combination with passion flower extract brings the effectiveness into the range of the fluvoxamine used for comparison , in which the inhibition is 90%. However, increasing the dosage reduces the effectiveness again.
Botanical history and systematics
The generic name Passiflora (from Latin passio = suffering, flos = flower) refers to the Passion of Christ and is explained by the characteristics of the plant genus that were religiously interpreted in early descriptions, especially its flower. For example, the secondary crown was interpreted as a crown of thorns, the five stamens as marks, the three scars as cross nails and the shoots as flagella. Dating also from Latin Fashion epithet incarnata means the Incarnate .
The first descriptions and representations of the species Passiflora incarnata have come down to us from the 17th century. In a text by the Dominican monk and missionary Simone Parlasca published in 1609, there is a strongly stylized illustration that is characterized by the religious transfiguration of the passion flower (a crown of thorns is shown instead of the halo, and nails instead of the three scarred heads). In the secondary literature there is broad consensus that Passiflora incarnata served as a model.
Other authors endeavored to depict the plant true to life, free of religious symbolism, for example the Italian illustrator Giovan Fabri in 1619.
The Basel botanist Caspar Bauhin introduced the species in 1623 under the name Clematis trifolia roseo clavato . In 1628 (but only published in 1651) Federigo Cesi first introduced the name Passiflora for the genus previously known as Granadilla or Flos passionis . In 1675 Maria Sibylla Merian published a depiction of the plant in the first volume of her New Flower Book .
In 1737 the generic name Passiflora was established by Carl von Linné and in 1753 the first scientific description of Passiflora incarnata was made in 1753 in the 2nd volume of his Species Plantarum . The type specimen is kept under the number 1070.25 in the Linnaeus Herbarium in Uppsala . In 1938, Passiflora incarnata was also declared a type for the entire genus Passiflora .
The following terms were used as synonyms:
- Granadilla incarnata medic.
- Passiflora edulis Sims var. Kerii mast.
- Passiflora incarnata L. var. Integriloba DC.
- Passiflora kerii Spreng.
In addition to a white flowering cultivar ( Passiflora incarnata forma alba Waterf. ), Passiflora incarnata was used to breed several hybrids . Like many passion flowers, it can be crossed with other species of the genus Passiflora . Examples include:
- Passiflora 'Byron Beauty', a tetraploid hybrid that emerged in 1989 as part of a USDA program from a cross with Passiflora edulis .
- Passiflora x colvillii , bred by Colvill's Nursery in England in 1824 by crossing with Passiflora caerulea ; like both parents, has a high frost resistance.
- Passiflora 'Incense', a hybrid with Passiflora cincinnata selected by the USDA in 1973 , characterized by dark purple flowers.
swell
literature
- Franz v. Bruchhausen (Ed.): Hager's Handbook of Pharmaceutical Practice, Vol. 6: Drugs PZ . 5th edition, Berlin, Heidelberg a. a., Springer 1994, ISBN 978-3-540-52639-1
- Bettina Ulmer, Torsten Ulmer: Passion flowers . Witten, 1997, ISBN 3-00-000684-2
- Torsten Ulmer, John Mochrie MacDougal, Bettina Ulmer: Passiflora. Passionflowers of the World . Portland / Or. u. a., Timber Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-88192-648-4
- Bruno Wolters: Agave to witch hazel. Medicinal plants of the Indians of North and Central America . Greifenberg, Urs Freund Verl., 1996, ISBN 3-924733-04-X
Individual evidence
- ↑ Karin Kraft : With lemon balm and lavender against anxiety and depression? MMW, 15, 2011, pp. 35-37
- ^ O. Grundmann et al .: Anxiolytic effects of a passion flower (Passiflora incarnata L.) extract in the elevated plus maze in mice . Pharmacy, 64, 2009, 63-64.
- ↑ a b c d e B. Ulmer et al., Pp. 162-163
- ↑ a b c d e f T. Ulmer et al., Pp. 294-295
- ↑ a b c d F. v. Bruchhausen, p. 35
- ↑ a b Christopher M. McGuire: Passiflora incarnata (Passifloraceae): A new fruit crop . Economic Botany 53 (2), 1999, pp. 161-176 doi: 10.1007 / BF02866495
- ↑ Passiflora incarnata at Tropicos.org. In: IPCN Chromosome Reports . Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis
- ↑ F. v. Bruchhausen, p. 36
- ↑ NatureServe Explorer, with information on the protection status
- ↑ Rebecca T. Tague, Stephanie A. Foré: Analysis of the spatial genetic structure of Passiflora incarnata in recently disturbed sites . Canadian Journal of Botany, 83 (4), 2005, pp. 420–426 abstract ( Memento from August 28, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
- ↑ B. Wolters, p. 200
- ↑ Andrei Sourakov: Trophic interactions Involving Herpetogramma phaeopteralis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Passiflora incarnata (Passifloraceae) . Florida Entomologist 91 (1), pp. 136-138, 2008 pdf
- ↑ a b F. v. Bruchhausen, pp. 38-39
- ↑ a b c d European Medicines Agency: Assessment Report on Passiflora incarnata L., Herba , 2008 (PDF; 286 kB)
- ↑ a b B. Wolters, pp. 197-199
- ^ Gary Paul Nabhan: Renewing America's Food Tradition. White River Junction / Vt., Chelsea Green Publ., 2008, ISBN 3-00-000684-2 , pp. 168-169
- ^ Johann David Schoepf: Materia Medica Americana , Erlangen, JJ Palm, 1787, p. 131 ( limited preview in the Google book search).
- ↑ WE Kinnett (ed.): Transactions of the National Eclectic Medical Association of the United States of America , 1896 Vol XXIII, Cincinnati, Sullivan Printing Works. Pdf
- ↑ Steven Foster: Passionflower - Passiflora incarnata
- ↑ Sabine Anagnostou: St. John's wort, valerian and passion flower - The siblings of the soul , In: Pharmazeutische-Zeitung.de, November 29, 2011
- ↑ a b F. v. Bruchhausen, p. 46
- ↑ F. v. Bruchhausen, p. 47
- ^ Lutz Roth, Max Daunderer, Kurt Kormann: Poison Plants - Plant Poisons , 3rd edition, Landsberg / Lech, ecomed, 1987, ISBN 3-609-64810-4
- ↑ Entry on ascorbic acid in the GESTIS substance database of the IFA , accessed on November 22, 2013(JavaScript required) .
- ^ Miyasaka LS, et al .: Passiflora for anxiety disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Jan 24; (1): CD004518
- ^ Final community herbal monograph on Passiflora incarnata L., herba . EMEA / HMPC / 230962/2006; September 7, 2007
- ↑ a b c K. Appel et al .: Modulation of the Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) System by Passiflora incarnata L. In: Phytother Res ., Doi : 10.1002 / ptr.3352 . [Epub ahead of pront], 2010
- ^ M. Frankowska et al .: Effects of GABA B receptor ligands in animal tests of depression and anxiety. In: Pharmacol Rep ., 59, 2007, pp. 645-655
- ↑ IL Martin et al .: GABA receptors. Tocris Bioscience Scientific Review Series 1-15
- ↑ K. Dhawan, S. Dhawan, A. Sharma: Passiflora: a review update . In: J Ethnopharmacol . 2004, 94 (1): 1-23.
- ↑ Marjan Nassiri-Asl, Schwann Shariati-Rad, Farzaneh Zamansoltani: Anticonvulsant effects of aerial parts of Passiflora incarnata extract in mice: involvement of benzodiazepine and opioid receptors . BMC Complement Altern Med. 2007, 7:26, PMC 1973074 (free full text)
- ↑ Eric (Walter) Brown et al .: Evaluation of the anxiolytic effects of Chrysin, a Passiflora incarnata extract, in the laboratory rat. AANA Journal, 75 (5), 2007, pp. 333-337.
- ↑ Ruta Masteikova et al .: Antiradical activities of the extract of Passiflora incarnata . In: Acta Poloniae Pharmaceutica - Drug Research , 65 (5), 2008, pp. 577-583 pdf
-
↑ Corinna Schraut: Herbal psychotropic drugs - What to expect from passion flower, lavender and St. John's wort , In: Deutsche-Apotheker-Zeitung.de; Retrieved March 2019. The following studies are cited:
Akhondzadeh S., et al .: Passionflower in the treatment of generalized anxiety: a pilot double-blind randomized controlled trial with oxazepam. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2001 Oct; 26 (5): 363 - 7.
Movafegh A., et al .: Preoperative oral Passiflora incarnata reduces anxiety in ambulatory surgery patients: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Anesth Analg. 2008 Jun; 106 (6): 1728 - 32.
Aslanargun P., et al .: Passiflora incarnata Linneaus as an anxiolytic before spinal anesthesia. J Anesth. 2012 Feb; 26 (1):
39-44. Akhondzadeh S., et al .: Passionflower in the treatment of opiates withdrawal: a double-blind randomized controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2001 Oct; 26 (5): 369-73. -
↑ Jürgen Clausen: Double comfort with St. John's wort and passion flower? , Rubric: Studies in a nutshell, In: www.Carstens-Stiftung.de; Retrieved March 2019. This source refers to the following studies:
1) Fiebich BL, Knörle R, Appel K, Kammler T, Weiss G .: Pharmacological studies in an herbal drug combination of St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum) and passion flower (Passiflora incarnata): in vitro and in vivo evidence of synergy between Hypericum and Passiflora in antidepressant pharmacological models . Fitoterapia. 2011 Apr; 82 (3): 474-80.
2) Madabushi R, Frank B, Drewelow B, Derendorf H, Butterweck V .: Hyperforin in St. John's wort drug interactions . Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2006 Mar; 62 (3): 225-33 - ↑ Simone Parlasca (ed.): Il fiore della granadiglia, overo della passione di nostro signore Giesu Christo, spiegato e lodato con discorsi e varie rime . Bologna, B. Cocchi, 1609, pp. 33-42
- ↑ a b B. Ulmer, pp. 17-23
- ↑ Wood engraving by Giovan Fabri in: Donato d 'Eremita: Vera effigie della Granadiglia, detta fior della passione . Naples, 1619
- ↑ Federigo Cesi: Phytosophicarum tabularum pars I, Passiflora , in: Francisco Hérnandez: Rerum medicanarum Novae Hiospaniae thesaurus seu plantarum historia . Rome, V. Mascardi, 1651
- ↑ Carl von Linné: Species Plantarum , vol. 2, Lars Salvius, Stockholm, vol. 2, 1753, p. 959 digital copy of the relevant page
- ^ Natural History Museum of London - The Linnaean Plant Name Typification Project; with picture of the type specimen
- ↑ EP Killip: The American species of Passifloraceae. Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. Bot., Ser. 19, 1938
- ^ Atlas of Florida Vascular Plants
- ^ Missouri Botanical Garden, Nomenclatural Data Base
- ↑ B. Ulmer, various pages
Web links
- Entry in the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN )
- Steven Foster: Passionflower - Passiflora incarnata (engl.)
- Plants Profile of the Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA )
- Fact Sheet, University of Florida (English; PDF file; 89 kB)
- European Medicines Agency: Assessment Report on Passiflora incarnata L., Herba , 2008 (English; PDF file; 129 kB)
- Information from the New Senckenberg Medicinal Plant Garden, Frankfurt a. M. ( Memento from February 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive )
- Description of the drug in: Thomas Schöpke: Botany for Pharmacists (Univ. Greifswald) ( Memento from April 1, 2009 in the Internet Archive )
- einBLICK, the online magazine of the University of Würzburg: Passion flower is medicinal plant of the year
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