Catholic Church in Austria

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The Catholic Church in Austria is part of the worldwide Catholic Church under the leadership of Pope Francis , the Roman Curia and the Austrian Bishops' Conference . The Catholic Church in Austria is divided into three rites , the Roman Catholic (Latin) , the Greek Catholic (Byzantine) and the Armenian Catholic rite.

It is the largest membership denomination of Christianity in Austria . The church comprises over 3000 parishes with about 4.98 million members , up to about 10,000 all of them Roman Catholic religious affiliation . At the end of 2019, around 56.0 percent of the Austrian population were members of the Catholic Church.

history

Christianization

The Christianity came over the Romans in the area of today's Austria. The first evidence of the existence of Christianity dates back to 174. The dioceses Tiburnia and Virunum (near the old capitals of the province Noricum , Teurnia and Virunum in Carinthia) and Lauriacum (Lorch in Upper Austria, near the new capital Ovilava / Wels) and Aguntum were located here ( Aguntum in East Tyrol). In the turmoil of the Great Migration , the Christian structures were largely lost, but not the Christian practice of faith. The work of the martyr Florian von Lorch  († 304) and the missionary Severin von Noricum  († 482) testify to this .

The re-Christianization took place in the Middle Ages mainly through the missionaries Rupert and Virgil , who found strong Christian communities around Salzburg and Lorch, and the dioceses of Passau and Salzburg founded by Boniface in 739 . Passau operated the mission down the Danube, Salzburg into the Alpine region. Numerous monasteries emerged: Mondsee (748), Innichen (769), Kremsmünster (777), Sankt Florian (around 800). The structures could only be consolidated after Charlemagne's Avar campaign around 800 and the battle on the Lechfeld in 955, so the Ostarrichi estate in Freising (imperial donation in 996) became the nucleus of today's Austria.

State Church of the Habsburg Monarchy

The Habsburgs , who exiled from what is now Switzerland, also based their power on the ecclesiastical structures. Rudolf the founder had St. Stephen's Church converted into a cathedral in 1365, but it was not until 1469 that Vienna became its own diocese and independent of Passau. At least since the 15th century, when the Austrian archdukes - de facto in personal union hereditary - Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire ( Roman-German emperor ) " grace of God " were, and therefore supreme secular patron of the Holy See , the Papacy and the This subordinate Christianity, as nominal kings of Jerusalem protectors of the places in the Holy Land , as well as heirs of the Holy Crown of St. Stephen of Hungary (" Apostolic Majesty "), the Catholic Church acquired the character of a state church of the Habsburg monarchy .

The Reformation spread from 1520 , and around 1570 Austria was largely Protestant. However, the Habsburgs who remained Catholic pursued the Counter-Reformation very energetically and after the Thirty Years' War the country was again Catholic. In the Turkish wars from the 16th to the 19th century, Austria was in conflict with the Ottoman Empire , and for many decades it was the "bulwark" of (entire) Christianity against Islam, which then took place at the military border and other border areas led from settlement measures to an astonishingly tolerant attitude that would not have been possible in the heartland. In the tolerance patents (1781 and 1782) of Joseph II , religious freedom was guaranteed for at least some other Christian denominations.

It was not until Emperor Joseph II. With a treaty of 1784, which forced the Diocese of Passau to surrender all territories of Obderennsian , to create a church structure that largely corresponded to the national territory of the hereditary lands ; the last corrections were made with the incorporation of the then sovereign Prince Archbishopric of Salzburg in 1803 and the abandonment of the fragmented Upper Austria until 1815. At the same time, however , all "contemplative" (contemplative) orders were abolished in Josephinism , and the Catholic Church was placed in the service of the state in the spirit of absolutism . A separation of ecclesiastical and secular jurisdiction was introduced as early as the Middle Ages, but the parish structure remained the basis of the Habsburg administration until the abolition of the manor and the creation of local communities after the revolution of 1848/49 .

The Habsburgs' self-commitment to the Roman Church continued with the proclamation of the Austrian Empire in 1804 and the end of the Roman-German Empire in 1806 - when the papal mandate to protect the Holy See was briefly handed over to Napoleon - and Catholicism remained in the Habsburg monarchy dominated politically and socially until the end of 1918. A concordat of 1855, which adjusted the state church sovereignty of the Josephinian system, was revoked by Austria in 1870 when the Holy See came increasingly under the influence of the Kingdom of Italy and as a result the Papal States was dissolved. In the same year the dogmatization of the Pope's infallibility in questions of faith took place. The liberal forces in Austria were able to persuade the emperor to place matrimonial jurisdiction, teaching and education and religious affiliation as well as relationships of interdenominational marriages under the authority of the state ( May Laws 1870 and amendment 1874).

With the final introduction of parliamentarism from 1861, the Catholic Church in Austria-Hungary (from 1867) continues to provide the spiritual members in the manor house and virile votes in the state parliaments , with the Christian Social Party  (CS, from 1893) the political members until the pre-war years Majorities.

Period of the First Republic and Fascism

During the First Republic , the Catholic Church continued to be closely associated with the Christian Social Party . With the Concordat of 1933 , under Dollfuss , who himself was close to Catholicism as a CS politician and CV member, the legal status of the Catholic Church, training of the clergy, religious instruction, the right of the Church to its own schools, church marriage, military chaplaincy , the church holidays as well as the property issues of the church are regulated. Due to the exceptional status of the Holy See as a personality under international law , this contractual agreement has the special form of a concordat .

The church's attitude towards National Socialism was ambivalent. The annexation of Austria was advocated by the bishops, on the other hand there was also Catholic resistance ( rosary demonstration ) . Since the National Socialists neither recognized the Concordat nor extended the 1933 Concordat between the German Reich and the Holy See to Austria, there was no legal protection for the Church. Various forms of harassment, such as expropriation, arrests, a ban on preaching, and the end of religious instruction, attempted to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church; numerous priests and lay people were deported to concentration camps and executed.

Second Republic of Austria

Membership development for Catholics
in Austria since 1951
year population Catholics proportion of
1951 6,933,905 6,170,084 89.0%
1961 7,073,807 6,295,075 89.0%
1971 7,491,526 6,548,316 87.4%
1981 7,555,338 6,372,645 84.3%
1991 7,795,786 6,081,454 78.0%
2001 8,032,926 5,915,421 73.6%
2011 8,408,121 5,403,722 64.3%
2012 8,451,860 5,359,151 63.4%
2013 8,507,786 5,308,515 62.4%
2014 8,584,926 5,265,378 61.3%
2015 8,700,471 5,211,238 59.9%
2016 8,772,865 5,162,621 58.8%
2017 8,822,267 5,110,743 57.9%
2018 8,858,775 5,052,727 57.0%
2019 8.901.064 4,984,633 56.0%

In the Second Republic , relations with the Catholic Church were consolidated in the modern sense of the separation of church and state . In 1957, the 1933 Concordat was in principle recognized again by the coalition government. Compensation was paid, but the religious fund - primarily ecclesiastical and lordly possessions of the 18th century - remained largely state property. In 1962, religious instruction was also reorganized in accordance with the Concordat. The obligatory civil marriage (civil marriage), which was introduced after the “Anschluss”, and not the optional civil marriage desired by the church, was retained - contrary to the provisions of the Concordat.

After the Second World War, the proportion of Roman Catholics stagnated. In both 1951 and 1961, 89 percent supported this religious denomination. The total number of Catholics continued to grow until 1971 when it peaked. But as early as 1961, the proportion of Catholics in the total population fell from 266,000 (1961) to 321,000 (1971) due to the incipient immigration of members of other religions and due to the increase in people without confession, which is mainly due to withdrawals from the Catholic Church is. This percentage decrease became all the more pronounced when the total number of Catholics also declined from 1971 onwards, while the number of people without confession rose to 963,000 by 2001.

Cardinal Franz Koenig

The Second Vatican Council  (1962–1965), in which the relationship between Catholicism and the state was outlined, had a positive effect in Austria. Cardinal Franz König contributed to the reconciliation with the Social Democrats and made first contacts with the Eastern Churches . The  Catholic Church did not join the World Council of Churches (ÖRKÖ), which was founded in 1958, until 1994, when an interdenominational Christian dialogue developed on an equal footing. The 1980s and 1990s were characterized by basic church discussions (dialogue for Austria) and the filling of certain offices (according to Bishops Groër and Krenn ). In 1995 the We are Church movement was born , as was the Church People's Desire for signatures .

Ratio of Catholics (purple), Protestants (purple) and others (white) by federal state (2001).

Starting with the Groër affair in 1995, the numerous cases of abuse of Catholic priests and religious led to the establishment of diocesan ombudsmen and a church commission headed by Waltraud Klasnic , which has since investigated these incidents and compensated those affected.

Since the last census in 2001, the number of members has shrunk by more than 930,000 people, whereby the Catholic Church lost 15.7 percent of its members in this period. In 2010 - in connection with the abuse cases discussed at the time - the number of people leaving the church reached their highest point with 85,960 former Catholics. In the last three years, an average of around 60,000 resignations have been reached, the Catholic Church thus loses almost 1.2 percent of its members every year. Thus, at the end of 2019, the number of Catholics fell below 5 million for the first time; if this trend continues, their share of the total population will fall below 50 percent by the end of 2025. Not only the number of Catholics, but also the number of participants in the Sunday mass has continuously decreased in recent years and, according to church statistics, amounted to 501,776 people (5.7 percent of the total population) on counting Sunday, Lent, and 553,875 in 2018 People (11 percent of Catholics or 6.3 percent of the total population) on Christ the King's Sunday counting against 1.1 million participants (14 percent of the total population) in 1995. In 2018, out of a total of 85,535 newborns throughout Austria, 40,641 were baptized Catholics, which is a percentage of 47.5 percent.

In spring 2013, some organizations critical of the church and religion, as well as the platform for those affected by church violence, organized an ultimately unsuccessful referendum against church privileges in Austria, which, among other things, called for a state investigation into cases of abuse and the revocation of the Concordat.

Pope John Paul II visited Austria in 1983, 1988 and 1998, Pope Benedict XVI. 2007.

organization

Legal status and rites of the Catholic Church in Austria

The Catholic Church is a legally recognized church . It is historically recognized in Austria, and its legal status was established in the 1933 Concordat between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria (Federal Law Gazette II No. 2/1934).

The recognition relates to:

The Catholic Church , with its rites:

The other Eastern Catholic churches have so far played a subordinate role in Austria and have not been explicitly anchored as organizations in law. It concerns the religious affiliations or rites Maronite-Catholic (Antiochene), Chaldean-Catholic (Chaldean), Syro-Malabar-Catholic (Chaldean), Coptic-Catholic (Alexandrian), Syrian-Catholic (Antiochene), Ethiopian-Catholic (Alexandrian) ), Syro-Malankar-Catholic (Antiochene).

The Old Catholic Church of Austria (Church of the Union of Utrecht ), which is an independently recognized church, does not belong to the Catholic Church .

Head: Austrian Bishops' Conference

Since the entire Austrian Catholic Church - as in most other countries - has no internal church equivalent (two church provinces, immediate dioceses and communities), the highest organ of the church is the Austrian Bishops' Conference . It is a corporation under public law , was established "with the approval of the Apostolic See" in 1849 and is located in Rotenturmstrasse not far from St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna.

The Bishops' Conference advises and supervises common affairs and represents the Church towards the Republic and in the Austrian World Council of Churches  (ÖRKÖ). The tasks also include, for example, the management of the Kathpress news agency .

Other central institutions

The Holy See is represented in Austria by the Apostolic Nuncio . The Apostolic Nunciature Vienna was established at Ferdinand I's court in 1529. As a doyen , the nuncio presides over the entire diplomatic corps in Austria . Archbishop Pedro López Quintana has been a nuncio in Austria since March 2019 . He is not a member of the Bishops' Conference, but receives the agenda of the assembly and is invited to attend. The protocol is forwarded to Rome via the nunciature and acknowledged.

The monastic area was once organized in two institutions, the Superior Conference of the Male Religious Congregations of Austria and the Union of the Women's Orders of Austria , which merged in 2019 to form the "Austrian Order Conference" as the umbrella organization.

An important supra-diocesan pastoral care institution is, for example, Caritas Austria , in which the umbrella organizations or central organizations of the nine regional dioceses are gathered.

The central media organ is the Kathpress agency .

Structure of the Catholic Church in Austria

The Austrian church provinces

The Catholic Church in Austria is divided into the two church provinces Salzburg and Vienna with a total of nine dioceses. The military bishop , who is called titular bishop of Wiener Neustadt , also has his seat in Vienna. The abbot of the Wettingen-Mehrerau Territorial Abbey is also a member of the Bishops' Conference, as the monastery, as a territorial abbey, is directly subordinate to the Holy See and is a separate church. The Archbishop of Vienna presides over the also immediate Ordinariate for the faithful of the Eastern Catholic Churches in Austria .

The territorial boundaries of the nine area dioceses roughly coincide with the boundaries of the federal states . The most striking differences are the eastern Lower Austria, which is part of the Archdiocese of Vienna, and eastern North Tyrol, which is part of the Archdiocese of Salzburg.

Overview of the Catholic dioceses

In 2018 there were 3020 Catholic parishes in Austria, which are looked after by 2048 diocesan priests and 1411 religious priests .

diocese founding cathedral bishop Auxiliary bishops Catholics
(2019)		 Dean's offices (2011) Parishes (2018)
Archdiocese of Salzburg 0739 Salzburg Cathedral Franz Lackner Hansjörg Hofer 460.106 17th 210
Feldkirch diocese 1968 St. Nicholas Cathedral in Feldkirch Benno Elbs 229,547 9 126
Diocese of Graz-Seckau 1218 Graz Cathedral Wilhelm Krautwaschl 794.169 25th 388
Diocese of Gurk 1072 Klagenfurt Cathedral Josef Marketz 356.920 23 336
Diocese of Innsbruck 1964 Cathedral of St. Jakob in Innsbruck Hermann Glettler 374.034 16 243
Archdiocese of Vienna 1469 St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna Christoph Cardinal Schönborn Franz Scharl
Stephan Turnovszky 		1,156,923 54 630
Eisenstadt diocese 1960 St. Martin's Cathedral in Eisenstadt Aegidius Zsifkovics 189,160 12 171
Diocese of Linz 1785 St. Mary of the Conception Cathedral Linz Manfred Scheuer 939,667 39 474
Diocese of St. Pölten 1785 St. Pölten Cathedral Alois Schwarz Anton Leichtfried 484.107 20th 421
Austrian military diocese 1986 St. George's Cathedral Wiener Neustadt Werner Freistetter 98,000 4th 21st
Ordinariate for the faithful of the Eastern Catholic Churches in Austria 1956 Central Parish Church of St. Barbara Vienna-Inner City Christoph Cardinal Schönborn 10,000 - 9
Wettingen-Mehrerau Territorial Abbey Mehrerau Abbey Church Vinzenz Wohlwend OCist
See also: History of Christianity in Austria - with an overview of all bishoprics / dioceses of today's Austrian territory

Economic aspects

Private sector

Taken together, the Catholic organizations are among the major landowners: The church land in Austria is estimated to be around a quarter of a million hectares, half of which, 121,400 hectares, is forest (without farms under 500 hectares, with these about half more) around 3 to 5 percent of the entire forest (4 million ha). The Admont Abbey is the largest agricultural and forestry company . In Vienna and Salzburg, the various church organizations together are each one of the largest homeowners.

As a “group of companies”, the Catholic organizations are also among the largest employers , they have around 60,000 employees (around 1.5 percent of the 4.3 million people in employment). The majority of them are naturally active in the social sector (education, medicine, health care and social services). The widespread religious hospitals, for example, make an important contribution to basic care. Almost 60 percent of church expenditures flow into personnel expenses (€ 283 million in 2008). The voluntary charitable work done within the church is also very extensive.

Overall, however, these are the assets and economic performance of legally independent institutions, not the finances of the Catholic Church per se. The operating income is used entirely for self-preservation and for our own and common work, since church organizations in Austria are by law not allowed to work for profit. The total added value - in relation to property and staff - is comparatively low, the dioceses, for example, earned 482 million euros in 2008, which corresponds to the sales of retail chains such as Ikea or H&M, of which 81 percent came from church contributions . However, there is no complete overview of financial management, and the Austrian Catholic Church is also quite reluctant to disclose this.

Cultural asset

Statistic monument protection according to owner:
yellow… church, 27% (2011, estimate ) - the Catholic Church provides the vast majority

Today, the Catholic Church is - apart from its religious significance for the majority of the population - one of the most important cultural carriers in the country and thus also an important economic factor in Austria as a tourist destination - solely due to its extensive cultural heritage .

Around a quarter (an estimated 15,000) of the listed buildings are owned by the dioceses, monasteries and other bodies. In almost every place in Austria the churches - and possibly the monasteries - are among the main attractions and are a landmark. In the two UNESCO World Heritage sites in the inner cities of Vienna and Salzburg, the total stock also belongs to a considerable extent to church organizations, in Vienna 10 percent of all buildings are accepted, in Salzburg half. There is close cooperation with the state authorities for the preservation of these cultural assets (for example, when restoring churches, the Federal Monuments Office , the diocese as the owner and the parish as the user usually share the costs in equal parts - via donations). The total cost of maintaining the churches is estimated at 150 million euros. Another 3 million a year is spent on church bells . The buildings are administered by the diocesan building authorities, for the monastic property there is the department for the cultural assets of the orders , a joint institution of the superior conference of male religious orders and the union of women's orders.

In addition, there is an extensive museum fund (particularly in the diocesan museums and foundations; the Imperial Treasury of the Hofburg is owned by the Republic as a Habsburg property) and valuable goods that are in regular use. Since 2011, some Catholic folk customs have also been recognized as Austria's intangible heritage by UNESCO.

In addition to the world's major libraries (such as those of the Admont and Kremsmünster monasteries ), the extensive church archives from the earliest land records to parish registers (birth and death registers up to the 19th century, baptismal records) are of inestimable scientific value . and marriage books to this day). Today they are mostly in the diocesan archives and represent the most important primary sources on Austrian history, but are also relevant for other subject areas.

literature

Recent history:

  • Ingeborg Schödl: From the beginning of the crisis. The Church in Austria from 1945 . Tyrolia-Verlag, Innsbruck 2011. ISBN 978-3-7022-3112-5 .

See also

Web links

  1. ↑ a b Austrian Bishops' Conference (bischofskonferenz.at)
  2. ↑ Diocesan ombudsman for victims of sexual abuse in the church (ombudsstellen.at)
  3. ↑ Independent victim protection attorney (opfer-schutz.at)
  4. ↑ Section for the cultural assets of the orders (kulturgueter.kath-orden.at)

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c Due to the name that has been used since ancient times, "Roman Catholic" means the Latin (Roman) Church in Austria , and "Catholic" means the entire (Roman) Catholic Church (Latin Church and Roman-Uniate Churches ). “ Old Catholic ” refers to the rejection of the First Vatican Council in 1870. The discussion that Protestantism is also “ Catholic ” (“relating to the whole, general”) has in Austria through the self-designation “ evangelical ” (“the Gospel following ') played no role for the Lutheran and Zwingli tradition (Augsburg and Helvetic Confessions).
  2. ↑ a b c Almost 5 million Catholics in Austria , Catholic Church Austria, January 15, 2020
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g Federal Chancellery (Ed.): Religions in Austria . Overview of the religious communities recognized in Austria. Federal Press Service, Vienna 2014, 1. Catholic Church , p. 12–15 ( pdf [accessed June 18, 2014]). pdf ( Memento of the original from July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Older edition 2007, pp. 11-14 ( pdf online , austria.gv.at, accessed June 18, 2014, pdf from p. 12). pdf ( Memento of the original from July 14, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bka.gv.at @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bka.gv.at
  4. ↑ a b c d e Statistics of the Catholic Church in Austria , kathisch.at, accessed on January 9, 2018
  5. ↑ Statistics Austria: Population according to religious denomination and federal states 1951 to 2001 , pdf, statistik.at, accessed on January 16, 2009.
  6. ↑ Statistics Austria: Population of Austria , accessed on February 12, 2020.
  7. ↑ Der Standard, March 5, 2010
  8. ↑ Bishops take measures against sexual abuse ( memento of the original from January 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. bischofskonferenz.at, accessed on March 21, 2011 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bischofskonferenz.at
  9. ↑ Statistics Austria: Statistics Austria, Born , statistik.at, accessed on January 15, 2020.
  10. ^ Initiative against church privileges , accessed on January 5, 2013;
    Kora Waibel: Cancellation of the Austrian Concordat. On the possibilities and consequences of the abolition of the treaty between the Republic of Austria and the Holy See of June 5, 1933 . Dissertation, 2008 ( PDF file ; 657 kB, on atheisten-info.at)
  11. ↑ a b Legally recognized churches and religious communities in Austria ( Memento of the original from April 3, 2015 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bka.gv.at archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Federal Chancellery, bka.gv.at> Kultusamt , accessed June 26, 2014.
  12. ↑ Concordat between the Holy See and the Republic of Austria including additional protocol. StF: Federal Law Gazette II No. 2/1934 (as amended online, ris.bka ).
  13. ↑ Legally recognized churches, religious societies and state-registered religious denominations in Austria , help.gv.at → Living in Austria → Entering / leaving the church
  14. ↑ a b This structure is based on Article II. “The Catholic Church in Austria enjoys a position under public law. Its individual institutions, which have legal personality according to canon law, also enjoy legal personality for the state, insofar as they already exist in Austria at the time this Concordat comes into force. Those to be established in the future will acquire legal personality for the state if they come into being with the participation of state authority provided for in this Concordate. "
  15. ↑ Before that, for example, the Uniate Greek-Catholic Eparchy Marča was established on the Ottoman border in 1611 and later the Diocese of Križevci in 1777 .
  16. ↑ a b Appendix A of the Implementing Regulations for Religious Education Circular No. 5/2007 (online, schulamt.at).
  17. ↑ a b The Bishops' Conference ( Memento of the original from December 5, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bischofskonferenz.at archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , bischofskonferenz.at, accessed June 25, 2014.
  18. ↑ Frequently asked questions (FAQs) about the Austrian Bishops 'Conference: Is the Apostolic Nuncio in Austria a member of the Bishops' Conference? ( Memento of the original from August 19, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bischofskonferenz.at archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. bischofskonferenz.at, accessed June 30, 2013.
  19. ↑ Women's and men's orders grow together. November 26, 2019, accessed February 27, 2020 .
  20. ^ How the State Finances the Church , derstandard.at, February 5, 2012;
    Regarding the total forest stock:     Austria's forest is firmly in private hands ( Memento of the original from July 14, 2014 in the     Internet Archive ) Info: The @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.waldwissen.net archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , waldwissen.net, online version 23 August 2012.
  21. ↑ a b c d e f g 482 million euros in income, 60,000 employees: The Catholic Church of Austria in figures , Madner Madner, Barbara Nothegger in format.at, undated (2008)
  22. ↑ a b The number of non-Catholic churches in Austria is comparatively marginal, and mainly comprises the 200 Protestant church buildings.
  23. ↑ For an overview see kirchliche-museen.org: Austria
  24. ↑ The weather records from Kremsmünster Abbey, for example, are one of the world's longest closed time series in climatology. cf. 250 years of weather observation at the Kremsmünster observatory , ZAMG , December 27, 2012.

Coordinates: 48 ° 12 ′ 33.6 ″  N , 16 ° 22 ′ 23.9 ″  E