Gambling

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Slot machines on the Norwegian ferry Kronprins Harald
Roulette : Roulette wheel in a casino
Black Jack : Typical game situation on a gaming table
Lottery ticket 6 out of 49 (Germany)

Games of chance , sometimes referred to as games of chance (obsolete hazard games ) (of French hasard , dt. Coincidence derived from arabic az-zahr , the plurality of dice , see Hazard (dice) ), are games whose course be determined largely by chance.

Differentiation from games of chance

The influence of chance can be very different in games. In the so-called pure games of chance, such as B. Roulette , Craps or Sic Bo , the result depends entirely on chance. The influence of chance in games, in which the participants can also significantly influence the outcome of the game through their decisions, as in backgammon and blackjack, is less clearly quantifiable . From a qualitative point of view, however, according to the law of large numbers , the influence of chance decreases with long game sequences.

In the legal assessment of whether a game of chance is involved, other factors must also be taken into account, in particular the value of the stake and possible winnings . In addition, tournament events such as In a poker tournament, for example, the entire tournament rules including the procedure used for the final evaluation are decisive, as they are legally stipulated in the game contract or mathematically-formally in the game-theoretical modeling . These specifications also include information about the number of players and the amount of information that is accessible to a player at the time of a game decision , e.g. B. in the form of cards known to him in card games .

Games whose legal classification as gambling was under discussion were all zero-sum games in the sense of game theory (and not, for example, cooperative games ), i. H. the sum of the (positive) winnings of players is always equal to the sum of the losses of the other players. This includes the case of the game of a single player against a machine or against a banker who acts according to a fixed scheme (as in blackjack ). For this, the organizer must be rated as the second player, who, however, does not have to use any skill for his winnings, which German case law evaluates as a reduction in the relative influence of skill.

Game theory differentiation from games of chance

Classification of parlor games

In the game-theoretic classification of board games , games of chance constitute one of three classes pure games , from playful vision through the causes of the unpredictability of the gameplay are characterized and meet the following criteria:

Here are pure gambling characterized as affirmative to the first question and the other two questions are in the negative. Questions to be answered in the affirmative also allow approximate quantifications that reflect the character of the game in a direct comparison of games, for example to the effect that in backgammon the influence of the players is greater than in the case of human do not get angry due to a higher combinatorial variety of possible moves . As a result, the influence of chance in backgammon is relatively lower than in human don't get angry (see illustration).

Factors of manual dexterity or quick reactions are not covered by the classification , which, however , are the exception in parlor games - unlike in sporting games , for example in Mikado or Speed .

Legal differentiation from games of chance

The ruling of the Reichsgericht (Reich Court of Justice) of 1928 on the Bajazzo finger strike machine contains the essential principles for assessing skill.

Since games of chance are subject to legal restrictions in most countries, the legal delimitation of games of chance is the subject of various legal norms and court rulings that differ from country to country. As complementary to the games of chance are games of skill (Engl. Skill games ), whose decision is primarily influenced by the mental or physical dexterity of players.

In Germany, Section 3, Paragraph 1 of the State Treaty on Gaming (GlüStV) states :

A game of chance exists if a fee is required for the acquisition of a chance to win in the course of a game and the decision about the win depends entirely or predominantly on chance. The decision about winning depends in any case on chance, if the uncertain occurrence or outcome of future events is decisive. Betting for a fee on the occurrence or outcome of a future event is also a game of chance.

Analogous definitions also contain § 1 of the Austrian Gambling Act (GlSpG) as well as Art. 3 of the Swiss Federal Law on Money Games (Gambling Act, BGS), whereby in Austria § 1 para. 2 GlSpG adds that "Roulette, observation roulette, poker , blackjack, Two aces, bingo , keno , baccarat and baccarat chemin de fer and their game variants are considered to be games of chance.

According to the established case law in Germany, games of skill are characterized by the fact that "the decision about win and loss depends largely on the skills and the level of attention of the players." In this context, "the average of the people to whom the game is open must." have a high probability of being able to “determine the outcome of the game by skill”. “Mathematical calculations and intricate probability calculations ”, insofar as they exceed “the average ability of the people involved”, are not decisive “for assessing whether a game has the character of a game of chance”. This does not, however, affect “the need to determine the character of the game using scientific methods”. When assessing the skill of a player, “all participants should not try to achieve success using the skill available to them”, but rather, as was decided in the case of a two-person game to be assessed, “one participant at a time should rule by chance " to let. In this sense, as early as 1928, the Reichsgericht had seen the increase in the proportionate success that an average player in a game sequence compared to the “random rate” as a instead of the Player's random acting mechanism.

The use of differently justified measurement methods for the proportion of skill occurred in the case law in individual cases, but is otherwise controversial. As a rule, tournaments are rated less restrictively. In Germany, for example, certain tournament-style games such as skat (see price skate ), Schafkopf (see Tourierschafkopf ) and bridge (see tournament bridge ) are not legally considered to be games of chance, provided the tournament is long enough. In Austria, the 2008 amendment to the Gaming Act with Section 4 (6) GlSpG created a similar area exception for card game tournaments. In addition, special games such as tarock , schnapps , chess , skat, bridge and billiards were previously classified as games of skill by the case law.

In 2007, the Swiss Federal Gaming Board came to the conclusion that a poker tournament can be a game of skill if the individual games are not rated independently of one another but as a whole. The assessment was corrected by the Federal Supreme Court in 2010 . With the amendment to the Gambling Act that came into force at the beginning of 2019, an explicit opportunity was created to obtain cantonal approval for poker tournaments, regardless of whether it was classified as a game of skill.

In the USA, the question of whether backgammon is a game of skill received different answers from courts. In Lichtenstein, backgammon is considered a game of skill, whereby the underlying legal norms have a comparatively explicit character.

Games of chance with or without a banker

Baccarat player, drawing by Albert Guillaume around 1897

In the so-called banker games, engl. Banking games , French jeux de contrepartie such as Roulette, Craps, Sic Bo, Black Jack or Baccara banque , one party is preferred by the rules of the game (compare bank advantage ), so that the opponents, the so-called punchers (from French point , German point, see Pharo ) will definitely lose in the long run, i.e. if you play frequently.

In contrast to the banker games , in the non banking games , French jeux de cercle, all players - at least on average - have the same chances of winning. This is the case with most poker variants, such as Draw Poker , Seven Card Stud , Texas Hold'em or Omaha Hold'em , but also with Écarté or all those games where there is no permanent banker, but instead changes this role like baccarat chemin de fer .

History, prohibition and monopoly of gambling

A game of Pharo, Johann Baptist Raunacher (1729–1771), Eggenberg Palace near Graz
Roulette game around 1800
Share of the casino in Bad Nauheim from 1854
Casino Monte Carlo , one of the most famous European casinos
Pachinko gambling hall in Japan

According to the current state of science, games of chance have been around since around 3000 BC. The oldest finds of six-sided dice made of bone or ivory date from this period . The sites are in China and in the area of ​​ancient Mesopotamia . Dice games are z. B. Mentioned in ancient Indian writings, in Greek mythology Hercules rolls the dice against a temple guard for a pretty courtesan . The dots in use today, with dots on each side, were probably made around 2000 BC. Invented in Egypt. In Roman antiquity , dice games were widespread in all classes, although the authorities threatened them with punishment. Throwing the dice was only officially allowed on Saturnalia . According to Roman law, gambling debts could not be sued, and what was lost could not be reclaimed in court. The house where gamblers were found has been confiscated. Emperor Claudius was an avid friend of the Ludus duodecim scripta and even wrote a book about this forerunner of today's backgammon that has been lost. Tacitus reports in Germania about the Germanic peoples' passion for dice , that when sober they played with extreme recklessness for house and yard, and in the end even for their own freedom.

According to old German law, gambling transactions were considered illegal transactions and not only could the loss be reclaimed, but the winner could even be sued. In the Middle Ages , both spiritual and secular authorities tried to ban the game. Such bans on card and dice games allow conclusions to be drawn about the spread and development of games. A decree from the English King Richard the Lionheart dates back to the 12th century , stating that no one who was less than a knight was allowed to throw the dice for money. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the view gradually gained acceptance that high and excessive play - meaning high and borrowed stakes - should be punished. For the first time, a distinction was made between prohibited and permitted games, whereby this distinction related less to the type than to the amount of the same.

The widespread use of gambling in the 17th century gave rise to scientific investigation: The treatment of the problem of the Chevaliers de Méré by Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat (1654) is considered to be the birth of the calculus of probability , although it was already done by Galileo Galilei , Luca Pacioli and Geronimo Cardano did mathematical work on certain games of chance.

At the beginning of the 19th century different attitudes towards gambling developed in different European countries. While in some states these games were allowed and were also organized for the benefit of the state, because public games of chance were considered less pernicious than those operated secretly, in other states all hazard games were forbidden. In France, where there were privileged playhouses in almost all major cities in the 18th and early 19th centuries, Louis XV was already trying . to ban gambling in vain. In 1806, Napoleon Bonaparte only allowed gambling in the gambling houses of the Palais Royal in Paris , where roulette was played alongside Pharo and Rouge et noir and Trente et quarante until it was closed by Louis Philippe at the end of 1837 .

After 1837, the heyday of the casinos of began Baden-Baden , Bad Homburg and Wiesbaden , where Fyodor Dostoyevsky met the roulette and fell this game - from the experience of the novel was the player - and Bad Ems , Bad Nauheim and Bad Pyrmont . In Germany, Prussia had already preceded the March Revolution (1848) with the abolition of the casinos. In the countries annexed in 1866, the casinos established by previous governments were allowed to continue until the end of 1872 on the basis of contracts. In doing so, however, they had to accumulate a significant part of the net profit for the formation of a cure and beautification fund for the participating cities. After the establishment of the Reich, all German casinos had to close at the end of 1872 - they were only reopened in 1933 under the National Socialists .

The principality of Monaco benefited from the gambling ban in France and Germany . François Blanc took advantage of this opportunity and ran the Monte Carlo casino in its heyday. Playing in foreign lotteries was also forbidden. B. in Prussia through the ordinance of July 5, 1847. Permission had to be obtained beforehand for public lotteries and raffles to be held. Also worth mentioning is the decision of the Supreme Court of 29 April 1882 according to which the so-called bookmaking on horse races and betting on the totalizator must be regarded as gambling. In 1904, the Imperial and Royal Ministry of Justice published a list of forbidden games , which was exemplary for many decades - this list is remarkable in that it also includes some special skittles .

In a legal sense, gambling requires an asset to be wagered. If no such action is necessary, d. H. If you can win cash or prizes in a game, but not lose anything, it is legally a competition , e.g. As a contest . The organization of games of chance currently requires an official permit in accordance with Section 33h of the Trade Regulations if it is a public game. Otherwise this constitutes a violation of Section 284 of the Criminal Code . This is the case if the game is offered to a changing group of people. Even participation as a player is punishable under Section 285 of the German Criminal Code, provided that the game of chance takes place without official permission.

Since October 2006, gambling on the Internet has been banned in the USA by prohibiting credit institutions from maintaining a flow of funds to the providers.

Islam

Types of games of chance (selection)

Scratch card (USA)
Sports Betting Ticket (Italy)

Typology based on socio-psychological factors

Although gambling ( alea ) apparently cannot take on comparable forms, such as the weekly double-headed round in the circle of friends, horse betting in the hippodrome , roulette in the casino and the spatially independent lottery, the differences according to Schütte are primarily determined by sociological factors: fashion, accessibility and affordability. In his opinion, a general psychological differentiation is not necessary. The sociological and psychological factors interact and are synonymous in the categorization. Normal gambling can be the expression of various factors and typologized on the basis of these.

Socio-economic factors

Gambling can be divided into two separate forms: costly gambling with a social component and the physical presence of the player, for example horse betting, and anonymous, inexpensive gambling such as the lottery.

The higher the socio-economic and professional status, the greater the tendency towards the former. In doing so, Schütte isolates the perceived need to live according to one's own social standard and to present equals generosity and wealth as factors in order to increase prestige and recognition. Here, gambling is a tool to differentiate the better-off from the lower classes, who cannot afford the “ticket to the game”, ie the high stakes. A study by Chantal et al. Showed that horse betting is not primarily about increasing money. approved.

The number lottery, on the other hand, offers people in the lower social classes who are dissatisfied with their everyday life and social status, the hopeful illusion of being able to achieve economic and social mobility through gambling . Here, gambling has an equalizing (equalizing) function through participation alone. This form of the game is characterized by very high potential profits, since a social advancement can only be achieved through enormous inflows of funds. This is offset by a low stake, because this type of player typically has little cash. After all, it is the point of the game to achieve this.

High winnings and low stakes inevitably come at the expense of the probability of winning, which the player turns a blind eye to. The good example is the lottery (the number lottery). The probability of picking six correct numbers in the "6 out of 49" variant is less than a ten millionth - the probability of winning the main prize with six correct numbers and the correct super number in a single attempt is accordingly only 1: 139,838,160 . The typical lottery player is subject to an enormous misjudgment of this probability.

In 1960, Caillois saw clear signs of escapism in the alea : In the game, an equality between people is artificially created that does not exist in reality. Reality is replaced by perfect situations and transformed into the goal of escaping from it. Schütte founds the lower strata's tendency to play by compensating for psychological and material deprivation that leaves people unsatisfied. Daily work here is a pure duty, the only gain of which is wages. With this, the worker seeks to compensate for the alienation in private life caused by work . Gambling suggests the possibility of recovering from work, regaining control of one's life and asserting performance and success against competition. The satisfaction of the need for a demonstration of self-confidence, the ability to make decisions and independence is reserved for gambling.

Situational factors

Peer pressure and rewards through social recognition can encourage a person to play. For the game to take effect, the game of chance must be easily accessible, for example the kiosk that accepts lottery tickets. In the meantime, the Internet is gaining in importance, as can be seen from the current discussion about lottery ticket acceptance at the supermarket checkout and private brokerage services on the Internet. Furthermore, a shortage of alternative occupations favors gambling behavior.

Learning factors

The player develops certain expectations from an observed series of games. If he wins frequently, he believes in a lucky streak and assumes that it will continue. However, if he loses more often, he tells himself that the bad luck will be compensated in the future in order to restore the balance. In both cases, he expects future profits, but in both cases the probabilities of profit and loss remain absolutely unchanged.

There must be an imbalance between gains and losses, regardless of the size of the win. Theoretically , the learning process can be mapped with the aid of amplifier plans that achieve their maximum efficiency with discontinuous increase in quotas.

Probability Perception Factors

People usually perceive probabilities in a distorted way. As Prospect Theory highlights, one is risk averse to gains and risk averse to losses. Past events are easily overestimated in their degree of representation. If a person knows a lottery winner who has won with his birthday numbers, he is tempted to believe that this is an effective strategy. On the contrary, it is advisable not to type the often used 19 (beginning of all birth years of the 20th century) and the month numbers from 1 to 12, because if you win with them, the winnings have to be divided among more winners than if you were less likely to bet Numbers.

By dividing the money into small units in slot machines or symbolic fictionalization in the form of chips in casinos - the play money used by casinos is just as useless as a means of payment as that of children - the real value of the money is concealed and risk perception is weakened.

Rogers mentions a further bias due to the false assumption that the probability has an auto-corrective effect, i.e. that sooner or later all number combinations will be drawn and thus persistence will definitely pay off, and that all numbers are drawn with the same frequency, so that the probability of previously rare numbers is higher lies as frequently drawn. The player here does not understand the fact that each draw is independent of all previous draws. Combinations and numbers already drawn are just as likely as not yet drawn (so-called player fallacy ). As supposed evidence, the law of large numbers is often wrongly interpreted as a law of equalization . The common assumption that the probability of winning increases if a jackpot is not hit is a fallacy in many jackpot systems. One speaks of the rollover phenomenon .

Furthermore, a “ near miss phenomenon” is observed, which suggests that the win is getting closer and closer, whereby the first player in the present has the same probability of winning as the veteran. According to Reid, a near hit in games of skill has a motivating effect , as the skill required for a hit no longer seems far away. Coupled with the illusion of control , this means that even in games of chance, near hits, for example a number next to the ball in roulette, motivate the player. The study by Côté et al. confirms that near-winnings lead to more persistent gaming and increased use of money.

Perception of skill factors

An actual or supposed influence of the player on the chance of winning increases the attraction of the game and leads to increased stamina. The mental hygiene of humans arranges that he attributes gains internally and losses externally . Subject to this illusion of control , the player overestimates the probability of winning.

In sports betting, which are apparently not entirely random, players can use their knowledge to better assess the probabilities and thus increase their chances of winning. Nevertheless, this will rarely lead to a positive profit expectation, since the bookmaker fees usually make up a considerable proportion of the actual, mathematically correct, payout. If this fact is ignored, then the player gets the illusion that he can beat the game when it is not. Even the possibility of drawing a ticket or ticking lottery numbers is enough to create an illusion of control, although this contradicts all logic. Here the game is classified incorrectly. It is mistaken for a game of skill even though it is a game of chance. This is also reflected in observations that dice players are willing to bet more money on their own throws than on strangers.

Rituals occur which, from the player's point of view, have a positive influence on the probability of winning, or the misconception that there are people who are more or less lucky. Griffiths was able to show that there are clear differences in terms of skill perception. While less than half of normal gamblers believe that success at slot machines depends primarily on skill, all excessive gamblers believed this.

Any game can be corrupted by breaking the boundary with reality. The greatest enemy of alea is superstition. The temptation is great to see reality as a game of chance and thus to slide into a passive and resigned fatalism and determinism . Likewise, superstition can penetrate the world of the game, as fortune tellers seek to anticipate the outcome of the game. In both cases, the game idea is decomposed.

Addiction

Players who are unable to withstand the impulse to gamble, even if this has serious consequences in their personal, family or professional environment or at least threaten them, are referred to as pathological gamblers . According to Hayer, Meerkerk and Mheen, young men in particular represent a risk group of pathological gambling. The recording of player characteristics and developments in gambling behavior in connection with the early stages and addiction progressions are important for the development of prevention and treatment measures: "[...], problem gambling has emerged as the primary issue raised by gambling liberalization. In this way, the pathological gambler, rather than the process of gambling liberalization, has been constructed and mobilized as the object of policy and intervention. "

The numbering of the cost of gambling addiction is controversial among scientists. A study by the Gambling Research Center estimates the annual social costs of pathological gamblers in Germany at 300 to 600 million euros (compared to 20 to 50 billion euros for tobacco consumption and 20 to 30 billion euros for alcohol consumption), with the proportion caused by commercially operated gaming machines at 225 million euros. On this basis, an analysis financed by the gaming machine industry and commissioned by the Research Institute for Gambling and Betting comes to the conclusion that although gambling addiction is a serious disease, the economic effects of using a cost-benefit analysis are far below those There are welfare costs that arise from alcohol and tobacco abuse , which would result in annual social costs of 40 billion euros. Especially for the field of commercially operated gaming machines, the analysis compares annual social costs of 225 to 300 million euros with economic benefits (income) of 1.37 billion euros.

According to the Federal Center for Health Education, sports betting on the Internet and gaming machines are particularly addictive. According to a study by the Universities of Greifswald and Lübeck, around 193,000 people in Germany are pathologically addicted to gambling. For a summary of further test results see also Pathological Playing . In a brief scientific report, the Research Institute for Gambling and Betting comes to the conclusion that when assessing the addiction potential on the basis of absolute figures on pathological gaming behavior, conclusions cannot be drawn about the risk potential of game forms. On the basis of an assessment which, in addition to the number of pathological players, also includes the intensity of the respective game and the gross gaming revenues (pathology potential coefficient), the report comes to the conclusion that the pathological addiction potentials of these types of games may be presented in a distorted manner. An investigation into the gambling ban in Vienna shows that the ban on so-called "small gambling" has turned gambling addicts towards the expanding illegal game providers.

Illegal gambling and organized crime

Because of the risk of addiction, among other things, gambling is considered immoral in many societies . Unregulated gambling is illegal in most states and is often pursued by organized crime ; legal gambling is usually subject to various restrictions. An example of this is the XY gang in Brandenburg, involved in gambling and drug trafficking .

Gambling in different countries

Gambling in Germany

Slot machines in the Magdeburg casino (2016)
Logo of Aktion Mensch
Scoreboard on the Frankfurt racecourse

In Germany, classic games of chance and slot machines are offered in casinos . Slot machines , the use and profit possibilities of which are limited, may also be operated in amusement arcades and restaurants . Lotto and scratch cards are distributed through acceptance and sales points, which are mostly newsagents and tobacco shops. Lotteries are also offered , especially for charitable purposes such as Aktion Mensch . While there are over a hundred bookmakers based on the Racing Betting and Lottery Act, which came into force in 1922 , the range of sports betting that can be made in sports betting shops and on the Internet is relatively new. Online casinos are not allowed to be operated in Germany except in Schleswig-Holstein . Legalization under strict conditions is only planned with the State Treaty on Gaming on July 1, 2021. Playing in a foreign online casino is also a criminal offense ( Section 285 StGB).

According to a 2015 study carried out by the Federal Center for Health Education (BZgA) , 37.3% of Germans took part in games of chance. For men, participation was higher at 43.3% than for women at 31.3%. In 2015, the gross gaming revenue, i.e. H. the sum of the stakes made minus the distributed winnings, approx. 10.4 billion euros per year for legally regulated gaming offers in Germany and a further 2.3 billion euros for unregulated gaming offers (illegal as well as cross-border online offers). Compared to the previous year, this corresponds to an increase of 8% in relation to all game offerings, although the unregulated share recorded an increase of 30%.

The federal states are responsible for games of chance and betting. In 2016, lottery and lottery revenues amounted to 3.6 billion euros. In order to regulate the gaming market, the federal states concluded an interstate gaming treaty , which has so far had to be amended twice following relevant court rulings. This regulates the lottery, lotteries, sports betting , casinos and the installation of gaming machines in amusement arcades , but not the requirements for gaming machines. Their properties are regulated by the Gaming Ordinance and the Trade Regulations. There are around 190,000 gaming machines in around 9,100 German gambling halls and 77,000 machines in restaurants. The Gauselmann Group as the largest slot machine manufacturer in Germany made a total turnover of around 1.7 billion euros 2016th

Gambling in Austria

Following the introduction of restrictive laws for various types of gambling, the police and authorities also took stricter action against illegally operated gaming machines in 2016. In the first 4 months of 2016, 860 gaming machines (375 in Upper Austria and 110 in Vienna) were confiscated by the state in order to destroy them if the procedure was successful. As a result of the stricter regulations, particularly for gaming machines, there was a shift in sales towards sports betting and online casinos, with a simultaneous decline in profits for casinos and traditional providers. In 2016, gaming and betting stakes rose by 9.9% compared to the previous year to 17.9 billion euros.

Gambling in Switzerland

A study carried out on behalf of the Swiss Federal Gaming Board and the Federal Office of Justice in 2004 showed that 21.2% of the Swiss population over the age of 18 frequently gamble. Residents of French and Italian Switzerland tend to play more often than residents of German-speaking Switzerland. The majority of the players, namely around 20.6%, play lottery offers such as number lottery, pools, sports lottery or similar games. 7% of the Swiss use foreign lotteries.

Gambling in the USA

Harrah's Cherokee Casino

Responsibility for games of chance lies with the federal states, which usually have so-called "gaming control boards", which ensure compliance with the respective regulations. A special feature in the US is the "Indian Gambling" ( Indian gambling ), which allowed Indian tribes independent of the laws of the states to operate casinos on their own land. Indian Gambling generated sales of $ 26.5 billion in 2012. Overall, casinos turned over around $ 57.5 billion this year.

Lotteries are also run by the states in the United States. Lotteries are held in 44 of the 50 states, as well as the District of Columbia , Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands . In 2011, the state lottery revenues totaled $ 17.9 billion.

Games of chance worldwide

In terms of net expenses per person, where winnings are deducted from stakes, Australia tops the global statistics on gambling diffusion. In 2010, an Australian spent an average of $ 1,288 on gambling, followed by Singapore, where spending was $ 1,174. European countries are ranked 4th (Ireland: $ 588), 5 (Finland: $ 533), 6 (Italy: $ 517), 8 (Norway: $ 448), 9 (Greece: $ 420) and 10 ( Spain: $ 418). Germany is not included in this top ten ranking. The comparative value for 2012 is approximately € 132 ($ 198).

Gambling in computer games

In recent years there has been an increasing focus on subliminal gambling elements in computer games in the media and politically, since many current online computer games now use gambling elements as a business model. However, legal questions still remain open.

See also

literature

  • Martin Bahr: Gambling and lottery law. An introduction to the most important legal aspects. 2nd revised and expanded edition. Schmidt, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-503-09796-8 .
  • Jörg Bewersdorff : Luck, Logic and Bluff: Mathematics in Play - Methods, Results and Limits . Springer Spectrum, 7th edition, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-21764-8 , doi: 10.1007 / 978-3-658-21765-5 .
  • Thomas Bronder: Game, Chance and Commerce. Theory and practice of the game of money between math, law and reality . Springer-Verlag, Berlin 2016, ISBN 978-3-662-48828-7 , doi: 10.1007 / 978-3-662-48829-4 .
  • Heinz Diegmann, Christof Hoffmann, Wolfgang Ohlmann: Practical handbook for all gaming law. Kohlhammer, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-17-018893-8 .
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  • Friedrich Endemann : Contributions to the history of the lottery and today's lottery law. Georgi, Bonn 1882 (dissertation at the University of Bonn), online at archive.org .
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  • Mark Griffiths, Paul Delfabbro: The Biopsychosocial Approach to Gambling. Contextual Factors in Research and Clinical Interventions. In: The Electronic Journal of Gambling Issues. 5, 2001, ZDB -ID 2114710-3 , online .
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  • Ralf Lisch : Win by playing? Opportunities in comparison. Stiftung Warentest, Berlin, 1983. 2nd updated edition 1984, ISBN 3-924286-02-7 .
  • Harry Nutt : Chance and Luck. Gambling explorations (in Germany). Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1994, ISBN 3-596-12390-9 ( Fischer - ZeitSchriften 12390).
  • John Scarne : Scarne's New Complete Guide To Gambling. Fully revised, expanded, updated edition. Simon & Schuster, New York NY 1986, ISBN 0-671-63063-6 ( A Fireside Book ), (English).
  • Heinrich M. Schuster: The game. Its development and significance in German law. A jurisprudential treatise based on moral history. Gerold, Vienna 1878, online at achrive.org
  • Rudolf Streinz , Tobias Kruis: Union law requirements and member states' scope for design in the area of ​​gaming law. In: New legal weekly . 52, 2010, pp. 3745-3750.
  • Hans-Heinrich Wellmann (Red.): The gamblers. Time-Life International, Amsterdam 1980 ( Time-Life Books - The Wild West ).

Web links

Wiktionary: Gambling  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wiktionary: Gamble game  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wiktionary: Wettspiel  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wikisource: Law on the closure and restriction of public casinos (Norddeutscher Bund, 1868)  - sources and full texts

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Jörg Bewersdorff: Games between luck and skill , magazine for betting and gambling law, 2017, pp. 228–234, there p. 230
  2. ↑ Bernd Holznagel, Poker - a game of chance or skill? , Multimedia und Recht , 2008, pp. 438–444, in particular Chapter IV.2
  3. ↑ Jörg Bewersdorff: Games between luck and skill , magazine for betting and gambling law, 2017, pp. 228–234, there p. 233
  4. ↑ Clemens Weidemann, Hans Schlarmann: The examination of predominantly random dependence in gambling law - illustrated using the example of Hold'em poker and other card games , Neue Zeitschrift für Verwaltungsrecht , 2014, Issue 20, Extra, pp. 1–8, there p. 4 f . .
  5. ^ Reichsgericht , judgment of May 18, 1928 (I 977/27), decisions of the Reichsgericht in Strafsachen , Volume 62, pp. 163-173, there p. 166 f.
  6. ↑ Jörg Bewersdorff: Luck, Logic and Bluff: Mathematics in Play - Methods, Results and Limits , Springer Spectrum, 6th Edition, Wiesbaden 2012, ISBN 978-3-8348-1923-9 , doi: 10.1007 / 978-3-8348 -2319-9 , pp. V-VIII ( Springer-Link )
  7. ↑ Hartmut Menzer, Ingo Althöfer: Number theory and number games: Seven selected topics , Munich 2014, ISBN 978-3-486-72030-3 , p. 321 in the Google book search, doi: 10.1524 / 9783486720310.321
  8. ↑ Tom Verhoeff, The Mathematical Analysis of Games, Focusing on Variance ,: MaCHazine, 13 (3), March 2009. A detailed version was published in Dutch: Spelen met variantie , Pythagoras, 49 (3), January 2010, p. 20– 24 ( Memento from April 14, 2016 in the Internet Archive ).
  9. ↑ State Treaty on Gaming in Germany, 2011.
  10. ↑ Gambling Act of October 19, 2010 on ris.bka.gv.at.
  11. ↑ Federal Law on Money Games (Gambling Act, BGS) of September 29, 2017 (as of July 1, 2019). The Federal Council. The portal of the Swiss government , accessed on September 28, 2019.
  12. ↑ Giving overviews: Jörg Bewersdoff: Luck, Logic and Bluff: Mathematics in Play - Methods, Results and Limits . Springer Spectrum, 7th edition, Wiesbaden 2018, ISBN 978-3-658-21764-8 , doi: 10.1007 / 978-3-658-21765-5 , pp. 348-380; Jörg Bewersdorff: Games between luck and skill , magazine for betting and gambling law, ISSN  2192-0141 , 2017, pp. 228–234 ( online ), Thomas Bronder: Spiel, Zufall und Kommerz. Theory and practice of the game of money between math, law and reality . Springer-Verlag, 2nd edition, Berlin 2020, ISBN 978-3-662-60601-8 , doi: 10.1007 / 978-3-662-60602-5 , Christian Laustetter: The demarcation of criminal gambling from unpunished game of skill , legal review , 2012, pp. 507-513, doi: 10.1515 / juru-2012-0507
  13. ↑ See e.g. B. BGH , decision of January 11, 1989, Az. 2 StR 461/88, full text .
  14. ^ Reichsgericht, judgment of May 18, 1928 (I 977/27), decisions of the Reichsgericht in Strafsachen, Volume 62, pp. 163-173, there p. 166
  15. ↑ Federal Administrative Court , judgment of May 17, 1955 (1 C 133.53), para. 34, full text
  16. ↑ Federal Administrative Court, judgment of October 9, 1984 (C 20.82), full text
  17. ↑ Federal Administrative Court, judgment of October 9, 1984 (C 20.82), full text
  18. ^ Reichsgericht, judgment of May 18, 1928 (I 977/27), decisions of the Reichsgericht in Strafsachen, Volume 62, pp. 163-173, there p. 167 .
  19. ^ Reichsgericht, judgment of May 18, 1928 (I 977/27), decisions of the Reichsgericht in Strafsachen, Volume 62, pp. 163-173, p. 164 there
  20. ↑ Marcel Dreef / Peter Borm / Ben van der Genugten: Measuring skill in games: several approaches discussed , Mathematical Methods of Operations Research, Volume 59, Issue 3, 2004, pp. 375–391, doi: 10.1007 / s001860400347 .
  21. ↑ Judgment in ECLI: NL: RBSGR: 2010: BN0013 of the Court of The Hague of July 2, 2010 (criminal case, in Dutch)
  22. ↑ Robert Wagner: The practicality of the Austrian concept of gambling using the example of the card game poker , dissertation, University of Vienna, 2010.
  23. ^ Decision GZ RV / 1666-W / 06 of April 5, 2007 of the Independent Finance Senate Vienna ( online )
  24. ↑ Annex to § 5a of the Gaming Ordinance . In Landmann / Rohmer, Commentary on Trade Regulations , as of January 2007 (edited by Marcks), the card games Preisbridge, -schafskopf, -doppelkopf , -skat and -tarock are explicitly mentioned in addition to price chess .
  25. ↑ Federal Law Gazette I No. 54/2010 : Amendment to the Gaming Act 2008
  26. ↑ Gerhard Strejcek (ed.), Ronald Bresich (ed.): Gambling Act: GSpG 1989, commentary, 2nd edition 2011, p. 25, online (PDF; 630 kB)
  27. ^ Independent Administrative Senate Vienna, GZ 06/06/5595/99, August 3, 2000, full text .
  28. ↑ Swiss Federal Gaming Board, Annual Report 2007 ( Memento of December 2, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 252 kB), p. 8.
  29. ↑ Swiss Federal Gaming Board, Annual Report 2010 ( Memento of December 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 275 kB), p. 5.
  30. ↑ Federal Court, judgment of May 20, 2010, Az. 2C 694/2009, full text .
  31. ↑ Federal Law on Money Games (Money Games Act, BGS) of September 29, 2017 (as of July 1, 2019), Chapter 4, in particular Art. 36, online .
  32. ↑ Games Magazine, September 1982, quoted in Backgammon game skill on gamecolony.com
  33. ^ Judgment of December 7, 1982 on Boardwalk Regency Corp. v. Attorney Gen. of New Jersey, 188 NJ Super. 372 (Law Div. 1982) , accessed December 7, 2019.
  34. ↑ Ordinance of December 21, 2010 on Skill Games (GGV), Art. 2, No. 2 lit. c
  35. ↑ Gambling Act (GSG) of June 30, 2010, Art. 3. No. 1 lit. i , Ordinance of December 21, 2010 on Skill Games (GGV), Art. 2
  36. ↑ Ancient games of chance ( Memento of October 4, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) Article series on the history of games of chance
  37. ↑ "Rien ne va plus! for Internet gambling in the USA ” , heise.de, message from October 2, 2006.
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  40. ↑ Mark Lutter, Markets for Dreams: The Sociology of the Lotto Game , writings from the MPI for Social Research, Frankfurt / M. 2010, p. 132 in the Google book search
  41. ^ Roger Caillois: The games and the people. Mask and intoxication. Schwab, Stuttgart 1960.
  42. ^ Paul Rogers: The Cognitive Psychology of Lottery Gambling: A Theoretical Review , Journal of Gambling Studies, Volume 14, 1998, pp. 111-134, doi: 10.1023 / A: 1023042708217
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  46. ↑ T. Hayer: Young people and problems related to gambling. Risk conditions, development models and implications for preventive action strategies. Frankfurt / Main: Peter Lang, 2012.
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  49. ^ Tilmann Becker, Social Costs of Gambling in Germany , Research Center for Gambling, University of Hohenheim, 2011, p. 1 and p. 41
  50. ↑ Tilmann Becker, Social Costs of Gambling in Germany , Gambling Research Center, University of Hohenheim, 2011, p. 73
  51. ↑ Gambling until the breakdown , Spon, July 9, 2012
  52. ^ Franz W. Peren, Reiner Clement, Wiltrud Terlau: An economic cost-benefit analysis of the commercial money raffle for the Federal Republic of Germany , Research Institute for Gambling and Betting, 2011
  53. ↑ Hans-Jürgen Rumpf u. a .: Pathological gamblers: condition factors, behavior seeking help, remission. Results of the PAGE study (PDF; 1.7 MB)
  54. ^ Research Institute for Gambling and Betting: Pathology Potentials of Gambling Products - A Comparative Assessment of Game Forms offered in Germany .
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  56. ↑ Michael Terhaag: Yes, where are you running ...?
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  58. ^ Federal Center for Health Education (BZgA): Gambling behavior and gambling addiction in Germany. Results of the 2015 survey and trends , 2016, p. 54 .
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