Intensive animal husbandry

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Stables in the Lower Saxon " pig belt "

Intensive livestock farming , factory farming , industrial livestock or livestock farming is the mechanized farming usually only a single species in rural large enterprises with insufficient available agricultural land to produce the required feed themselves. The primary goal is the greatest possible increase in the generated income. The Intensive livestock production of a larger number of animals is often called factory farming referred.

Intensive animal husbandry differs from extensive and species-appropriate husbandry in that it requires less space and makes greater use of other production factors . Intensive livestock systems are particularly widespread in industrialized countries, but are growing rapidly in some developing countries. The intensification is often accompanied by an increase in the average farm size .

Challenges in intensive husbandry are particularly in the areas of animal health , water and energy consumption and the disposal of animal excrement. Spreading liquid manure poses a risk of over-fertilization and pollution of the groundwater by nitrates and unpleasant odors.

The animal welfare and the problems of animal health, antibiotic resistance formation and their impact on human medicine have long been the subject of debate.

definition

International

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines intensive animal husbandry systems in which less than 10% of the forage dry matter own operating stems and in which the stocking 10 livestock units per hectare operating agricultural land requirements.

In accordance with various directives such as 85/337 / EEC on environmental impact assessments for certain public and private projects, agricultural businesses are also subject to an environmental protection review and approval process. The German law on environmental impact assessments , with which the EU directive was adopted into national law, names the limit values for plants for intensive rearing or rearing of poultry or pigs as limit values ​​of 40,000 places for poultry, 3,000 places for fattening pigs (over 30 kg), 900 places for sows and, in the case of intensive aquaculture, a production capacity of 1000 t of fish or mussels per year. In addition, the number of cattle is limited by the legislature through several regulations such as the Fertilizer Act and subsequent regulations. Section 7 of Annex 1 to the Ordinance on Plants Requiring Licensing also contains limit values ​​from which a special license is required.

German environmental law

German environmental law provides further information: If the (planned) animal population in an animal husbandry company exceeds a certain threshold value specified by the Environmental Impact Assessment Act (UVPG) , there is an obligation to conduct an environmental impact assessment if the animal owner enlarges his company or starts a new one Location wants to build stables. Establishments that exceed the threshold are considered "large commercial animal husbandry facilities".

Section 3b of the UVPG (EIA obligation based on the type, size and performance of the project) stipulates in paragraph 1: The obligation to carry out an environmental impact assessment exists for a project listed in Annex 1 if the characteristics specified to determine its type are present. If size or performance values ​​are specified, an environmental impact assessment must be carried out if the values ​​are reached or exceeded. An EIA may not apply. a. if no more than 42,000 hens in intensive rearing, 84,000 pullets, 30,000 pieces of fattening poultry in intensive rearing, 250 cattle, 1000 calves, 1500 pigs, 560 breeding sows including their piglets or 4500 piglets are kept or reared in a farm.

history

View of a modernized playpen ( GDR , 1960) with vacuum feeding machines
Silo facility in Thuringia, Germany

In the course of industrialization in the 19th and 20th centuries, European society and economy changed fundamentally. In agriculture, too, there was a huge increase in productivity and significantly fewer people in employment. Optimizations in cattle and pig breeding led to a considerable improvement in the supply of meat and animal products to the population . After the Second World War, the main phase of industrial agriculture began in Europe, which was already felt in the USA in the first half of the 20th century. On the one hand, there is a profound structural change through the consistent use of agricultural technological progress. Otherwise, the process is associated with a plurality of follow-up problems, which with terms such as agricultural factory , agribusiness or agricultural industry is associated.

distribution

North American cattle farming in the form of a "concentrated animal feeding operation" (CAFO)

Intensive systems are suitable for many climatic conditions. They are particularly widespread in the OECD countries, but the trend is also increasing in Asia. In grain import regions such as the Netherlands or Northern Germany , intensive livestock farms are mostly located near seaports. In grain exporting countries like the USA, intensive livestock husbandry is often practiced in the grain-growing regions (e.g. pigs in Iowa , cattle in Texas ). In developing countries with poorly developed infrastructure, the companies are located near urban centers, as animal products are subject to high transport requirements (cooling). Intensive husbandry systems can also be found in the CIS countries (dairy cattle) and North Africa (sheep).

According to an estimate by the FAO, on average between 2001 and 2003, intensive animal husbandry produced 6% of the beef produced worldwide , 0.8% of the sheep meat , 55% of the pork , 72% of the poultry meat and 60% of the eggs. 6% of cattle and buffalo and 0.5% of sheep and goats are kept in landless systems. In the developing countries category, 8% of cattle and buffalo and 0.6% of sheep and goats are kept intensively. 0.6% of the beef produced, 1% of the sheep meat, 47% of the pork, 64% of the poultry meat and 54% of the eggs come from landless production systems. "The demand for animal products will rise by 70 percent by 2050" and "The livestock industry improves the livelihood and creates economic growth and income in the rural economy", are statements by Helena Semedo, FAO Deputy Director-General, on the occasion of the "Greens Week "2014 in Berlin. Due to the increasing demand for animal products by a growing world population, the production intensity must be increased further sustainably, z. B. by using alternative by-products.

Intensive ruminant production systems are primarily a North American phenomenon, although less common in parts of Europe and the Middle East . In North America, the production facilities are also called feedlots .

Production trends

Intensive fattening of hybrid chickens in Florida for poultry meat production

Strong increases in area and labor productivity mark the development of intensive animal husbandry systems. From 1961 to 2000, the global is meat production by over 350% and the milk production by almost 175% rise, while the pasture and forage construction areas have expanded by only about 30% or 100%. In the EU-15, land consumption has decreased with a sharp increase in production.

In the past few decades, the traditional diets rich in fiber and energy have been supplanted in favor of protein rich ones. In 2004, 690 million tons of grain (34% of the world harvest) and 18 million tons of oilseeds (mainly soy ) were fed to animals worldwide. In addition, there are 295 million tons of protein-rich processing by-products such as bran , oil cake and fish meal . Additives are increasingly being used to achieve higher feed conversion rates.

Between 1990 and 2006 the area for growing soy in the Amazon quadrupled. More land is being cleared for growing grain. Although agriculture is being intensified in Mato Grosso , the conversion of forest area into fodder-growing area is progressing. The main buyers for soy exports from Brazil are the EU and China, in order to supply domestic poultry and pigs with feed. Social and ecological damage from animal feed production leads to the impoverishment of the underdeveloped producing countries.

The monogastric production is favored by the intensification of feeding compared to ruminants production because pig and poultry feed apply the better. In poultry farming in particular, high growth rates and low unit costs can be achieved, mainly due to the efficient use of feed. The use of grain in ruminant feeding is limited to countries with a low grain / meat price ratio. In many developing countries with grain deficits this is not profitable. The FAO estimates that monogastric farming will expand more rapidly than ruminant farming in the future.

The cause of the shifts in feeding are firstly the steady decline in grain prices that has been observed since the 1950s. This development is in turn due to an intensification of grain production, especially in the area of plant breeding , irrigation management, fertilizer and mechanization .

The trend towards intensification is currently most evident in Asia , where land is scarce and labor is relatively cheap. Among other things, this benefited smaller intensive farms. Improved access to capital enables investments in machinery , stables and production factors such as improved breeds , concentrated feed and pharmaceuticals. In sub-Saharan Africa , intensive dairy farming has developed near cities. In Latin America , as a result of increased urbanization and economic recovery in the 1990s, poultry production and dairy farming increased. The number of large and vertically integrated , intensive poultry and pork farms has increased significantly in developing countries, particularly in East Asia and Latin America.

description

A rotary milking parlor makes milking dairy cows more efficient
Domestic pigs in crates with automatic feeding
Breeding salmon in aquaculture in the Faroe Islands

The system is very knowledge and capital intensive. Intensive animal husbandry uses a variety of modern techniques to increase livestock productivity. These include further developments in the areas of genetics , animal nutrition , automation and health management .

Today hybrid animals (crossbreeding of several races) are used almost exclusively. Molecular biology and genetic engineering are playing an increasingly important role, for example in improving piglet vitality, disease resistance and longevity. In addition to anabolic steroids and somatropins used to accelerate growth. These are banned in Europe. Artificial insemination , embryo transfer , cloning , in vitro fertilization and pre-implantation diagnostics are reproductive techniques that are used in professional animal husbandry - at least as far as artificial insemination is concerned - regardless of the type of farming (organic, conventional). The German Society for Breeding Science has published several statements on the subject of cloning . Automation includes electronic monitoring of animal performance as well as the use of computers for feed preparation and rationing and regulation of the room climate . Barn design, vaccination management and regular stock controls by mandatory farm veterinarians and animal health services (pig health service) are components of animal health management with the aim of reducing the use of pharmaceuticals.

The animal products are almost exclusively intended for urban consumption and are standardized for efficient transport, processing and marketing. A distinction must be made between the keeping of monogastric animals ( pigs and poultry ) and ruminants ( cattle and sheep ).

Monogastric animals (pigs and poultry)

Hybrids , which combine the positive characteristics of the father and mother lines, and high-performance breeds are primarily used. The exchange of genetic material takes place mainly through the sperm trade, but also through the sale of breeding cattle internationally. The system is usually structured in such a way that different farms specialize in breeding, rearing or fattening the animals. The feed consists of purchased feed and self-produced feed. Energy-dense animal feed such as grain and oilseeds are used for feeding . The feed conversion rates are around 2.5–4 kg feed / kg pork and 2–2.5 kg feed / kg poultry meat. The most widespread and fastest growing pig breed is the English Yorkshire pig , with daily weight gains of more than 750 g.

ruminant

Mainly specialized farm breeds (e.g. high-performance breeds for milk production) are used, although these are not specifically bred for intensive farming. In milk production , the Holstein cattle is the most widespread breed. Depending on the type, the feed is either bought in or produced on the company's own land. Ruminants must feeding next to energy-dense feeds such as grain and high-fiber roughage agents. The lower energy density of this feed is a major reason for the low feed conversion rates compared to pigs and poultry of 8-10 kg feed / kg increment. However, ruminants are often fed like monogastric animals.

fishes

This is the rearing of fish and other marine animals such as mussels, sponges and shellfish in aquaculture or aquafarming. This also includes pond management and net cages in the open sea and in rivers.

Environmental sustainability

In Germany, an environmental impact assessment is mandatory for farms with a specified number of animals , for example for farms with more than 85,000 broilers or 3,000 fattening pigs.

Land consumption

Deforestation in Bolivia as part of the “ Tierras Bajas ” project. There are communities surrounded by soy plantations, which are connected by a network of roads.

Worldwide, 30% of the land area or 78% of the agricultural area is used for animal production directly ( pastures , 87%) and indirectly ( feed cultivation, 13%).

According to the British LCA, land consumption per unit of yield in organic livestock farming systems is 66% (milk) to over 220% (eggs, poultry and sheep) higher than conventional systems. While intensive animal husbandry systems and the intensification of fodder cultivation reduce the area required for animal husbandry, the development of new pasture areas for extensive systems is a key driver of deforestation , for example in Latin America, and of desertification , for example in Central Asia. In the OECD countries, a conversion of arable land into natural areas can be observed, but at the expense of forest areas in Latin and Central America, where a shift from pasture to arable land for global feed cultivation can be observed. The intensive animal husbandry indirectly promotes the deforestation of the tropical rainforest for soy plantations, whereby the expansion of the transport infrastructure in the form of the rail and motorway network can have a more damaging effect on the ecosystem than the plantations themselves.

power consumption

The primary energy consumption per unit of yield in the British life cycle assessment for conventional livestock farming systems is between 15% (pork) and 62% (milk) above that of ecological systems (exceptions: poultry meat and eggs).

Compared to pasture farming, intensive systems require high amounts of energy-dense feed, which in turn is produced with a large amount of fertilizers, pesticides , herbicides , water and fossil fuels . The production of nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides is energy-intensive and associated with CO 2 emissions. The same applies to the production of veterinary drugs such as antibiotics.

Water consumption and water pollution

The FAO estimates that animal production is responsible for 8% of global water consumption, with 7% being used for feed production. Water pollution from animal husbandry occurs through feed production and the associated use of fertilizers as well as the high land use of extensive systems. Pollution from intensive systems is easier to control than pollution from extensive systems. The productivity of water in feed production is relatively high in intensive systems.

Manure silos in a compressor system in Neustadt (Orla) typical of agriculture in the GDR . The damage to 600 hectares of forest in the area led to local protests. Such plants were closed after the fall of the Wall.

Since the quantities of liquid manure resulting from intensive animal husbandry usually exceed the quantities that are sensible for plant nutrition in the associated areas or those permitted by the fertilizer ordinance , a disposal problem arises. Especially when there are many large stables in a region, more manure is produced than can be brought onto the fields. Some of the manure then has to be transported over hundreds of kilometers and used elsewhere. A small part of the manure is used as a fermentation substrate in the production of biogas . In many cases, however, the manure is first applied to the fields in large quantities for the cultivation of maize (in monocultures) and the maize is then used to generate gas. Theoretically, poultry excrement can be dried and transported in order to be used as fertilizer. Cattle and pigs, on the other hand, excrete 90% water. 10,000 pigs in the fattening cause the same amount of wastewater as a city with 18,000 inhabitants. The disposal of agricultural waste in watercourses is prohibited worldwide. In the US, only 34% of nitrogen is reintroduced into the soil. The rest ends up in streams, rivers and groundwater due to the lack of adsorption of the nitrate ions .

Despite technical advances in waste disposal , the innovations are still too seldom implemented, according to the FAO. Water pollution occurs primarily through inefficient animal nutrition and manure collection, storage and recycling. For example, the German limit value for nitrate pollution in groundwater (50 mg / l) is sometimes exceeded in areas with high livestock numbers (the limit value set by the World Health Organization is 20 mg / l). Nitrate pollution causes eutrophication and acidification of usable areas. In 1999, the critical load limits for eutrophic nitrogen inputs were exceeded in 90% of the German forest area . The particularly high exceedances were found in areas with intensive animal husbandry.

According to the British life cycle assessment, both the eutrophication and acidification potential for organic animal products are higher than for conventional products (exception: pork) when one compares the pollution per unit of yield.

biodiversity

The livestock has since the Neolithic Revolution to the, well before the advent of intensive farming systems, a significant impact biodiversity exercised. According to the FAO, intensive and extensive systems differ in several factors based on their hazard potential for biodiversity. The type of biodiversity decline caused was examined, i.e. whether diversity within species (intraspecies), in the diversity of species (interspecies) or in the habitats is decreasing. The analysis was carried out using various known mechanisms:

Mechanism of biodiversity loss caused by livestock farming Production system Biodiversity Aspects Affected
Extensive Intensive Intraspecies Interspecies Habitats
Forest fragmentation ↗ ↑ X X X
Intensive land use ↗ ↑   X  
Desertification →     X  
Shrubbery of former pastures ↗     X X
Global warming ↗ ↑ X X X
Invasive domesticated species ↘     X  
Invasive plant species ↘ →   X X
Displacement of wild species ↘ ↑   X  
overfishing   ↗ X    
Erosion of livestock diversity   ↑ X    
Toxicity   ↑ X    
Habitat pollution → ↑   X X

Legend
Relative degree and type of threats to biodiversity broken down according to various mechanisms.
“Extensive” and “intensive” refer to the relevance of the contributions on both sides in the continuum of the production paradigms.

The red tones code for the strength of the previous influence

  Very strong   Strong
  Moderate   Weak
  No

The arrows code for the estimated trend

↑ Increasing rapidly ↗ Increasing
→ Constant ↘ Falling

Global warming

A general problem in animal production is the high level of greenhouse gas emissions . 9% of CO 2 , 37% of methane (23 times higher global warming potential than CO 2 ) and 65% of all nitrogen oxides (296 times higher global warming potential than CO 2 ) come from global livestock farming. To counteract this, the efficiency of animal production and feed cultivation must be increased. The aim of optimizing animal feed should be to reduce intestinal fermentation. Manure should be recycled in biogas plants .

According to the FAO, the intensification of animal husbandry offers great climate protection potential . The FAO estimates that extensive animal husbandry is globally responsible for significantly more emissions of climate-relevant greenhouse gases than intensive. This is probably due to the fact that grazing ruminants produce significantly more greenhouse gases than intensive animal husbandry systems in which more non-ruminants are kept, use feed more efficiently, emit less methane and are kept for a shorter period of time. However, due to the high energy requirements for synthetic N fertilizers, animal feed transport and fertilizer application ( N 2 O emissions), considerable amounts of greenhouse gases are released even in intensive animal husbandry. The question of which housing system causes more emissions per unit of yield has not been clearly clarified.

According to the FAO, emission reductions are more likely in the case of intensive systems. The adaptation potential to the consequences of global warming is estimated to be lower for extensive systems than for intensive systems.

The British life cycle assessment calculated the following comparative values ​​for the global warming potential per unit of yield for organic and conventional animal products :

Animal product Global Warming Potential (GWP 100 ) Additional workload due to
intensive production
conventional ecologically
Poultry meat (1 ton) 4,570 6,680 - 46%
Eggs (20,000 pieces) 5,530 7,000 - 27%
Milk (10,000 liters) 10,600 12,300 - 16%
Beef (1 ton) 15,800 18,200 - 15%
Pork (1 ton) 6,360 5,640 + 11%
Sheep meat (1 ton) 17,500 10.100 + 42%

Animal health

In pigs, for example, high stocking densities and large groups of animals lead to pneumonia and increased infection with chlamydia . Intensive animal husbandry leads to the selection of parasites and pathogens that grow faster, infect earlier and ultimately are more virulent . In the past, some virulent flu strains have already formed. Epidemiologists recommend the use of vaccines by livestock keepers in poultry and pig production.

Housing systems with year-round stalls in specialized buildings and a complete supply of feed without searching for food are made jointly responsible for the development of complex, multifactorial diseases ( production diseases ). These include pneumonia after animal transport ( shipping fever ), mastitis in cattle, rhinitis atrophicans and enzootic pneumonia in pigs and infectious bronchitis in poultry. This also includes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in horses, skin inflammation of the toes in cattle in dairy cows and the musty leg in sheep. In addition to the pathogens, the causes include keeping factors such as poor ventilation, dusty hay, fungal litter, overcrowding, low room temperatures, high humidity and transport pollution. Veterinary inspections of the carcasses in slaughterhouses show that 30–50% of slaughter pigs show changes in the respiratory tract that indicate an acute or long-term disease. Only 30% of the carcasses are objectionable. There is still a need for research into low-stress and species-appropriate housing systems that can be operated economically.

Animal diseases

While infectious diseases and parasites are completely normal in small wild animal populations and quickly subside, the concentration of animals in a small area promotes epidemics with catastrophic results for humans and animals. Historically important - also for the development of veterinary medicine - was the research and eradication of rinderpest . The so-called H5N1 bird flu caused a stir around the world . The influenza A virus H5N1 , which causes this disease, was first detected in 1997 in Hong Kong's poultry production facilities. It was blamed for six people who died and resulted in the killing of 1.2 million birds. In the UK, an outbreak of foot and mouth disease resulted in the killing of 440,000 animals. BSE (mad cow disease) resulted in the mass killing ( culling ) of 11 million animals in 1996.

According to the World Bank , animal diseases are responsible for extremely high costs. The BSE crisis resulted in a loss of US $ 6 billion in the UK alone and US $ 20 billion worldwide. The fight against avian flu H5N1 (the influenza A virus H5N1) cost tens of billions of US dollars. Foot-and-mouth disease countermeasures cost around US $ 90 billion within the EU.

Salmonella in laying hens

A study initiated by the EU study (2007) concluded that Salmonella infections compared with cages for laying hens in floor management , free-range show up and organically reared rare. Since the cage system has significantly larger herd sizes than the other systems, it is unclear whether the housing system or the herd size is responsible for the higher disease frequency.

In a study (2010) of 292 laying hen farms in Belgium, Germany, Greece, Italy and Switzerland, cage management was identified as a risk factor for Salmonella Enteritidis or Typhimurium .

Although contamination tracking is difficult, several salmonellosis outbreaks have been traced back to contaminated feed. According to scientists, improvements in feed safety should be achieved through stronger monitoring systems.

Poultry growing

Deformed limbs

As a result of the BSE and FMD problem, there was an increase in poultry meat consumption as an alternative to beef and pork. However, even with conventional fattening of poultry in general and turkeys in particular, there are many breeding and husbandry-related diseases. In almost all animals, skeletal curvature and damage in the knee joint area occur at the end of the fattening, so that normal leg positioning is no longer possible. 9% of the animals can no longer stand or walk. The massive enlargement of the chest muscles pushes the thighs outwards and leads to a leg weakness syndrome, which is associated with pain, suffering, increased feather pecking, growth depression as well as decreased carcass quality and increased mortality . Possible countermeasures are the promotion of physical activity and a reduction in the stocking density. Sudden deaths from rupture of the aorta are also problematic , the cause of which is also seen in the density of stocking and strong restlessness in the stable. Respiratory diseases also lead to increased mortality, but also to reduced weight gain, increased drug costs and complaints about slaughterhouse and meat inspections , which entails considerable economic losses. In particular, the non-infectious environmental problems (dust, harmful gases, air quality), which can hardly be avoided under the conditions of intensive fattening in closed stall systems, play a role.

Antibiotic resistance

A scientific steering committee within the European Union came to the conclusion that the use of low dose antibiotics as growth promoters should be banned because these agents are important for human or veterinary medicine and there is a risk of cross-resistance to drugs used for treatment be used by bacterial infections . Antibiotics should not be approved as feed additives in the future either .

In Germany, according to the Medicines Act, only sick animals can be treated. Use to promote growth and to cover deficiencies in husbandry is prohibited. Veterinary practices and livestock farms are controlled by the state authorities on a risk-oriented basis. In order to ensure a connection between diagnosis and treatment, time limits were introduced. In Europe, since January 1, 2006, there has been a ban on the use of antibiotics as performance-enhancing feed additives. The nationwide use of antibiotics in animal fattening in Germany is common practice. 92% of all broilers in the 2012 antibiotic study by the State Office for the Environment (LANUV) in North Rhine-Westphalia came into contact with an average of over three different antibiotics per fattening course. It is undisputed that the use of antibiotics in animal fattening promotes the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant germs.

Due to the high stocking densities, however, there are also problems with legal therapeutic use. If a single animal is infected with a bacterial infection, antibiotics are administered to the entire herd as part of a veterinary treatment. This application ( metaphylaxis ) allows only the few resistant pathogens (normally present through natural mutation) to survive. These can form a resistant strain if they are not killed off as a residual infection by the immune reaction of the animal or human. Further treatment with the same antibiotic may later be ineffective. In the case of human pathogens, workers in pig and poultry farms are mainly affected. A transfer of multi-resistant germs from animal husbandry to humans can also take place within food production and processing and by spreading slurry on green areas. Multi-resistant germs from animal husbandry can cause infections in humans that last longer and can be more severe than conventional infections of the same type.

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria are released in large quantities directly into the environment via liquid manure and manure spreading from intensive animal husbandry. In addition, antibiotics themselves are introduced into the environment through direct substance input. There they develop a biological effect and could also cause an increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria there. Recent studies show a sharp increase in multi-resistant bacteria in the environment. Resistant pathogens can return to humans wherever there is contact with faecal polluted water such as bathing water.

In the United States, it is estimated that animals are given at least the same amount of antibiotics as humans. Antibiotic-resistant and zoonotic Salmonella , Campylobacter and Escherichia coli strains are being detected with increasing frequency in large poultry and cattle farms. Although some antibiotics are used in both animals and humans, most of the resistance problem is due to their use in humans. Resistance can develop in farm animals, and resistant bacteria can be found in animal foods, but are destroyed by cooking. Even if resistant pathogens should reach humans, the clinical consequences of resistance are small.

Methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureus ( MRSA ) infection can be mild to severe and in some cases is fatal. The CC398 lineage is most commonly associated with asymptomatic carrierhood in intensive farming animals used for food production. CC398, while rare, has been associated with deep-seated skin and soft tissue infections, pneumonia, and septicemia in humans. Farmers, veterinarians and their families who are in contact with live animals are at greater risk of colonization and infection than the general population. Contaminated food is a possible vehicle of transmission. The main reservoirs of CC398 are pigs, calves and broiler poultry. Animal transport and contact between animals are likely an important factor in the transmission of MRSA.

By intensive livestock farming, however, only animal associated germ strains spread (LA-MRSA of English livestock-associated ) and no hospital germs of type HA-MRSA ( English hospital-acquired ).

Food safety

Food-associated diseases with a high health risk such as salmonella, campylobacter and enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (O157: H7) are mainly caused by animal products and are increasing due to increased consumption, intensification of agriculture and rising temperatures. Worldwide, 20 million die from food infections. Economically speaking, illness, premature death, and production declines in the United States alone result in an annual loss of US $ 8 billion.

The veterinary treatment of livestock with approved antibiotics is permitted in Europe, whereby the legislator has set limit values ​​in the end product via the Maximum Residue Quantity Regulation for imported goods in order to avoid misuse.

Feed additives such as vitamins and minerals are often added to the feed used . In Europe, these must first be checked by EFSA and approved by the legislator. The same applies to feed made from genetically modified plants .

Odor and other emissions and waste disposal

Intensive livestock farms and their waste disposal can release large amounts of polluting and sometimes very odorous air pollutants , especially ammonia , hydrogen sulfide , methane and nitrous oxide . In addition, animal husbandry systems emit considerable amounts of dust and bioaerosols . In addition, the inputs into surface and groundwater lead to over-fertilization with nutrients ( nitrogen , phosphorus ) and to environmental pollution by pathogens as well as to the diffuse spread of heavy metals and pesticides . Air emissions of more than 10 tonnes of ammonia must be reported in the European Pollutant Emissions Register, in which each company is listed with the name, location and emissions of the last reporting year (2010).

The disposal and recycling of waste from industrialized animal production is not unproblematic in terms of epidemic hygiene. Germany and other countries therefore discussed limiting the size of the population.

In Europe, environmental pollution is counteracted by the fact that Directive 2008/1 / EC (IVU Directive) and the Industrial Emissions Directive (2010/75 / EU), which will apply from January 7, 2013, provide the best available technology for all systems for intensive animal husbandry from 40,000 poultry places and from 2000 places for fattening pigs. The European leaflets on best available techniques (BAT) name measures with which emissions to air, water and soil as well as waste can be avoided or reduced, resource and energy efficiency implemented and accidents prevented. The European Commission is currently organizing a revision of the BVT leaflet with the participation of the authorities of the member states as well as representatives of industry and environmental associations. A first draft has been available in English since March 2011. The Industrial Emissions Directive stipulates that permit requirements are reviewed and, if necessary, adjusted as soon as the BAT conclusions are published in the EU Official Journal . The farms concerned must comply with the emission levels associated with best available techniques no later than four years after the BAT conclusions have been published.

Animal welfare

Housing conditions

Calf igloos
Dehorned cattle on a slatted floor
Batteries have been banned in Europe since 2012
Cows in a tethered stall, Frisian variant

In intensive housing systems, animals are more restricted in their mobility than in extensive systems. Often young animals are separated from the mother just a few hours after birth, fed by machines and prevented from their social interactions.

The German Animal Welfare Association criticizes that aspects of animal welfare are not taken into account in the approval procedures for animal husbandry facilities and that animal welfare is not practiced. The killing of day-old chicks , the lack of litter in slatted floors and castration of piglets without anesthesia are seen as problematic in pig production . The lack of daylight and lack of exercise often lead to aggression among the animals. Tails, teeth and / or horns of pigs and cattle as well as beaks of poultry are often docked to prevent injuries by conspecifics in tight housing conditions . There are also reports of fertility problems in breeding sows. Some comparable interventions are prohibited in Germany on non-farm animals. Corresponding exceptions can be found in the German Animal Welfare Act, Section 6 . According to § 5 , no pain-relieving anesthesia is required for these interventions in young animals.

Cows and pigs kept intensively in tie stalls or crates show abnormal behavior such as mourning , chewing empty and biting iron bars. Therefore, in modern animal husbandry, the keeping in free stalls and. a. with the possibility of exercise in outdoor yards and access to pastures recommended. The use of milking robots ensures the cows have access to milking at all times and increases cow comfort. Extensively kept dairy cows, on the other hand, show normal social behavior, independent grooming and curiosity.

A British study compared the economic viability of minimum standards of EU Directive 91/630 / EEC on pig farming with that of a system of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals ("Freedom Food") and with that of conventional and organic free-range farming . It was concluded that “Freedom Food” and conventional free-range farming cause 4–8% higher costs and organic farming 31% higher. With the exception of conventional free-range farming, however, a profit is ensured for the end consumer in all systems through the surcharge.

Conventional cage for laying hens has now been banned in Europe. The more developed form of cage housing is small group housing . In small group husbandry, the hens live in a small group in a structured compartment with a lying area and a larger floor space than in the previous cage husbandry.

The European Food Safety Authority has classified risks for poor animal welfare in calves in intensive housing systems. A high risk is associated with inadequate ventilation without adequate air circulation, air speed, temperature, constant increase in the number of animals and exposure to pathogens that cause diseases of the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract. Another risk is insufficient access to water, high humidity, drafts in the interior, poor air quality ( ammonia , bioaerosols and dust), poor floor conditions (too wide crevices, not slip-proof, wet lying surfaces, no litter), insufficient light to react to visual stimuli , separation from the mother, and poor response from pet owners to health problems.

Attempts are made to counter the problems in various ways: improvement of housing conditions, therapy with drugs and feeding, and genetic modification. For example, with feeding of tryptophan the aggression potential of broiler chickens reduced. Through selection , the genetic predisposition for feather pecking and cannibalism is reduced. Toys have also been introduced in pig keeping in order to meet the natural play instinct.

In the future, genetic engineering methods could be used to eliminate or at least significantly reduce the pain perception and other emotions of farm animals. These methods have already been tested in experiments and are discussed in neuroethics .

Transports

Pig transport

Animals show increased symptoms of stress during transport . The amount of stress developed depends on several factors, such as genetic makeup and experience . For example, animals from intensive systems were found to have lower stress levels than animals from extensive husbandry, as the latter are not so used to being crammed together and using equipment.

In the EU , a regular supply of water and nutrients as well as certain rest periods are prescribed for animal transports. Pigs and equidae may be transported 24 hours a day using suitable transport vehicles. For calves, lambs, kids, foals and piglets not yet weaned, a reduced transport time of 9 hours applies before a one-hour break has to be taken. After that, the transport can be continued for a further 9 hours. For other animal species, the maximum transport time is 14 hours.

Ethical evaluation attempts

Despite the difficulties in understanding the psyche of other species, there is widespread consensus that they have simple feelings and feelings of pain , and show intelligent ways of thinking. Our choices about how to deal with non-human species are often influenced by our understanding of the consciousness of other living things . In ethics, the question is discussed to what extent one can speak of well-being in animals in the anthromorphic sense. Animal well-being is defined as the greatest possible biological function, freedom from suffering in the sense of persistent fear or pain, and positive experiences such as comfort and satisfaction. Due to the still rudimentary understanding of animal emotions and the widespread attribution of human characteristics to animals ( anthropomorphism ), especially mammals , scientific knowledge is often not the focus of ethical evaluation. Instead, aesthetic factors can play a role. It has been shown that more people spontaneously prefer the former based on photos showing free range and cage farming.

There are attempts to establish animal rights from various philosophical standpoints .

Peter Singer argues, for example, from a preferential utilitarian position that there is no reason not to include the suffering of other beings in the ethical consideration and evaluation. In his book Animal Liberation , he criticizes industrial animal husbandry on the point that its primary goal is profit maximization and not avoidance of suffering. A certain death rate is accepted due to the keeping conditions for cost reasons. He also criticizes unnatural living conditions, which do not allow livestock enough exercise in combination with painful amputations in order to counteract stress-related behavioral disorders. He argues that it is speciesist to only consider domestic animals in animal welfare laws and to make exceptions for farm animals.

Tom Regan's position is characterized by the fact that he applies moral principles and insights that are believed to be valid for humans to animals as well. From a deontological - nomological position he tries to perceive and treat many animals as subjects of a life because of their ability to have an inner perspective . Not to serve as a means to an end for others is seen for him as a fundamental right of all beings. As a conclusion from this position, commercial hunting and animal husbandry should be excluded in general or at least much more extensively. For himself, this means an ethically based vegan lifestyle.

Public opinion

While in the 1960s the focus of public discussion was still mainly on animal welfare, various elements were added in the following decades. According to the "New Perception" (David Fraser), modern animal production harms animal welfare, is controlled by business interests and dominated by the pursuit of profit, increases world hunger, produces unhealthy food and is environmentally harmful. Industry representatives of intensive animal husbandry have responded with a "neo-traditional portrait", according to which modern animal production increases animal welfare, is mainly controlled by family businesses, is motivated by the traditional herding of animals, improves world nutrition, produces safe and nutritious food and is often environmentally friendly.

In the case of processed animal products (such as pork) it is practically impossible for the consumer to draw conclusions about the husbandry methods. Only a differentiation between “organic” and “conventional” is possible. Instead of sending signals to manufacturers and farmers through purchasing behavior, they in turn see themselves exposed to increasing price and competitive pressure. The media now have a special responsibility, especially as consumers are exposed to a growing risk of misjudgment. TV productions such as Ware Tier participate in the formation of public opinion, as do animal rights organizations (e.g. Albert Schweitzer Foundation , PETA ).

Every year in Germany there are demonstrations under the motto We are fed up with it! with tens of thousands of participants in some cases against factory farming.

Europe

In the context of the National Consumption Study II in Germany, 69.8% stated that animal welfare is important to them when shopping.

Two studies (2010) in France, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Spain, Greece and Poland regarding attitudes towards beef and pork, carried out as part of the EU's 6th Research Framework Program , showed that consumers are in favor of the development of technologies that improve health properties and food safety of meat products, but at the same time have a negative view on their opinion of excessive manipulation and lack of naturalness. According to a survey (2009) of almost 2,000 people in Belgium, Denmark, Poland and Germany, animal and environmental protection are the most important criteria that can be used to differentiate between “good” and “bad” pig production systems. Pig farming systems with little environmental protection and slatted floors are viewed as particularly negative. However, the relationship between these perceptions and actual consumer behavior is weak.

A survey (2007) of 1,500 people in Great Britain, Italy and Sweden found that many people attach different levels of animal welfare to different production systems: 71% of British, 65% of Swedes and 47% of Italians stated that free-range eggs were compared to other eggs to prefer. However, these high proportions contradict national consumption statistics. 77% (79%) of Italians, 64% (69%) of British and 59% (71%) of Swedes said that the treatment of the animals was important to them. 78% of Italians, 57% of British and 47% of Swedes said it was important to keep animals partially free range for a year. When asked about the quality of animal welfare in their own country for chickens, dairy cows and pigs, the respondents agreed that the keeping conditions for laying hens were the worst. Swedish respondents rated the keeping conditions of laying hens much better than British respondents. Italians were more likely to consider the quality of housing conditions for dairy cows and pigs to be worse than the British and Swedes.

According to a representative Eurobarometer survey (2005), a majority of Europeans assessed the living conditions for laying hens as poor, for pigs as mediocre and for dairy cows as good. According to the respondents, animal welfare should be particularly strengthened for poultry. 52% of the respondents said that they rarely or never think about animal welfare when buying meat. There were large differences within the EU-25; In the new member states, the proportion of respondents who do not pay attention to animal welfare when buying meat was highest. Unemployed people, students, men and people who have visited a farm are less likely to say that they think about animal welfare when buying meat products. Identifying animal-friendly products in retail is said to be difficult. Three quarters of Europeans are of the opinion that purchasing decisions can have a positive effect on animal welfare. More than half consider European legislation in the field of animal welfare / animal welfare to be inadequate, but the majority consider protection to be better or on par with the rest of the world.

Surveys in the late 1990s showed that animal welfare concerns reached similar levels across the EU-15 and that animal welfare concerns (of around 80% of respondents) were outweighed by concerns about chemicals, residues and hormones (90%). Concerns relate primarily to intensive production methods (e.g. cage farming), with consumers appearing to judge animal welfare through anthropomorphism . Often reference is made to the concepts “natural” or “humane”. Consumers may view some elements of intensive animal husbandry as unacceptable, while scientists do not find them problematic.

North America

An independent, national, randomized survey of adults in the USA showed that 57% of those questioned have heard the term “factory farming” and associated it with the rearing of farm animals. The term also left a negative impression on livestock farming. An education and income dependency could be determined: among citizens with an income> $ 50,000 the term was known to 64% of the respondents, 68% to college graduates knew it. When asked about the animal species affected, 74% named chickens and 51% cattle. 32% of respondents associated captivity, animal health and chemical / steroid use , health and disease issues. 26% had concerns about cleanliness. 21% complained about a lack of animal welfare and inhuman practices, mistreatment and the treatment of animals as if they were machines on an assembly line. 15% associated efficiency, economy and mass production. Only 8% saw an association with high animal numbers and ownership by large companies. 54% of respondents believed that supermarket meat was from intensive animal husbandry, and of these 40% had food safety concerns .

South America

A conjoint analysis based on a survey (2009) of 475 Brazilians on pig farming resulted in three clusters : average, environmentally conscious and traditional and animal welfare-related citizens. Most consumers (average clusters) prefer (72%) small farms with litter, which place a certain value on environmental protection and on feeding with the aim of producing healthy fats. These preferences are difficult to reconcile with each other and with current practice in Brazilian pig production. The study also shows that there is a weak link between the preferences expressed and actual purchasing behavior.

literature

  • Carlos Seré, Henning Steinfeld, Jan Groenewold: World livestock production systems: current status, issues, and trends. FAO , Rome 1996, ISBN 92-5-103812-0 .
  • Henning Steinfeld, Pierre Gerber, TD Wassenaar, Vincent Castel, Cees de Haan: Livestock's long shadow. environmental issues and options. FAO, 2006, ISBN 92-5-105571-8 .
  • Martin Schlatzer: Animal Production and Climate Change. A scientific discourse on the influence of nutrition on the environment and climate. LIT Verlag, Münster 2010, ISBN 978-3-643-50146-2 .
  • Jörg Hartung: Intensive animal husbandry and animal health. In: Franz-Theo Gottwald, Dennis Nowalk (Ed.): Livestock husbandry and health - new opportunities for agriculture: conference proceedings. (= Animal husbandry. Ecology, ethology, health. Volume 29). Kassel University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-3-89958-334-2 , p. 109 ff.

Web links

Commons : Intensive Animal Husbandry  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

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