Black deadly nightshade

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Black deadly nightshade
Black deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), illustration

Black deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna ), illustration

Systematics
Euasterids I
Order : Nightshade (Solanales)
Family : Nightshade family (Solanaceae)
Subfamily : Solanoideae
Genre : Deadly nightshade ( Atropa )
Type : Black deadly nightshade
Scientific name
Atropa belladonna
L.

The black deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna ), also known as forest nightshade , is a poisonous plant species with mostly black, cherry-fruit-like berries from the nightshade family (Solanaceae). The generic name Atropa comes from Greek mythology . The Greek goddess Atropos is one of the three goddesses of fate and is the one who cuts the thread of life. The origin of the specific epithet belladonna is not entirely clear. It is often associated with the Italian term belladonna for “beautiful woman”, as the juice has a pupil-enlarging effect and was previously used by women for beauty purposes. The black belladonna is an old magic plant with the ability to trigger states of excitement (see " Rabies ") and has been known as a medicinal plant since the Middle Ages .

description

General characteristics and habitus

Belladonna habitus ( Atropa belladonna ) with berries and flowers in July.

The black deadly nightshade is a deciduous , perennial , herbaceous plant that usually reaches heights of between 50 cm and 1.50 m. If the site conditions are favorable, specimens 2 meters high can also be observed. A beet-shaped, thickened main root, including the thickened hypocotyl and epicotyl, serves as the storage organ . The brown taproot, often with multiple branches, has a juicy consistency and extends about 1 meter into the ground. It has an unpleasant odor. The renewal buds are - as is typical of a Pleiokorm shrub - in the vicinity of the root neck . A sprout rooting is possible, but independent partial plants usually do not develop. Stolons are formed in strong plants . If the mother plant dies, independent plants can occasionally develop. Overall, vegetative reproduction rarely occurs compared to reproduction via seeds.

The richly branched plant shows a strong appearance. The blunt-edged, often slightly reddish and slightly grooved stem grows upright and has fine hairs. Its branchy appearance is due to the way it branches. Branches are formed for the first time at a height of about one meter. The shoot usually splits here into three horizontally protruding branches, which in turn divide into two bifurcations. The sprout structure is characterized by characteristic adhesions and displacements of the axes and leaves and thus appears intricate. This is related to the structure of the flower-bearing shoots. The shoot that terminates with a flower has a cover sheet directly below the flower . The larger supporting sheet of the flower sprout is pushed up on the side sprout that ends with the next flower so that it is directly under the cover of this flower. These shifts are repeated so that each flower has its smaller cover sheet and the larger support sheet of the previous flower sprout.

The branches are covered with short, soft protruding, glandular hairs. The vascular bundles are bicollateral, which means that the phloem is on the outside and inside of the xylem . The flowering and fruit ripening time overlap. For example, several stages of development can be observed on one plant - a typical feature of many berry-bearing species of the nightshade family. The black deadly nightshade bears green flower buds, brownish-purple flowers, green unripe berries and black ripe berries side by side in summer.

leaves

Blooming plant

The short stalked leaves can develop a length of up to 15 cm and a width of up to 8 cm. The blade is oval to elliptical in shape and tapered to a lanceolate. The leaf margin is usually entire. The upper side of the leaf has a green-brownish color with sunken, pinnate veins; the underside of the leaf is green-greyish in color. The leaf veins are more prominent here. Younger leaves develop abundant hairs, older leaves usually only have light, downy hairs on the veins on the underside of the leaf. This is made up of multicellular joint hair and long-stalked glandular hair with multicellular, curved heads. The cells are arranged in two rows. The epidermal cells on the upper side of the leaf are weak, on the underside of the leaf they are strongly wavy and indented. The stomata are in the anisocytic form (three secondary cells, one of which is significantly smaller).

Although the leaves in the upper stem section are closer to each other in pairs, due to the leaf shifts they are not arranged opposite , but alternating . The closeness of the leaves in pairs in the area of ​​the inflorescence can be described as characteristic of the deadly nightshade . Basically a smaller sheet stands together with a larger one.

blossoms

Deadly nightshade blossom ( Atropa belladonna )

The hermaphroditic flowers of the black deadly nightshade arise individually, rarely in pairs or in three-flowered coils, apparently from the upper leaf axils of the leaves. The flowers are oriented horizontally, their length is about three centimeters. The black deadly nightshade has a double perianth . The remaining calyx , bell-shaped during flowering, is downy hairy. It is cut up to two thirds of its length. The five calyx lobes have an oval shape tapering towards the top. The bell-shaped, tubular crown , covered with fine hair, is colored brown-violet on the outside, the inside is yellow-green in color with purple-red veins. In addition, there are rare occurrences in Central Europe with greenish yellow to pale yellow flowers, which is due to the lack of the flower pigment ( anthocyanin ). The flower has a five-lobed edge that is slightly rolled back outwards. The hem tips have an oval-rounded shape. The five stamens protruding from each other in an arched manner are fused with the crown at the base. The length of the awl-shaped, curved stamens corresponds approximately to the length of the crown. In the upper area they are bald, in the lower area they show hair. The rising, yellowish, thick anthers are attached to the back. They open lengthways and release white pollen grains. The oblique zygomorphic , upper ovary is fused- leafed ( coenocarp ). It is oval in shape and consists of two fused carpels that form two fruit compartments. The partition between the compartments corresponds to the axis of the ovary and is inclined to the median of the flower. Numerous anatropic ovules are arranged in the compartments on a thick placenta . The thread-like stylus , greenish at the top and purple at the bottom, is inclined downwards and towers above the anthers . It is crowned by a heady, flattened and slightly divided and greenish scar . The black deadly nightshade offers nectar. A nectar discus , a fleshy yellow pad, lies below the ovary . Long hair from the filament base protects against nectar theft.

The flowering period extends from June to August.

Fruit and seeds

The poisonous black berries of the deadly nightshade ( Atropa belladonna )
Seeds of Atropa belladonna

The berries , which are green when unripe, are black when ripe due to anthocyanins . The structure of the fruit resembles a tomato , even if it is much smaller. The 10 to 15 millimeter large, spherical berries have a black, glossy, lacquer-like surface. The pericarp is juicy and fleshy when ripe. The pulp is bluish-red in color. The two fruit compartments contain numerous seeds. They sit on the now enlarged light yellow placenta. The calyx is also slightly enlarged. It surrounds the ripe fruit like an outstretched star. The taste of the ripe and juicy deadly nightshade fruit is slightly sweet, slightly bitter and slightly astringent , it leaves a furry feeling in the mouth. The berries ripen from August to October. The up to 2 millimeters large, more or less flattened and rounded to slightly kidney-shaped, brownish seeds are of a hard consistency and have a small, network-like surface structure. They need light and cold to germinate. Less than 60% of the seeds can germinate.

The species has chromosome number 2 n = 72.

ecology

Pollination ecology

In the hermaphrodite blooms of the black deadly nightshade, the female sexual organs - stylus and stigma - ripen before the male reproductive organs, the anthers. A possible overlap of the female and male flower phase is under discussion, but not yet clarified. This mechanism, botanically called proterogyny , promotes cross- pollination compared to self-pollination . In the absence of cross-pollination, spontaneous self-pollination takes place within the flower. According to Kugler , the blooms of the deadly nightshade are bellflowers with sticky pollen that offer nectar and honey. The main pollinators are bees and bumblebees . In search of nectar, they crawl into the flower. Pollen brought from another flower is stripped off the stigma. After pollination, the style and crown wilt relatively quickly.

Propagation ecology

The seeds are mostly spread endochorically by birds . Thrushes , blackbirds and sparrows in particular , but also blackcap , starling and pheasant were observed eating the fruit. Even snails nibble on the fruit. The small seeds ingested are excreted intact about 10 to 12 hours later.

Synecology

The Black Belladonna provides for caterpillars of various butterfly species a polyphag used forage plant. The caterpillars of the Honeysuckle Brauneule ( Blepharita satura ), the skull enthusiast , the dark brown Erdeule ( Eugnorisma depuncta ) and the Forest herbal Pug ( Eupithecia subfuscata ) appreciate the herb of the plant. The caterpillars of the henbane-Blüteneule ( Heliothis Peltigera ) prefer the seed capsules. The caterpillars of the cabbage moth ( Mamestra brassicae ) usually live inside the heart and instinct can also be pests in appearance occur.

The beetle Altica atropa feeds on the leaves of the deadly nightshade and is existentially dependent on their occurrence.

Taxonomy and systematics

Two variants are used for the species name ( epithet ), belladonna and bella-donna (with a hyphen). Originally it was introduced in two parts by Linné (as Bella donna ), which according to the rules of botanical nomenclature is no longer correct. Different botanists have adapted it differently to the new rules. The code ( ICBN , Articles 23.1 and 60.9) is not unique in this question, so both name variants are allowed.

The division of the genus Atropa into species is still controversial in botany between different scientists, so that the extent of the species and its natural distribution is given differently, depending on the author. The status of various clans , which are distributed in small, isolated distribution areas in Central Asia, from the Caucasus to the east, is controversial . These usually yellow-flowering plants are either regarded as locally endemic plant species or, by others, included in a broader species Atropa belladonna . In particular, the Atropa acuminata Royle ex Miers , which is distributed locally in the Himalayas, is recognized by many botanists as a separate species. According to phylogenomic investigations (on the basis of its DNA sequence) it cannot be differentiated with certainty from Atropa belladonna , but it can be well differentiated according to morphological features. In Europe, Atropa belladonna is next to Atropa baetica Willk, which occurs exclusively in Spain . but according to today's view the only species of the genus and unmistakable.

Today mostly only one infraspecific taxon (below the species level) is recognized

  • Atropa belladonna subsp. caucasica (Kreyer) Avet. It is common in the Caucasus.

In Central Europe, in addition to the typical variety, there are always individual plants that lack the flower pigment ( anthocyanin ), they have greenish-yellow to pale yellow flowers and yellow-colored berries. This form has also been formally taxonomically described as Atropa belladonna var. Lutea Döll . Some even want to summarize all yellow-colored clans of the species under this name. The yellow-flowering plants are often a bit smaller and also lighter in color in the vegetative parts, they should also differ in their alkaloid content from the typical variety (var. Belladonna ). Usually the yellow form of Central Europe is no longer recognized taxonomically and is synonymous with the typical variety. Yellow flowering plants can emerge from normal flowering plants through a single mutation.

Occurrence

distribution

The distribution area stretches from Scandinavia , western and southern Europe and the Balkans across Asia Minor to North Africa and Iran . Occurrences in the British Isles are estimated to be hardly original, those in North Africa are considered to have been introduced. In Germany, the deadly nightshade is common in Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, the eastern part of North Rhine-Westphalia, Hesse, Thuringia and southern Lower Saxony. Scattered occurrences are documented in South North Rhine-Westphalia, Saxony and Saxony-Anhalt. The black deadly nightshade in Bremen and Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania is a rare neophyte . In Austria, the deadly nightshade is common in all federal states. In Switzerland it is considered to be quite common, especially in the mountain range. Lesser occurrences are recorded in the western central Alps and the southern flank of the Alps.

Location

The deadly nightshade prefers nutrient-rich limestone, porphyry and gneiss soils . They are often found in clearings of deciduous and coniferous forests, on the edges of forests and on fallow land up to altitudes of 1700 meters. In the Allgäu Alps , it rises between noon and Steineberg near Immenstadt up to 1450 m above sea level.

Plant sociology

The Black Belladonna is considered Kennart the Association Belladonna blow corridor ( Atropetum belladonna ) that the Association of belladonna -Schlaggesellschaften ( Atropion ) in the class of fireweed -Schlaggesellschaften ( Epilobietea angustofolii belongs). This association settled on calcareous soils clearcuts in forests. In addition to the deadly nightshade, wild strawberries, wood burdock , late forest brisket , lancet thistle , small-flowered mullein , raspberries , red elder , wood-herb and great nettle determine the image of the species-rich association.

Atropa belladonna as a poisonous plant

Structural formulas of ( R ) -hyoscyamine (top) and ( S ) -hyoscyamine (bottom), whose 1: 1 mixture is atropine

Toxicological agents

Poisoning with the berries of the deadly nightshade occupies a leading position in the statistics of the poison control centers in the context of plant poisoning . The tropane alkaloids ( S ) - hyoscyamine , atropine , which is formed as a racemate from ( S ) - and ( R ) -hyoscyamine during drying or as a result of extraction, and scopolamine are of toxicological importance . Scopolamine is structurally closely related to hyoscyamine, which is the main alkaloid of the deadly nightshade. ( S ) -hyoscyamine and scopolamine are competitive antagonists at muscarinic receptors .

The fruit contains hyoscyamine ( atropine ), scopolamine, apoatropine , belladonnine and scopoletin (see also alkaloid ). The leaves contain between 0.5% and 1.5%, the roots 0.85%, the seeds 0.8%, the fruits 0.65% and the flowers 0.4% tropane alkaloids .

effect

The tropane alkaloids have a parasympatholytic effect. They partially block the muscarinic receptors , which occur in the parasympathetic nervous system and which bind the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh). This inhibits the parasympathetic nervous system . They have an antispasmodic effect on smooth muscles such as the gastrointestinal tract, bile and bladder. The bronchi become wide. The activity of the salivary glands is reduced, so that a dry mouth easily develops. Perspiration is greatly reduced. Dilation of the pupils is also typical. The tropane alkaloids affect the central nervous system, especially in higher doses . They have a delirious hallucinogenic effect. In higher doses, hyoscyamine has a strong arousing effect, while scopolamine has a dampening effect.

Poisoning with the deadly nightshade takes about the following stages, depending on the amount of atropine dose (mg): Between 0.5 and 1 milligram dry mouth occurs. Dilation of the pupils can be observed from 1 to 3 milligrams. Symptoms such as intoxication, visual disturbances, feelings of heat and tachycardia occur between 3 and 5 milligrams. High levels of excitement can result in a coma accompanied by fever and death from respiratory and cardiac arrest.

Toxicity

The toxicity depends on the content of the different tropane alkaloids in the respective part of the plant, the way in which the poison is supplied and the organism under consideration. For rats, the mean lethal dose (LD 50 ) for oral ingestion of scopolamine is around 2500 mg / kg of their body weight, while the LD 50 orally (rat) of atropine (racemate) is around 500 mg / kg. In the case of atropine in adults, the lowest lethal dose for ingestion by mouth is around 100 mg, which corresponds to around 1.4 mg per kilogram of body weight. It is assumed that 10 to 12 berries in adults and 3 to 4 berries in children lead to poisoning which, if left untreated, can be fatal. When the leaves are consumed, the first symptoms of poisoning can be observed from 0.3 g. The total content of alkaloids in a plant depends on the location and the time of harvest.

Poisoning can be treated with gastric lavage within the first hour after ingestion of the poison. Medicinal charcoal can be administered in addition or alone. The specific antidote is physostigmine salicylate .

history

Medicinal plant

witch

For classical antiquity, the medical use of the deadly nightshade could not be proven with certainty. External applications are documented in older folk medicine. In medieval herb books which is "nonsensical and toll-making" effect of the plant at the center. Hildegard von Bingen associated it with the devil and described the plant's disruptive effect on the human spirit. Hieronymus Bock (1539) and Pietro Andrea Mattioli gave detailed descriptions of cases of poisoning. Hieronymus Bock and Conrad Gessner saw internal applications in the field of veterinary medicine. In 1686, John Ray went into detail in the Natural History of Plants on the possible uses of the deadly nightshade in ophthalmology. The French doctor Étienne François Geoffroy (1672–1731) presented a chemical analysis of the deadly nightshade in his materia medica . In a detailed treatise, he summarized the effects of the plant known to date. This led to an intellectual debate about internal applications in human medicine. The inclusion of the deadly nightshade in the materia medica by Carl von Linné (1749) triggered a further discussion on internal uses. In particular, the realization of the pupil-expanding effect of the juice of the deadly nightshade initiated the plant's inclusion in the pharmacopoeia of ophthalmology and established the medical interest in further research. In 1771 it was introduced as an official plant by the Württemberg Pharmacopoeia.

In Eastern Europe, the deadly nightshade was used in the treatment of paralysis. It was also used there as an abortion .

The atropine obtained from the deadly nightshade is used in medicine today. The contained alkaloids have an anticholinergic effect. The drug is used for colicky pains in the gastrointestinal tract and biliary tract . The pure alkaloids and their chemically modified derivatives are used for spastic constipation , colic of the stomach and intestinal tract of the bile and the urinary tract . In ophthalmology , the mydriatic effect is used to dilate the pupil. It is used as a therapeutic agent, because of its long-lasting effect, it is not used in ophthalmic diagnostics . Intensive care medicine uses it for poisoning with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors as well as for preparatory measures for surgery to reduce salivary and gastric acid production when anesthesia is induced.

Ingredients in the root are used in the manufacture of a drug against Parkinson's disease . No approval was granted for this in Europe.

Witches' Sabbath

Every pharmacy must have atropine in injectable form as an antidote against poisoning with phosphoric acid esters, e.g. B. E 605 , keep in stock.

In homeopathy , the black deadly nightshade is used as a raw material in various forms of preparation under the name Belladonna .

Magic plant

In popular belief, the black belladonna was considered an ancient magic plant , and magical powers were ascribed to it. Certain ceremonies often had to be observed when handling the plant. Christian Rätsch reports on an early Eastern European love spell that was committed in the form of a ritual. In order to win the affection of a girl, the root of a deadly nightshade should be dug up, and gifts for the plant spirit should be placed in its place. A drink made from the root was said to have an aphrodisiac effect. Worn as an amulet around the neck, the deadly nightshade helped to gain the affection of fellow men - according to popular belief. In Romania, the belief that the deadly nightshade is the seat of the house spirit in the garden is still widespread today.

Black deadly nightshade extracts are also used as an ingredient in so-called witches' ointments . In his research, Enrico Malizia assumes that the women known as witches rubbed their bodies with these ointments because they believed that they could then fly or transform themselves into animals. According to the collected recipes of hallucinogenic plant extracts, the composition of the ointments contains not only belladonna but also henbane or thorn apple and other ingredients such as B. Powder of ground human bones or other plant extracts. Scientists who have analyzed the phenomenon of the witch's flight and animal mutation in more detail state that the hallucinogenic effects of the drugs conveyed the flight and metamorphosis experiences during nighttime sleep so real that those affected believed in the reality of dreams. In witch trials, the hallucinations, erotic dreams and delusional states that the ingredients triggered at higher doses are said to have provoked confessions that then confirmed the suspicion of a witch .

As an example of a flying ointment, the hallucinogenic active ingredients of which can evoke the idea of ​​a negative or positive flight experience, Malizia names a combination of wolfberry ( Atropa belladonna ), wild barley seeds ( Lolium annuum, syn .: Lolium temulentum ), henbane , water hemlock , opium poppy , Mandrake , and water lily .

Under the name of Bollwurz, the herb was known as a powerful protective agent against wounds, as Gustav Freytag reports, referring to a paper written by Augsburg mayor Samuel Zimmermann around 1591. According to the idea at the time, it occurs in places of earlier battles and should best be excavated with re-ground steel, but not touched with bare hands.

Botanical history

For classical antiquity, the black deadly nightshade is only considered to be documented in one place with some certainty. Rudolf Kobert rates its mention by Theophrast , who describes it as the fruit of the mandragoras with a black color, a wine-berry-like taste and wine-colored juice, as the oldest documented passage. Since Mandragora species bear yellow fruits, such can be excluded here. The first clear evidence is the work Liber de simplicibus by Benedetto Rinio , written in 1412 . Based on the illustrations, the third of the four nightshade plants shown can be identified under the name Faba inversa as the deadly nightshade . In 1485 the deadly nightshade is described in the Hortus sanitatis , one of the first printed and illustrated herbal books with the name Uva inversa and Dolwortz . It is recommended here because of its "cold quality" against external and internal heat. The scientifically valid first description of Atropa belladonna L. was made in 1753 by Carl von Linné in Species Plantarum .

Naming

Bellona sculpture

The botanical genus name Atropa is derived from the name of the goddess Atropos , in Greek mythology one of the three goddesses of fate together with Klotho and Lachesis . While Clotho spun the thread of fate, Lachesis determined its length, it was the task of Atropos (from the Greek word ἄτροπος = atropos for 'inevitable') to cut it at the end of life. The specific epithet bella donna was used in Italian (in the Commentarii of Pietro Andrea Mattioli from 1558) as the botanical name of the deadly nightshade since the 16th century . According to Genaust, its etymological origin is not entirely clear. On the one hand, it is traced back to the Italian term “bella donna” for beautiful woman and refers to the earlier custom of women to drip the sap into their eyes. The active ingredient hyoscyamine contained in the juice has a pupil-enlarging effect and gives the eyes a dark, shiny appearance. This was especially true in the Renaissance as a sign of beauty. Make-up was also named Belladonna after the red juice of the berry . Another interpretation associates the species name Belladonna with the Roman goddess of war Bellona . Before the priests turned to the goddess, they used the ancient Roman ritual of drinking a decoction of the plant. Another interpretation connects the epithet with a magician named Belladonna. She is said to have been so beautiful that the mere sight of her hair was life-threatening.

The German trivial name 'Belladonna' does not refer to the colloquial expression “Toll!”, Which is used positively today, but to the poisonous properties of the berries. This effect is reflected in numerous other common names, such as B. madweed, madberry or devil berries ( Bern ), killer berry or rage berry. In terms such as Judenkerschen ( Salzburg ), Judenkl Klassen ( Westphalia ), attributions of dangerousness and toxicity are expressed in relation to the Jewish population group, who in the Middle Ages often had a low social position. Names such as wolfberries ( Lower Austria , Swabia , Switzerland ) and Wolfschriasi ( St. Gallen ) refer to animals that bite or are considered poisonous by the people . Names such as blackberry (Lower Austria) and inkberry ( Upper Austria ) refer to the color of the berries.

Other German-language trivial names, some only regionally, are or were used: Apple from Sodom, Bärenwurz, Bockwurz, Bollwurz ( Swabia ), Bullwurz ( Silesia ), Burcert ( Transylvania ), Dol, Dolo, Dollwurz, Giftkriesi ( Bern ), Hirsch Weichsel ( Bavaria ), Irrbeere (Silesia), Croatian flower ( Solothurn ), Croatian berry (Solothurn), Rasewurz (Silesia), lawn root, ratberry (Solothurn), Resedawuttel ( Rendsburger Apoteke), Roman woman (Mark bei Wilsnack ), Röwerint ( Mecklenburg ), sauerkraut (Bern), sleeping berries, sleeping cherries (Silesia), sleeping herb (Bern), snake berry ( Switzerland near Freiburg), beautiful woman, deadly nightshade (Bern), rabies, Waldchriesi ( Appenzell ), Waldnachtschatl, Walkenbaum (Swabia), Walkerbaum ( Lower Rhine ), Wiedberry, Windbeere (Silesia), Wolfsaugen (Bavaria), Wolfskirsche (Silesia) and Wüthbeere.

Artistic motif

The deadly nightshade motif is used in some films. Franka Potente is the director of the 2006 black and white film: Who digs up the deadly nightshade . The plot describes the story of a punk who gets into the year 1918 using magic. Herman de Vries is in the short film Belladonna . A witch ritual with belladonna is the book La Sorcière of Jules Michelet forms the basis for the avant-garde animated film: The Tragedy of Belladonna (1973) of Eichi Yamamoto . Jules Michelet deals with the persecution of witches in his work and analyzes it as an oppression of women that has lasted for centuries. From Michelet's compilation, Yamamoto selects a metaphorical story that addresses both the tragedy of Joan of Arc and the eternal war between the sexes. The tragedy is that on the eve of the French Revolution , the pain of rape, based on the law of the first night, falls under the spell of the devil, who turns her fear into sexual devotion. Through the pact with the devil, Jeanne gains diabolical power, greater attractiveness and respect in the village community. She pays the price for this connection with her death at the stake. The plot ends with the image of her sisters of opinion getting the revolution rolling.

In the film Die Schwarze 13 , English title Eye of the devil with David Niven, Sharon Tate, Deborah Kerr from 1967, which deals with a pagan cult community in southern France, a Belladonna intoxication is filmed. The film title is also synonymous with the deadly nightshade.

The literature reflects various aspects associated with the plant in different literary genres. The poet Ernst Stadler wrote the poem The Refugee in 1911 , which refers to the hallucinogenic effects. In his book The Spirit from the Bottle , Michael Küttner discusses the connection between the deadly nightshade and the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm . The poet Ralph Günther Mohnnau published a volume of poetry with the name I plant belladonna in the deserts of the cities . These lyrics deal metaphorically or experimentally with aspects of the plant:

... it instigates revolutions
it invents new ideologies
&! outwits both .

In a poem about the deadly nightshade , Erwin Bauereiss puts the aspects of the beloved, great mother and converter of life in the foreground:

... A deep suction draws me down to you
in your magic realm far beyond all human understanding.
Having tasted your sweet, deep purple fruits
, I step into your realm of the shadows of the night

Various crime novels incorporate the poisonous effect of the deadly nightshade into the plot. Karin Slaughter , a contemporary writer, named one of her crime thrillers Belladonna .

The black deadly nightshade is also a popular motif in painting. In the 19th century and the 1920s, the Atropa belladonna with its anthropomorphic shape "Belladonna" found its way into printmaking in particular. In the context of the monumenta lamiae series of pictures by Herman De Vries, a deadly nightshade branch was the largest object alongside three other plants. Eastern European countries in particular used the deadly nightshade as a motif on postage stamps.

See also

swell

literature

  • Andreas Alberts, Peter Mullen: Psychoactive plants, mushrooms and animals (= cosmos nature guide ). 2nd revised and expanded edition, Kosmos, Stuttgart 2006, ISBN 3-440-10749-3 .
  • Markus Berger: Deadly nightshade : Queen of the dark forests (= the nightshade family - a fascinating family of plants ). Nachtschatten, Solothurn 2008, ISBN 978-3-03788-109-5 (bibliography that illuminates the plant from different directions).
  • Helmut Genaust: Etymological dictionary of botanical plant names. 3rd, completely revised and expanded edition. Birkhäuser, Basel / Boston / Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7643-2390-6 .
  • Bert Marco Schuldes: Psychoactive Plants. More than 65 plants with stimulating, euphoric, calming, sexually arousing or hallucinogenic effects (= The Green Branch. Volume 164). 2nd, improved and supplemented edition. Nightshade, Solothurn ISBN 3-925817-64-6 .
  • Doris Schwarzmann-Schafhauser: Belladonna (Atropa belladonna). In: Werner E. Gerabek , Bernhard D. Haage, Gundolf Keil , Wolfgang Wegner (eds.): Enzyklopädie Medizingeschichte. De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2005, ISBN 3-11-015714-4 , p. 162.
  • Gerhard KF Stinglwagner, Ilse E. Haseder, Reinhold Erlbeck: The cosmos forest and forest lexicon. 3rd edition, Kosmos, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-440-10375-7 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d Biolflor. Database of biological-ecological characteristics of the flora of Germany. Atropa belladonna .
  2. ↑ Karl Bartholomäus Heller : Guide to natural history. Second part, second edition, Hölder, 1873, p. 26.
  3. ↑ Eckehart J. Jäger (Ed.): Exkursionsflora von Deutschland. Vascular plants: baseline . Founded by Werner Rothmaler. 20th, revised and expanded edition. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg 2011, ISBN 978-3-8274-1606-3 , p. 714 .
  4. ^ R. Butcher: Atropa Belladonna L in Journal of Ecology, 34 (2) 1947, pp. 345-353. doi: 10.2307 / 2256722
  5. ^ Gustav Hegi: Illustrated flora of Central Europe. Pteridophyta, Spermatophyta . 2nd Edition. Volume V. Part 4: Angiospermae: Dicotyledones 3 (4) (Labiatae - Solanaceae) . Carl Hanser and Paul Parey, Munich and Berlin / Hamburg 1964, ISBN 3-489-78021-3 , Solanaceae , p. 2549–2550 (unchanged reprint from 1927 with addendum).
  6. ↑ a b c d e Dieter Heß: Systematic Botany ( UTB. Volume 2673). Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 2005, ISBN 3-8252-2673-5 , p. 189 ff.
  7. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k Markus Berger: The deadly nightshade : Queen of the dark forests (= the nightshade family - a fascinating family of plants ). Nachtschatten, Solothurn 2008, ISBN 978-3-03788-109-5 , pp. 50-59.
  8. ↑ Horst Wirth: The deadly nightshade and other medically used nightshade plants (= Die Neue Brehm-Bücherei. Volume 355). 2nd, unchanged edition, reprint of the 1st edition from 1965. Westarp Wissenschaften, Hohenwarsleben 2005, ISBN 3-89432-758-8 , p. 7 ff.
  9. ^ A b c Eckehart J. Jäger, Klaus Werner (Ed.): Exkursionsflora von Deutschland. Founded by Werner Rothmaler. 18th, edited edition. Volume 2. Vascular Plants: Baseline, Spectrum, Heidelberg a. a. 2002, ISBN 3-8274-1359-1 , p. 390.
  10. ↑ a b c d Angelika Lüttig, Juliane Kasten: Rosehip and Co. Flowers, fruits and spread of European plants . Fauna-Verlag, Nottuln 2003, ISBN 3-935980-90-6 , p. 178-179 .
  11. ↑ Tela Botanica - Le réseau de la botanique francophone: Description: Atropa Belladonna (fr.) .
  12. ↑ a b Ruprecht Düll , Herfried Kutzelnigg : Pocket dictionary of plants in Germany. A botanical-ecological excursion companion to the most important species . 6th, completely revised edition. Quelle & Meyer, Wiebelsheim 2005, ISBN 3-494-01397-7 , p. 80-81 .
  13. ^ Erich Oberdorfer : Plant-sociological excursion flora for Germany and neighboring areas. 8th edition, Stuttgart, Verlag Eugen Ulmer, 2001, ISBN 3-8001-3131-5 , p. 819 f.
  14. ↑ Info on the skull hawk
  15. ↑ Butterfly food plant: Atropa bella-donna L., deadly nightshade. In: floraweb.de. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, accessed on November 27, 2011 .
  16. ^ Rudolf Hänsel, Konstantin Keller, Horst Rimpler, Gerhard Schneider: Hager's handbook of pharmaceutical practice. Drugs A – D , 5th edition, Springer, 1992, ISBN 978-3-642-63468-0 , p. 423, limited preview in the Google book search.
  17. ^ Alison L. Hoare, Sandra Knapp: A phylogenetic conspectus of the tribe Hyoscyameae (Solanaceae). In: Bulletin of the Natural History Museum London (Botany Series). Volume 27, No. 1, 1997, pp. 1-29.
  18. ^ Christian H. Uhink & Joachim W. Kadereit: Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Hyoscyameae (Solanaceae): European - East Asian Disjunctions and the Origin of European Mountain Plant Taxa. In: Christian Helmut Uhink: Biogeographical relationships between the Alps, the Caucasus and the Asian high mountains. Dissertation, Department of Biology at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, 2009.
  19. ↑ M. Reema Kumari: A taxonomic revision of the Indian Solanaceae. Thesis, Bharathiar University, 2004, pp. 31-35.
  20. ^ JG Hawkes: Atropa L. In: TG Tutin, VH Heywood, NA Burges et al .: Flora Europaea . Vol. 3: Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae. Cambridge University Press, 1972, 1981, ISBN 0-521-08489-X (reprint).
  21. ^ Atropa belladonna at Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, accessed February 2, 2018.
  22. ↑ Atropa belladonna The Plant List (2012), Version 1.1, accessed on February 2, 2018.
  23. ^ Peter Hanelt: Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops. Springer, 2001, ISBN 3-540-41017-1 , p. 1792.
  24. ^ A. Pascher : About Atropa. In: Flora or Allgemeine Botanische Zeitung. Volume 148, No. 1, 1959, pp. 84-109.
  25. ↑ R. Hegnauer : Chemotaxonomy of plants: An overview of the distribution and the systematic importance of plant substances. Volume 6, Birkhäuser, 1973, ISBN 978-3-7643-0667-0 , p. 440.
  26. ↑ BK Bhat, AK Dhar: Inheritance of Yellow Berry Color in Atropa belladonna L. In: Crop Science. Volume 14, No. 5, 1974, pp. 615-616, doi : 10.2135 / cropsci1974.0011183X001400050002x .
  27. ↑ a b c d Gustav Hegi: Illustrated flora of Central Europe. Pteridophyta, Spermatophyta . 2nd Edition. Volume V. Part 4: Angiospermae: Dicotyledones 3 (4) (Labiatae - Solanaceae) . Carl Hanser and Paul Parey, Munich and Berlin / Hamburg 1964, ISBN 3-489-78021-3 , Atropa belladonna , p. 2566–2569 (unchanged reprint from 1927 with addendum).
  28. ↑ Wolfgang Adler, Karl Oswald, Raimund Fischer: Excursion flora from Austria . Ed .: Manfred A. Fischer. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart / Vienna 1994, ISBN 3-8001-3461-6 , p. 694-695 .
  29. ^ Alfred Becherer, Christian Heitz: School and excursion flora for Switzerland. Taking into account the border areas. Founded by August Binz. 17th edition. Schwabe & Co., Basel 1980, ISBN 3-7965-0832-4 , p. 320.
  30. ↑ Erhard Dörr, Wolfgang Lippert : Flora of the Allgäu and its surroundings. Volume 2, IHW-Verlag, Eching near Munich 2004, ISBN 3-930167-61-1 , p. 422.
  31. ↑ Gerhard KF Stinglwagner, Ilse E. Haseder, Reinhold Erlbeck: The cosmos forest and forest lexicon. 3. Edition. Kosmos, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-440-10375-7 , pp. 941-942.
  32. ↑ a b Klaus Aktories, U. Förstermann, F. Hofmann, K. Starke (eds.): Repetitorium Allgemeine und Spezial Pharmakologie und Toxikologie. Elsevier, Urban & Fischer, Munich / Jena 2006, ISBN 3-437-42511-0 , p. 448.
  33. ^ Dietrich Frohne, Hans-Jürgen Pfänder: Poison plants. A handbook for pharmacists, doctors, toxicologists and biologists. 3rd, revised and expanded edition. Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, Stuttgart 1987, ISBN 3-8047-0886-2 , p. 236.
  34. ^ Entry scopolamine in GESTIS.
  35. ^ Entry of atropine in GESTIS.
  36. ↑ Matthias Bastigkeit: drugs - a scientific manual. Govi, Eschborn 2003, ISBN 3-7741-0979-6 , pp. 162-163.
  37. ↑ Ernst Gilg, Karl Schumann: The plant kingdom. Treasure of knowledge . J. Neumann, Neudamm 1900, p. 775 (online) .
  38. ↑ a b c d Manfred Boksch: The practical book of medicinal plants. 4th edition, BLV, Munich 2003, ISBN 3-405-14937-1 , p. 198.
  39. ^ I. Barnickel, F. Häfele Text processing: I. Barnickel, P. Lemberger, H. Maiolino: Medicinal plants . Ed .: Erlangen Botanical Garden of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. 2nd edition revised and supplemented by W.Weis. S. 70 .
  40. ↑ Herdegen: Short textbook toxicology and pharmacology. Georg Thieme, Stuttgart / New York NY, 2008, ISBN 978-3-13-142291-0 , p. 38.
  41. ↑ Ingrid Schönfelder, Peter Schönfelder : The new manual of medicinal plants. Special edition. Franckh-Kosmos, Stuttgart 2011, ISBN 978-3-440-12932-6 , pp. 84-85.
  42. ↑ Albert von Fellenberg-Ziegler: Homeopathic medicine theory. Brief description of the most common homeopathic medicines. 25th improved edition, Karl F. Haug, Heidelberg 1998, ISBN 3-7760-1674-4 , p. 106.
  43. ↑ Warning from FDA against use in teething products in young children | [1]
  44. ↑ a b c Enrico Malizia: love potion and magic ointment, collected recipes from old witch books. Orbis, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-572-01309-7 , p. 80 ff.
  45. ↑ Enrico Malizia: love potion and magic ointment, collected recipes from old witch books. Orbis, Munich 2002, ISBN 3-572-01309-7 , p. 133.
  46. ^ Gustav Freytag: Pictures from the German past . (First edition 1859-67). Bertelsmann Lexikon Verlag, Gütersloh 1998.
  47. ↑ There are also yellow-fruited Atropa varieties; see: Atropa belladonna
  48. ^ Ettore de Toni: Il libro dei semplici di Benedetto Rinio. In: Memorie della Pontificia Accademia Romana dei Nuovi Lincei, Ser. II. Volume 5, 1919, pp. 171-279, Volume 7, 1924, pp. 275-398, and Volume 8, 1925, pp. 123-264.
  49. ^ Heinrich Marzell: History and folklore of the German medicinal plants. 2nd increased and improved edition. Hippocrates; Marquardt & Cie., Stuttgart 1938, p. 218 ff. (Reprint: Reichl, St. Goar 2002, ISBN 3-87667-234-1 ).
  50. ↑ Carl von Linné: Species Plantarum. Volume 1, Lars Salvius, Stockholm 1753, p. 182 ( digitized versionhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fopenurl%3Fpid%3Dtitle%3A669%26volume%3D1%26issue%3D%26spage%3D182%26date%3D1753~GB%3D~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D ).
  51. ^ Jürgen Müller : Pharmaca diabolica and Pocula amatoria. On the cultural history of the Solanaceae alkaloids atropine and scopolamine. In: Würzburg medical historical research. Volume 17, 1998, pp. 361-373; here: p. 363.
  52. ↑ Helmut Genaust: Etymological dictionary of botanical plant names. 3rd, completely revised and expanded edition. Birkhäuser, Basel / Boston / Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7643-2390-6 , p. 96.
  53. ↑ G. Papst (Ed.): Köhler's medicinal plants in lifelike illustrations with brief explanatory texts […] Gera-Untermhaus 1887, p. 86.
  54. ↑ Frans Vermeulen: Homeopathic substances - from the element to the drug picture. A new kind of materia medica. Georg Thieme Verlag, Stuttgart 2004, ISBN 3-8304-9051-8 , Atropa belladonna (online).  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.thieme.de
  55. ↑ Markus Berger, Oliver Hotz: The deadly nightshade - Queen of the dark forests. Nightshade, 2008, ISBN 978-3-0378-8213-9 .
  56. ^ Georg August Pritzel , Carl Jessen : The German folk names of plants. New contribution to the German linguistic treasure. Philipp Cohen, Hannover 1882, pp. 51-52 (online).
  57. ↑ William Emboden: Narcotic plants. Studio Vista, London 1972, ISBN 978-0-289-70257-4 , pp. 79 f.
  58. ^ Film website ( Memento from September 9, 2011 in the Internet Archive ).
  59. ↑ Review of The Tragedy of Belladonna .
  60. ↑ Ralph Günther Mohnnau: I plant belladonna in the desert of the cities . Fischer-TB.-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1988, ISBN 3-596-27593-8 , p. 7 quoted in: Markus Berger, Oliver Hotz: The deadly nightshade : Queen of the dark forests. Nachtschatten, Solothurn 2008, ISBN 978-3-03788-109-5 , p. 54.
  61. ↑ Heinz Bauereiss: You inevitably beautiful  ... quoted in: Markus Berger, Oliver Hotz: The deadly nightshade: Queen of the dark forests. Nachtschatten, Solothurn 2008, ISBN 978-3-03788-109-5 , p. 54.

Web links

Commons : Black Belladonna ( Atropa belladonna )  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files
Wikisource: On the sad effects of the forest night shadow, (Atropa Belladonna Linnaci)  - Sources and full texts
Wiktionary: Atropa belladonna  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wiktionary: Atropa bella-donna  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations