History of the Republic of Turkey

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The people of Ankara greet President Ataturk , who is returning from Istanbul

The history of the Republic of Turkey began on October 29, 1923 with its proclamation by Mustafa Kemal Pascha and the relocation of the capital from Istanbul to Ankara . This was preceded by the actual collapse of the Ottoman Empire in World War I , the Turkish War of Liberation and the deposition of Sultan Mehmed VI . His successor Abdülmecid II only bore the title of caliph . With his deposition on March 3, 1924, the Ottoman dynasty was finally deposed .

Reforms under Ataturk 1923 to 1938

The Hatıra-i Zafer 1925 Mustafa Kemal Pasha to commemorate the victory in the Turkish War of Liberation

During his tenure, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk carried out far-reaching reforms in the political and social system that were intended to transform Turkey into a modern, secular and Europe-oriented state. In 1922 the sultanate was abolished and on March 3, 1924 the caliphate . On April 20, 1924, a new constitution came into force that, among other things, abolished the religious courts. In 1925, in the course of a hat reform, the Fes (mandatory and up to then common Ottoman headgear for men) were banned. Later the veil (for women) was banned and coeducation was introduced. In the same year both were Islamic calendar and the parallel used Rumi calendar abolished and replaced by the Gregorian calendar replaced . The metric system was also introduced.

In the following years, entire legal systems were adopted from European countries and adapted to Turkish conditions. In 1926, Swiss private law and its sources - civil code and the law of obligations - and thus monogamy , divorce law and equality between men and women were adopted. German commercial law and Italian criminal law followed . Constitutional amendments in 1928 and 1937 enshrined secularization and secularism in the constitution and in 1928 the Arabic script was replaced by Latin . In 1933, extensive reforms began in the area of ​​the universities, such as the reorganization of the old Darülfünun into the new Istanbul University and a study reform ( Türk Dişhekimi ).

On April 3, 1930, women were given the right to vote and stand for election at the local level. The 1934 national elections were the first national elections to allow women to participate. Since 1934 women could be elected to the Grand National Assembly. Martin gives the date December 5, 1934. In 1935 women sat in parliament for the first time. It was a group of 18 (according to Martin: 17) women handpicked by Ataturk. This corresponded to 4.5 percent of the MPs and was the highest number of women MPs in Europe at the time. Turkey was a one-party state at the time, so there was no competition between different parties in the election.

The basis of Ataturk's actions after his death was summarized as the ideology of Kemalism , which is based on six principles: Turkish nationalism, secularism, republicanism, statism, revolutionism and populism.

The reforms were not accepted without resistance by traditionalist forces. So it happened on 13 February 1925 a rebellion of the Kurdish minority under Sheikh Said . It was a mixture of Kurdish nationalism and clergy resistance to the secularization of Turkey. The uprising, like other uprisings, was forcibly suppressed by the military.

Ataturk's reforms brought about a profound social, cultural and economic change that continues to shape the country today. Nevertheless, he had retained elements of the Ottoman Empire, such as B. authoritarian governance through the domination of the military and the civil service.

After Ataturk's death in 1938, his companion İsmet İnönü became president. İnönü endeavored to continue the modernization of Turkey and to maintain its foreign policy neutrality. He achieved the last territorial change through diplomatic channels: Hatay ( Sanjak Alexandrette ), a French mandate since 1920, became an independent republic in 1938 and a Turkish province in 1939 (capital: İskenderun ).

Western binding in the 1940s and 1950s

US President Franklin Roosevelt , Turkish President İsmet İnönü (companion and successor of Ataturk) and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill

After the beginning of the Second World War, Turkey initially retained its foreign policy neutrality. On June 18, 1941, a German-Turkish friendship treaty was signed, which stipulated a mutual renunciation of attack. On August 1, 1944, Turkey broke off diplomatic relations with the German Reich and symbolically declared war on Germany and Japan on February 23, 1945 , in order to subsequently sign the UN Charter .

President İsmet İnönü initiated the end of the one-party system on May 19, 1945. Celâl Bayar and other colleagues left the Republican People's Party (CHP) and founded the Democratic Party (DP) in 1946 . In the 1946 elections , the DP was still unsuccessful, but won the elections on May 14, 1950 with an overwhelming majority (408 out of 487 MPs).

Celâl Bayar became president and Adnan Menderes took over the office of prime minister . Circles in the military who felt threatened by this development offered İsmet İnönü, who has now been "demoted" to opposition leader, to put forward a coup against the new government. İnönü declined the offer.

The DP owed the victory primarily to the rural population. This felt neglected by the CHP. Another decisive factor was the promise that Islam should once again play a larger role in public life. This represented a break with the secularism practiced until then .

After the end of the war, Turkey gave up its foreign policy neutrality and in 1952 became a member of NATO together with Greece . This decision was favored on the one hand by the territorial claims of the Soviet Union and on the other hand by the participation of Turkey on the American side in the Korean War of 1950.

Between 1950 and 1960, the DP under its Prime Minister Adnan Menderes carried out greater economic liberalization . Menderes drove industrialization forward during this time. Its economic policy has resulted in an increase in foreign debt and inflation .

Despite rapid economic growth, social tensions in Turkey now increased more than before. The DP again won the elections in 1954. In 1957 the election result was very close. The DP increasingly began to politically suppress the opposition CHP.

In 1955 the Turkish pogrom against Orthodox Christians , staged by the Menderes government, took place, resulting in serious human rights violations and damage that was never quantified. 72 churches and more than 30 Christian schools were destroyed in Istanbul alone, and cemeteries were devastated.

In 1960 Adnan Menderes proclaimed an enabling law to eliminate growing political resistance. He also deposed the Commander-in-Chief Cemal Gürsel . This resulted in the military coup of 1960 .

Menderes and other politicians were sentenced to death in the Yassıada trials on charges of corruption and hanged in İmralı on September 17, 1961 . After the military introduced a new constitution in 1961 , power was handed over to a civilian government under İsmet İnönü. The new constitution contained regulations designed to prevent the opposition from being suppressed. During this period, the recruitment agreement with the Federal Republic of Germany was concluded, which forms the basis for the Turkish diaspora in Germany .

Phase of instability from 1962 to 1980

The political situation in Turkey at this time was characterized by democratization, but also by sharply changing majorities, new elections, the establishment or renaming of new parties and the influence of the military.

After the coup in 1960, İsmet İnönü became prime minister again and ruled from 1961 to 1965. In 1963, Turkey concluded an association agreement with what was then the EEC , the so-called Ankara Agreement . The “ Justice Party ” AP ( Adalet Partisi ) was founded as the successor to the now banned DP .

In the election on October 10, 1965 , the communist " Workers' Party of Turkey " TİP ( Türkiye İşçi Partisi ) made it into parliament. At the time, it was one of the few parties that publicly addressed the Kurdish issue. Süleyman Demirel and his AP received 52.9% of the vote in 1965. Towards the end of the 1960s, left and right terrorist activities increased and the economy deteriorated rapidly. As fascistic force Nationalist Movement Party (MHP) came with their organization Gray Wolves out.

On March 12, 1971 , the military intervened again, but without a coup. It called for reforms and the fight against terrorist acts. Demirel resigned as prime minister and the country was ruled from May 22, 1972 to January 26, 1974 by independent prime ministers and technocratic governments. Changes to the constitution of 1961 were used for repressive measures against the population.

The National Assembly was re-elected on October 14, 1973 , the CHP under Bülent Ecevit received the most votes (33.3%). With the National Salvation Party (MSP) under Necmettin Erbakan , an Islamist party succeeded for the first time in the National Assembly and in government. On July 20, 1974, Turkish troops occupied the northern part of the island of Cyprus ( Cyprus crisis ). The coalition between the CHP and MSP lasted until November 1974. On February 5, 1975, the United States imposed an arms embargo on NATO member Turkey; Turkey then closed the US bases.

In 1978 the “ Kurdistan Workers' Party ” ( Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan , PKK) was formed in the course of the repression of the Kurds .

The image of Turkey at the end of the 1970s was shaped by rapid changes of government (list here ), political instability, unsolved economic and social problems, inflation , strikes and acts of terror by left and right-wing extremist groups. Thousands of people died in street fighting, some of which was similar to a civil war.

Growing authoritarianism 1980 to 1990

In this situation , on September 12, 1980 , the military seized power for the third time. Putschist leader General Kenan Evren declared martial law on the country and banned all political parties. The military tried to depoliticize Turkish society through “purges” in state institutions. Tens of thousands of people were affected.

In addition, the junta took action against Kurdish separatists and left oppositionists. On November 7, 1982, the new constitution presented by the military was adopted in a referendum . Kenan Evren was elected president in 1982.

Soon most of the old parties were re-established with new names. After the political ban was lifted, most of the old party leaders also returned to the party leaders. The CHP was followed by the Social Democratic Party ( Sosyal Demokrasi Partisi , SODEP), Ecevit founded the Democratic Left Party (DSP, Demokrat Sol Parti ), and Demirel founded the Right Path Party ( DYP / Doğru Yol Partisi ), which is part of the of the Motherland Party (ANAP), headed by Turgut Özal , shared the clientele of the former Justice Party , technocrats , conservatives and also Islamic circles.

After the runoff to parliament in November 1983, the conservative ANAP won the election. As prime minister, Özal introduced market economy reforms during his reign, which strongly boosted the country's economy, industrialization and exports in the 1980s. However, not all sections of the population benefited equally from the growth. Economic opening was also bought at the expense of high inflation rates.

In addition to economic reforms, Turgut Özal also carried out important reforms to democratize the country. In addition to some Kurdish provinces, martial law was gradually repealed from 1984 to 1986, and the ban on the Kurdish language was suspended in 1983. In 1991, paragraphs were removed from the legal text that forbade the communist and Islamist parties to act politically. Under Özal, the country's media laws were liberalized and private television stations were allowed. At the same time, the restrictive new anti-terror laws curtailed freedom of expression . It was also Özal who finally officially asked for admission to the European Community (EC) on April 14, 1987 in Brussels , which was then rejected.

Özal also won the elections on November 29, 1987 with his ANAP. After Turgut Özal was elected president on October 1, 1989, Yıldırım Akbulut became head of government.

For decades, Turkey had pursued a policy of assimilation towards the Kurds . Officially, cultural and ethnic differences between Kurds and Turks were denied and the Kurds were referred to as " mountain Turks ". Due to state restrictions, the Kurdish culture could not be lived out freely. The Kurdish language was not allowed to be taught in schools or spoken between the students. The use of the Kurdish language in offices and any kind of media in the Kurdish language were also prohibited.

In 1984 the PKK began its armed struggle for an independent Kurdistan . By 1999, 30,000 people should have died in this war between the Turkish military and the PKK fighters.

Instability 1990 to the end of the 20th century

The 1990s in Turkey were again marked by changing political majorities and a few changes of government.

In the Second Gulf War in 1990, Turkey sided with the USA and its allies and thus against Iraq . When Saddam Hussein's troops took action against the Kurdish population, Turkey established a security zone on its territory and thus offered protection to hundreds of thousands of Iraqi Kurds.

Akbulut's successor at the head of the ANAP was Mesut Yılmaz in 1991 . After Özal's sudden death, Demirel was elected president on May 16, 1993. Tansu Çiller succeeded him as Prime Minister as DYP party leader. She also led the governing coalition with the People's Social Democratic Party ( Sosyaldemokrat Halkçı Parti , SHP).

As president, Özal tried to solve the Kurdish problem politically. The state and the PKK grew closer under his reign. While Tansu Çiller was Prime Minister, the conflict escalated again.

By 1994, around 2000 villages in southeastern Turkey had been forcibly cleared by the military. With these measures, the government wanted to destroy support bases of the PKK. The PKK cracked down on villages cooperating with the Turkish military and carried out attacks that killed many soldiers and civilians. So-called village guards also fought on the side of the state . These were "loyal" villagers who were supported by the Turkish state with weapons and money.

In the local elections on March 28, 1994, the Islamists of the Welfare Party RP ( Refah Partisi ) under Necmettin Erbakan achieved 18.75% and became the third strongest political force behind the DYP and ANAP. The RP provided the mayors in Istanbul and Ankara.

In February 1995 the SHP merged with the CHP, which was re-established in 1992, to form the new CHP. After Deniz Baykal had taken over the party leadership, he terminated the coalition with the DYP on September 12, 1995. Then Tansu Çiller started new elections. From the parliamentary elections on December 24, 1995 , an Islamist party, the Welfare Party (RP), emerged as the strongest political force with 21.38% for the first time in Turkish history.

On January 1, 1996, the customs union between Turkey and the European Union (EU) came into force, on October 6, 1999 the European Parliament approved in principle Turkey's candidacy as a member of the European Union. In terms of foreign policy, the conflict with Greece over the uninhabited island of Imia played a role.

Since the RP could not find a coalition partner, the second strongest force, the DYP, was given the task of forming the government. The DYP formed a coalition with the ANAP, which, however, relied on the support of other parties.

Mesut Yılmaz resigned the coalition on June 6, 1996. Previously, he was subject to a vote of no confidence and had to resign. As a result, on June 28, 1996, under Necmettin Erbakan, the RP was commissioned to form the government. The RP entered into a coalition with the DYP.

On November 3, 1996, a car accident in Susurluk rocked the country. Here died Abdullah Çatlı , a by INTERPOL wanted terrorist with extremistic background, the lover of a killed mafia boss (Gonca Us) and the head of the Istanbul Police (Hüseyin Kocadağ); the only survivor was a DYP MP. In addition to his work as a member of parliament, Kocadağ was also the head of a well-known Kurdish clan. After the accident, it was speculated that parts of the state had allied themselves with the underworld. Together they were responsible for numerous murders of Kurdish opposition activists and liberal journalists. The case was never resolved.

Erbakan's policy was in contradiction to the secular state doctrine established by Ataturk , which was primarily supported by the military. In the National Security Council , the generals von Erbakan called for decisive action against Islamist tendencies . On February 28, 1997, they forced a corresponding catalog of demands on the government, which included an extension of compulsory schooling to eight years. On June 30, 1997, Erbakan had to resign because he did not want to implement this policy. This process of creeping disempowerment of the Erbakan government by the non-armed military is known as a “postmodern”, “soft” or “silent” coup. On January 16, 1998, the RP was banned by the Constitutional Court and Erbakan was banned from politics; in their place came the virtue party FP ( Fazilet Partisi ).

After a brief period of government (June 1997 - November 1998) by Mesut Yılmaz, he was declared suspicious of corruption.

In August 1996, the parliament ended the state of emergency in the Kurdish provinces, but granted the army command extended powers with regard to military operations, arrests and censorship in all provinces of the country. The Turkish army leadership rejected a ceasefire offer by the PKK in January 1997; on May 14, 1997, Turkish associations penetrated up to 200 km into the autonomous region of Kurdistan in northern Iraq.

In 1999 the PKK declared a ceasefire when its leader Abdullah Öcalan was abducted from Kenya to Turkey. The armistice lasted until 2004.

On August 17, 1999, a severe earthquake devastated İzmit and the Marmara region . With Istanbul, it paralyzed Turkey's largest economic region. Around 20,000 people died and almost 50,000 were injured.

On January 11, 1999, Bülent Ecevit became head of government in a minority government. From the parliamentary elections on April 18, 1999, Ecevits DSP emerged as the strongest parliamentary group. The second strongest force was the MHP, the third strongest the FP, the former popular parties ANAP and DYP were now the fourth and fifth strongest parties. On June 9, 1999, Ecevit founded a coalition government with the MHP and the ANAP. In August 1999, the Ecevit government lifted the political ban against Erbakan in order to get his parliamentary group's approval for a constitutional reform.

21st century

The reverse of 20,000,000 Turkish Lira 2001 to 2006

In 2000, Ahmet Necdet Sezer was elected President of the Republic to succeed Demirel . In mid-2000, audits at several banks discovered massive manipulations such as tax evasion and embezzlement, which led to a stock market crash . The initiated state control of the banks could not curb the flight of capital .

There were quarrels between the President and the Prime Minister over measures to combat corruption; in the spring of 2001 the external value of the Turkish lira fell again. Mass protests and police repression followed. During the economic crisis of 2001, the gross national product fell at times by almost 10%. The state could only be kept solvent through loans from the IMF .

To support economic policy, Ecevit brought Kemal Derviş into his cabinet as Minister of Economics. Derviş carried out important reforms in the banking sector and took action against corruption. The coalition government implemented reforms that strengthened human and civil rights in Turkey. In particular, the constitutional amendments in October 2001 and August 2002 formed the basis for accession negotiations with the European Union . In addition, the pension and health insurance were reformed and unemployment insurance was introduced. Changes in the law made the privatization of state-owned companies easier.

On August 3, 2002, Abdullah Ocalan was sentenced to death by a State Security Court. The sentence was commuted to life imprisonment two months later.

Ecevit (1999-2001), who was in poor health, had to set up new elections for November 3, 2002 . Only the AKP (34.4%) and the CHP (19.4%) passed the ten percent threshold; all parties of the former coalition government failed because of it.

Prime Minister was initially Abdullah Gül . The leader of the AKP, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, was not allowed to take over this office because he had been convicted in 1998 for “publicly expressing Islamist slogans”. Only after changing the law was he able to take over the office of Prime Minister on March 11, 2003 in a by-election on March 9, 2003 in Siirt Province .

The AKP-led government continued the comprehensive reforms in civil law that had begun under the Ecevit government and which strengthened human and civil liberties (e.g. the right to assemble and demonstrate). Among other things, the death penalty was abolished, torture prohibited and the cultural freedoms of the Kurdish minority strengthened. The use of the Kurdish language , Kurdish lessons, and Kurdish radio and television channels were allowed. On August 18, 2004, the regulatory authority for television and radio stations ( RTÜK ) granted three private broadcasters in southeastern Turkey a license to broadcast in Kurdish. The state broadcaster TRT 3 also broadcasts programs in Arabic , Bosnian , Kurmanji , Zaza and so on. Despite these political successes, human rights violations (including torture and the curtailment of democratic rights) persist in Turkey.

During the Iraq war in 2003, Turkey denied the US and its allies the use of their military bases. This was preceded by efforts by the Turkish army to invade the Kurdish part of Iraq, which was rejected internationally. After the arrest of Turkish units in northern Iraq by US troops, the so-called sack affair broke out .

In November 2003, al-Qaeda carried out several bomb attacks in Istanbul , presumably with the help of the “ Front of the Fighters for the Islamic Great East ”. The attacks, in which 61 people died, were targeted at two synagogues , the British consulate and a branch of the British HSBC bank. In March 2004, al-Qaida carried out a new bomb attack under the name al-Quds on a lodge building of the Turkish Freemasons . Three people died in the attack.

On December 17, 2004, the heads of state and government of the EU decided in Brussels to start negotiations on October 3, 2005 with Turkey on EU membership .

On August 10, 2005, Erdoğan met with Turkish and Kurdish intellectuals in Ankara who were demanding an end to the conflict on both sides - the state and the Kurds. On August 12, 2005, during a visit to Diyarbakır , he announced that the problems in the east were a specifically "Kurdish problem" ( Kürt Sorunu ) and that he wanted to counter this problem with more democracy. For the first time, the specifically Kurdish character of the conflict in eastern Turkey was recognized.

On November 10, 2005, a bomb attack was carried out on a former PKK cadre in Şemdinli in Hakkari province . The attack was carried out by a PKK defector who was assisted by members of the military intelligence service.

After the candidacy of Abdullah Gül in the presidential elections in April / May 2007 triggered a domestic political crisis, a new parliamentary election was called. In the following election , the AKP was able to defend its majority and Gül was elected 11th President in August 2007.

The EU annual report 2012 said on the situation in Turkey: “There is no progress whatsoever in terms of fundamental rights. The increasing violation of freedom of expression is a cause for concern, and media freedom has also been further restricted in practice ”. The EU report also criticizes the protection of violent police officers and the misuse of laws by courts in matters of terrorism and organized crime.

In 2013 protests began against the Turkish government . These were violently suppressed by the government. Amnesty International documented police violence and sexual assault on female demonstrators by police officers. A major corruption scandal broke out in Turkey in late 2013 and early 2014 .

Erdoğan and Hulusi Akar in 2016

On July 15, 2016, there was a coup attempt by parts of the military , in the course of which around 250 people died. This could be put down within a few hours. In the days that followed, President Erdoğan took advantage of the turbulent mood for an apparently already prepared counter-coup in the course of which more than 15,000 people were arrested and more than 70,000 people from the state apparatus (judges, prosecutors, governors, police officers) and the academic world (teachers and lecturers) were released. The persecution and arrest of independent journalists critical of the AKP has been further intensified. In addition, 15 universities, 35 hospitals, 104 foundations, 1,125 NGOs and 19 trade unions were closed or banned. Everyone is accused of being connected to the Islamic preacher and Erdogan's former companion Fethullah Gülen . Erdogan himself speaks of “purges” and calls for the death penalty to be introduced (also retrospectively) so that the “putschists” do not have to be “fed” for years.

See also

literature

  • Feroz Ahmad: History of Turkey. Magnus, Essen 2005, ISBN 3-88400-433-6 .
  • Gazi Çağlar : Turkey between Orient and Occident. A political analysis of their past and present. Unrast, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-89771-016-1 .
  • Klaus-Detlev Grothusen (Ed.): Turkey. (= Southeast Europe Handbook IV). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1985.
  • Bodo Guthmüller, Wilhelm Kühlmann (Ed.): Europe and the Turks in the Renaissance. Niemeyer, Tübingen 2000, ISBN 3-484-36554-4 .
  • Klaus Kreiser : Small Turkey Lexicon. Beck, Munich 1992, ISBN 3-406-33184-X .
  • Klaus Kreiser, Christoph K. Neumann: Small history of Turkey. 2nd, updated and expanded edition. Reclam, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-15-018669-5 .
  • Bernard Lewis : The Emergence of Modern Turkey. 3. Edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford et al. 2002, ISBN 0-19-513460-5 . (1st edition 1961)
  • Michael E. Meeker: A Nation of Empire. The Ottoman Legacy of Turkish Modernity. University of California Press, Berkeley 2002.
  • Brigitte Moser, Michael W. Weithmann: Turkey. Nation between Europe and the Middle East. Pustet, Regensburg 2002, ISBN 3-7917-1788-X .
  • Karl-Heinz Rüttimann: Turkey from the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic: A historical bibliography from 1500 to 1950. 3rd improved and expanded edition. Rüttimann, Schwäbisch Hall 2006, ISBN 3-936233-06-3 . (1st edition 2001)
  • Eberhard Schmitt (Ed.): Turkey. Politics - Economy - Culture. 9., revised u. extended Edition. Mundo, Rieden 1991. (1st edition 1988)
  • Udo Steinbach : History of Turkey. Beck, Munich 2000.
  • Erik Jan Zürcher: Turkey: A Modern History. 3. Edition. IB Tauris, London 2005, ISBN 1-86064-958-0 . (1st ed. 1993)

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. Ali Vicdani Doyum: Alfred Kantorowicz with special reference to his work in İstanbul (A contribution to the history of modern dentistry). Medical dissertation, Würzburg 1985, p. 106 f. and more often.
  2. - New Parline: the IPU's Open Data Platform (beta). In: data.ipu.org. April 3, 1930, accessed October 7, 2018 .
  3. a b c Kumari Jayawardena: Feminism and nationalism in the Third World. Zed Books London, 5th Edition 1994, p. 38.
  4. a b June Hannam, Mitzi Auchterlonie, Katherine Holden: International Encyclopedia of Women's Suffrage. ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara, Denver, Oxford 2000, ISBN 1-57607-064-6 , p. 297.
  5. Werner Ende, Udo Steinbach (ed.): Islam in the present. Federal Agency for Civic Education. CH Beck Munich, 5th edition, 2005; Special edition for the Federal Agency for Civic Education, series of publications, volume 501, p. 653
  6. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 386.
  7. ^ A b Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press Boulder, Colorado, 2000, p. 387.
  8. ^ Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , page 404.
  9. ^ First Nihat Erim , then Ferit Melen and then Mehmet Naim Talu
  10. Der Spiegel 13/1977: Are the Turks leaving NATO?
  11. EU passes tough judgment on Turkey. In: The world. October 9, 2012.
  12. Turkey 2012 Progress report. (October 10, 2012; pdf, 544 kB)
  13. Turkey: Those responsible for police violence must go to court! on: amnesty.de , October 2, 2013.
  14. Yavuz Baydar : Turkish Diary (VI): Erdoğan drives the Turkish elite abroad . In: sueddeutsche.de . ISSN  0174-4917 ( sueddeutsche.de [accessed on July 25, 2016]).
  15. ↑ In front of the camera: Erdogan justifies the death penalty so absurdly. In: The Huffington Post. Retrieved July 25, 2016 .